The Nature of Learning

Session description
The third week session was developed from a different perspective. To settle a
foundation before the analysis, the group made a briefly review the theories
which offer an explanation of how the learning process occur in the human
beings, from the VAK and TRAP model to the Kolb’s learning cycle and
Megginson’s learning model.

After the theoretical introduction, the group made a relation between the terms
and processes explained in the models and the conditions seen in reality not only
in an academic environment but inside the workplace.

Finally, each of us applied a test based on the VAK model and tried to find out
which learning style (Visual, auditory or kinaesthetic) we prefer as a way of
learning or performing. According to the numerical scores from the test, the
group showed a very balanced performance among the three styles. Individually,
there were some important scores, showing a strong preference for a visual style
(like mine test) and others showing a more preferred kinaesthetic style over the
other two.

Analysis
As the information from the slides were appearing and the diverse model and
theories presented by the lecturer were commented, inside me was occurring an
interesting process: I tried to put myself into one of those boxes and looked for a
self identification. I must admit some results derived from the test were not a
surprise for me. Based on the short VAK test I am linked to a strong visual
learning style:

Visual score: 41 Audit score: 12 kinaesthetic score: 33

That just reaffirm the ways I use to study: I am always looking for pictures and
graphics rather than names and figures, besides I find myself with a strong
affinity for shapes and colours. At this point I know there is a relationship
between that and the fact I am left-handed, however I do not know to what
extent is applied to me.

According to the range of results for the group, is clear that such difference
influences the way we received the information and learn from the material
taught by the lecturers (our personal pace, interests and interpretation).
Therefore the same material would have a different impact, would be understood
in so many ways and may be learned at different paces.
One of the most important information from the test for me is how my lower
score in the audit style could be related to my weakness and shortcomings
derived from my learning goals identification. As I find sometimes difficulty to
communicate, reach people and improve my social relationships, the output from
the test reaffirm my necessity to improve my listening skills and thus create a
response from it.

Theoretical approach
Although the term learning is frequently associated with education or
training, in fact there is a significant difference that if we know, then we
could know how to use them properly. In her book Developing Work and
Study Skills; Linda Lee-Davis (2007, p.33) defines learning as “the
acquisition of knowledge and facts by study, being taught and even
through experience”, whereas education could be considered more about
receiving a set of knowledge (moral, social or technical) in a systematic
way. In contrast, training is a sort of education but focus on specific skills,
involving practice.

As the ability to learn is not exclusive to human beings, we share a

number of characteristics with others animals which let us adapt and
survive according to the characteristics of the environment, however our
ability to change and manipulate the environment is what distinguish us
from animals (Huczynskiand et al, 2007).

Psychologists have developed a number of theories in order to understand

how we learn and how the whole process works. Around these theories
particular schools of thought has been created who defends

The behaviourist approach start from the premise that we learn in the
same way as primitive animals do. So learning is the result of the
response to external stimulus (Guirdham, 1995). As the stimulus is
generated the following response could end in a reward or punishment.
Therefore the result determines if the behaviour could be repeated or not,
so the feedback from the action result in an expectancy to behave in the
same way if a similar stimulus is repeated (Huczynskiand, 2007).
Behaviourist sustain that the only observable phenomenon from learning
is related to chains of muscles movements, mental processes are not
relevant.

Under the conditioning approach a response generated by a particular

stimulus could be brought as a response to a different stimulus. Ivan
Pavlov called the stimulus to the ‘natural’ response (unconditioned
response), the unconditioned stimulus (Guirdham, 1995). Moreover, the
new stimulus which will be associated with the same response
(conditioned response) is defined as conditioned stimulus. The continuous
association between both stimuli may result into the same response as
product of the association. Later on, Burrhus Skinner demonstrated how
particular behaviours are learned in order to gain some reward from
association with a particular stimulus (Huczynskiand, 2007).

Cognitive approach argues that theories based on stimuli-response ignore

the mental activity involved during learning. The basic statement of the
cognitive theory is that there is an entire process require the stimulus to
pass through different levels of memories (sensory memory, short-term
memory, long-term memory, etc) until the information acquire a
considerable meaning according to the individual framework (Fincham
and Rhodes, 1992). This theory explores the relation between the
memories structures as the information is being constantly sorted
according to changing condition and the reason why some information is
easy to learn rather than others (Guirdham, 1995).

Often Intelligence is associated with our ability to learn. In his book

Frames of mind, Howard Gardner stated his theory of Multiple
Intelligences (MI) as an argument against the validity of IQ test as basic
assessment (Norman, 2003). Intelligence quotient IQ relates the cognitive
capacity of individuals with a fixed level of intelligence (Cottrell,2008).

Susan Norman (2003, p.29) uses Gardner’s definition of an intelligence as

“a biophysical potential to process information in certain ways in order to
solve problems or fashion products that are valued in a culture or
community”. MI theory does not intent to classify and test people. Though
the main idea is about tell who individuals are and identify the sort of
things they can do best, where each intelligence category is linked with a
number of skills and abilities.

MI implications address two aspects:

Individuality: there would be a knowledge basis about each person

attributes, so they can learn and show their progress within more
desirable conditions to them.

Values: the intelligences lack of moral dimension, so the learning is

based on what really mean to them.

Gardner’s intelligences are Visual-spatial, Bodily-kinaesthetic, Verbal-

linguistic, Musical, Intrapersonal and Interpersonal. Each intelligence is
identified with a specific area of the brain and intend to fit with the
different learners profiles and according to Robin Fogarty (2009) feature
the following characteristics.
 Visual-Spatial Intelligence: is related to form a visually construct
of information and ideas. This intelligence feeds from visual
representations such as maps, paintings, drawing and films.
Imagination and visualizing are representations of visual
intelligence’s skills.

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: is associated to language skills in

general such as speaking, writing and listening. This intelligence
responds to dialogues, books and speeches.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: abstract thinking is its main

feature and support concluding, calculating and debating skills.
Theory, mathematical problem solving and logical argument trigger
this intelligence.

Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence: rhythm, sense of beat of the

music and melody are skills related to this intelligence. It connects
people’s emotions with sound.

Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence: body’s muscle memory is

associated with this intelligence. Practical activities involving the
body such as sports and craftsmanship activate it.

Interpersonal-Social Intelligence: this intelligence is brought by

building up relations within groups and team work; where
collaborating, communicating and caring are skills developed.

Intrapersonal-Introspective Intelligence: it comprehends the

reflection of the self and investigates the soul of the person. Skills
such as self-aware and self-assessing are found in this intelligence;
where goal setting and learning logs help to bring it to action.

According to Norman (2003), there are two others intelligences

added by Gardner which are naturalist and existential, the former
deals with an affinity to nature and the later is related to big
philosophical questions like ‘Why are we here?’.

On the other side there is the VAK model of learning, which focuses on
three learning styles (Visual, Audit and Kinaesthetic). This model is based
on the premise that we learned through the senses. Although we use all
senses, we particular prefer one above others in learning context (Malone,
2003).

From Stella Cottrell (2008, p45) we can highlight that genetics and the
environment can influence the level of intelligence; there is a range of
different intelligence that are developed according to what is essential
and to what extend it can be applied; moreover intelligence can be
measured, but it only represents a temporal snapshot of the actual
conditions in individuals knowledge.

David Kolb explained that the learning process is cyclical and occurs in a
series of stages where individual learning progresses (Dixon, 1999). The
cycle starts when we experience the surrounding environment using our
senses (concrete experience). In order to learn from our experiences Kolb
states that we must reflect about what has happened (reflective
observation), however the reflection phase could be affected by our
expectations and the meaning we are giving to our existence (Dixon,
1999). The next stage has deal with how we relate the information just
received to our current structures and how that relation could create a
new meaning (abstract conceptualization). Finally, the last stage
comprehends testing our recent abstract construction by taking action
into reality (active experimentation), where new experiences come across
and cycle starts over.

All the stages are necessary, but as Kolb shown we despise any of them
making the process less effective and incomplete (Dixon, 1999).
Nevertheless, individuals are more efficient at some stages than at others
and Kolb shown that a particular learning style preference is developed
(Dixon, 1999). So the process incorporates two different elements:
perception (about the way the information is gathered), and processing as
an internal action that handle the information (Wragg et al,2004). From
the perception perspective, a person would feel a preference for
experiment a particular situation (concrete experience) or establish an
analysis of the situation involving thinking and planning activities
(abstract conceptualization).

Moreover, the processing phase preferences are between taking the

information and experiment towards practical applications (active
experimentation) or understand what the information is about and search
for its meaning, often looking from different perspectives (reflective
observation) (Wragg, 2004).

Therefore the combinations between these two dimensions according to

the preferences described could produce four types of learners (Lee-
Davis, 2007):

Diverger: (Concrete experience and Reflective observation)

Assimilator: (Abstract conceptualisation and Reflective

observation)
 Converger: (Abstract conceptualisation and Active
experimentation)

Accomodator: (Concrete experience and Active experimentation)

From the adaptations of Kolb’s work, Peter Honey and Alan Mumford
formulated four different learning styles types centred on one of the four
stages of the learning cycle (Wragg, 2004, p.76) defined as:

Activist: this type is more about doing things first and considering
what it has been done later. They are the likes of doing new and
immediate experiences, however once the initial thrill has
disappeared they move into something what would proportionate
bigger and new excitement. They are not suitable for long-term
implementation.

Reflector: they will take some time to watch and analyse, get major
information and formulate a more objective decision, where their
answers will incorporate others views. However, there is a tendency
to delay definitive conclusions.

Theorist: a theorist person would like to apply a logic approach

where theories and models are the main instruments to their
observations. As they tend to coexist in a structured and sorted
environment, subjective approaches are not very welcome to them.

Pragmatist: for this type, put working ideas in practise is the most
important. They are more likely to avoid open discussions and put
their efforts if something really works.

Exploration
After recalling the events from the session and compare them to the information
from the academic sources, I could stand in the position of identify myself as an
assimilator based on the Kolb’s approach as I consider very important to watch
and reach the best alternative before taking any action. In addition, the reflector
Concrete
type from the Honey and Mumford model complement my behaviour that usually
Experience
is my positionDoer when I am involved in group activities. Therefore I could
synthesized my learning type and described my trait as a thinker (Figure2.1),
however as Lee-Davis (2007, p37) states, “reflectors think backwards”, about
Activist
what has happened. In some content this represents a drawback, because unlike
theorist, reflectors cannot see the different possible alternatives from the event;
Active
Pragmati Reflect Reflective
though could learn from mistakes.
Experimentati
st or Observation
on

Theorist

THINK
Abstract ER
Conceptualizati
on
 Figure2.1 Learning Cycle, learning types and traits (Lee-Davis, 2007)

Then looking to my experience I can say that most of the time I behave in that
way. In my personal life, my girlfriend points out how I take some time to decide
whether or not I am going to be at certain events. As I can say she is the sort of
activist, often doing thing first and thinking later, she may find my reflections too
long. But from my point of view it really helps me to take the correct decisions as
most of the time my answers result being truth and my arguments gets to the
point compared to hers. However I do not intend to undermine her opinions and I
really appreciate when her actions bring better experience than I thought they
would be.

As I am left-handed, some process that could have seen simple becomes a really
issue to me (like playing baseball when all the equipment available in your team
is for right-handed). However through the time I have adapted and carry on even
learning to use my right hand as well as my left hand for certain activities. The
figure 2,2 shows some characteristics related to the sides of the brain. In my
case, the relation exists between my body left side and my brain right side.

I could identify some characteristic in me such as holistic, abstract and novel

operations. At the same time it gives some insight about why I am not so good at
speaking and although my performance in mathematics is good, I could not cope
with my friend’s at university.
 Figure 2.2 Brain hemispheres and process information specialisation

The Figure 2.3 combined with the VAK test highlights my preferences
about the visual style and method to learn. This particular fact basically
suggests me to use visual ads as much I can to carry on my study
sessions.

Figure 2.3 methods of learning (Cottrell, 2003)

3 Career choice and
Employment trends

Session description:
During the session on the fourth week, the group got inside the aspects related
to career choice and the way how people goes through life from certain
frameworks towards employment.

The topic was shaped among the personal perspective about the past
achievements and future expectations. From there, we explored about career
planning within the organisations and personal aspirations.

Within the organisations, the group went through the development of the
individual from different patterns (vertical, horizontal and evolutionary).
Moreover, the lecturer brought in the concept of the career anchor as an
important element which settles down the basis to build up a career.

From the anchor concept, we conducted a test where 9 different goal priorities
must be ranked. Overall, the best ranked priorities were related to financial,
family, and job performance. In the bottom list were included priorities such as
spiritual, relationships and social community.

Analysis
During the session I was remembering those points in time when, as a child, we
try to conceive which sort of job we would like to do as adults. Sometimes that
first conception becomes reality, sometimes the course of life just takes a
significant turn and later on we see ourselves in a completely different position
not even imagined.

That simple thought it was just reflected when we talked about career patterns
such as the vertical career and the horizontal career where we either choose a
path to go through or simply we are involved in different jobs and positions
according to the opportunities and events that come to us in life. I personally felt
identified with the horizontal approach, because my current conditions are the
results of trying, self-development and taking some opportunities.

Talking about career planning I consider that the responsibility lies essentially on
individual’s because only in that way every person can take control of his life a
do things according to their feelings and desires. However I do not undermine
the role of organisations helping people to develop and organise what they want
to do and how they see themselves within society as a productive being. That
helps not only to bring the best values to organizations, but virtually reduce the
sense of frustration in people.

At the point we talked about career anchors was clear that they constitute the
major foundation of what we start doing in life and the forthcoming future. These
anchors really settle people’s life down and, as I believe, set the stage when we
really start being more mature. However some of those anchors may be factors
not always desirables but when they come in form of events can really alter the
course of our plans in life. Events such as no planned children, family or health
issues can really constrain our ability to pursue our truly vocation and would
make us opt for a different path that fit with the new conditions.

Finally our ranking goal setting, gave me the impression of how irrelevant can be
our views about health, spiritual conditions and social community interest
compared to financial, education and promotion expectations. I think as the
modern world is ruled by financial growing (capitalist approach) and sense of
individual’s comfort, we spend major part of our life trying to achieve that
desirable condition before we really look around and realise how our social and
moral state is.

In addition the fact that most of us in the group are from countries where the
economic conditions are not the best (Nigeria, Brazil, Colombia, Mongolia and
India). So it is particular common to pursuing a better financial position in order
to basically secure a house and maintain the family. Once that is achieved others
goals such as education, fitness community and religion will deserve attention.

I may assume that in countries where the quality of life is better off than our
group countries such rank of priority may change because some primary
necessities are already secure. In my case, my personal ranking for the goal
setting priorities activity was:

1. Family and home life goals

2. Job performance goals
3. Spiritual and religious goals
4. Promotion path goals
5. Financial goals
6. Relationship goals
7. Social and community goals
8. Educational goals
9. Health and fitness goals

The above suggest that I represent in some extent a good sample of the overall
result for the group. Nevertheless I am really concern about my spiritual side as
result of my family customs and influence, besides of the time spent with some
keen friends during my course in the university.

Theoretical approach
The practice to help people to identify a career that fits them can be
spotted back to the the 15th century (Brown, 2002). However the
significant step was done under the work of Frank Parsons’s schema with
his advanced three step formula quoted by Duane Brown (2002, p4):

“In the wise choice of a vocation there three broad factors: (1) a
clear understanding of yourself, your aptitudes, abilities, interests,
ambitions, resources, limitations and knowledge of their causes; (2)
a knowledge of the requirements, conditions of success, advantages
and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities and prospects in
different lines of work; (3) true reasoning on the relations of these
two group of facts”.

Parson’s work states that instead to put people in any job, there would be
the opportunity to choose their vocation. As result the appropriate option
will give companies a decreased in costs and increasing efficiency in
employees. This assumption is still the main foundation of modern career
choice theories including Holland [1985, 1997], and Dawis and Lofquist
[1984] approaches (Brown, 2002, p4).

Later on Ginzberg et al [1951] brought a radically new approach where

career choice takes the characteristic of an irreversible process with a
lifelong development. Other theories were developed since the fifties
trying to proportionate an alternative from different psychological school
of thoughts but with very small influence.

Another perspective was taken integrating sociology based theories to

career choice making. The purpose was to develop a comprehensive
theory that could explain the process covering every category (men,
women, minorities and majorities) as well as give a good understanding of
chronological events. Gottfredson [1981] rescued some of that
characteristics in her theory, explained that the process starts in children
when the conception of career options are built in base on the information
received from their environment (Brown, 2002).

Career choice represents an important element in the shaping process of

identity (Newman and Newman, 2009, p385). So in many occasions young
people made their choices based on their parents’ occupation or because
it reflects the parent’s aspirations and desires of what their children would
be more appropriated to become. In addition women regularly opt for jobs
according to the role models imposed by the culture. To add up, there is
an increasing number of men and women that are aware of the necessity
to coordinated their career with their partner’s life (Newman and
Newman, 2009).

The career decision-making nowadays involves the possibility of multiple

jobs, and career change as the result of downsizing, sectors influence
(private and public), the cost of living or even retraining. Such issues and
education future constitute a big dilemma for the youth once they are
required to entering college.

The main effect is the career indecision that can feature two different
patterns. The first is due the lack of knowledge and experience about the
work environment; the second it has a direct link with identity confusion
and dependency (Newman and Newman, 2009).

So before choose a particular path, would be important to know some

dimensions about careers. Peter Herriot (1994, p1) starts his book ‘the
career management challenge’ with the issue about who is the real
possessor of our careers. As he says there are some dimensions to look at
when examining about career development.

The first dimension is time. The normal approach always has examined
the fact from the past and related to the present trying to create some
conclusion for the forthcoming future. An example of this is found in big
corporations in the 1980’s where their positions gave their employees a
very structured model of career and the dynamics of training and develop
were quite static, by then all was black and white. However in the current
conditions, change dictates that employees must move forward; past
experiences just appear as a guide and the ability to perceive change
could prepare them to stay ready when it arrives. Therefore the actual
trend is to think about ‘onward careers’ (Herriot, 1994, p3), a more
dynamic and interactive approach.

The second dimension is about organisations and careers. Herriot (1994,

p44). defines organisational careers as “relationships over time between
individuals and their organisation”. This dimension is about the
progressive development of careers through positions and roles within
organisations often measured and structured around promotion scales.

In this perspective the organisation owns the system that conduct

people’s careers, however careers are owned by people and often
individuals do not manage their careers as organisation would expect.
Regarding the above, careers are more likely to develop under a mutual
ownership from organisations and individuals. According to Schein there
are three dimensions for individual’s career mobility within an
organisation: acceptance increase to the core membership, functions
exchange and position ascension from promotions (Arthur et al, 1989,
p203).

The third dimension is about careers perception. There are a subjective

(internal) and objective (external) sense about careers (Herriot, 1994).
This self-perception or internal career deals with people beliefs about their
development and fulfilment of goals. Then the sense of success is linked
with people’s values and the image perceive by themselves.

On the other hand external career describes the perception from other
people or the organisation about a person’s career development and goals
accomplished. This external evaluation possesses more objective process
to measure success, but still depends on the point of view taken by the
assessor. The formal figure of the external career is the promotion ladder
which dictates hierarchically the pace of progress, qualifications and
status.

The external and internal appreciation is often associated to the

psychological contract, as Herriot (1994, p7) states “it isn’t necessary
made explicit” and it is good career bond because of “its continual
renegotiation”.

As an effort to assist people for professional counselling, John Holland

developed a vocational choice approach called vocational personality
(Inkson, 2007), which explains, first the interaction between individuals
and the environment, and second, the creation of a vocational choice and
adjustment as a consequence of such interaction (Brown, 2005). This
vocational choice is a reflection of the combination of six interest types
(vocational personalities): Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social,
Enterprising and Conventional (RIASEC).

Each type possesses a related set of behaviours, patterns of preferences

and values. All or some of these types would appear in some extend to
compose individual’s personalities, where every combination is unique.
The importance of Holland’s work is the provision of a practical technique
and assessment devices which take the theory to the practice (Inkson,
2007) and intent match individuals with occupations through specific
labels and according to four diagnosis indicators: congruence,
consistency, differentiation and identity. This approach has been tested
and proved being consistent with gender and cultural boundaries in some
extent.

The analysis starts using the Self-Directed Search (SDS) booklet

assessment, where the answers about aspirations, preferences and
abilities are compared to the six types and acquire a numerical score. The
scores are transformed to a hexagon figure where the types are arranged
(different types are in opposite sides of the hexagon) then the three
letters code is obtained. The code is compared in a coded occupation
finder and matched with the more resembled occupation. Finally the
answer is evaluated by the person to get the level of agreement (Brown,
2005).

Aside from Holland, Edgar Schein (1978) developed a conceptual scheme

to match individuals with organisations. The scheme was based on a
concept defined as ‘career anchor’ that involved abilities, motives and
values (Inkson, 2007). The concept resembles the devices in ships made
to keep them in one place limiting their movements. Despite changes and
variations in people’s careers, Schein states that their anchors act as
guide to give them purpose and direction.

Schein created a Career Orientation Inventory (COI) questionnaire to

measure anchors in individuals, however it lacks of the strengths found on
Holland’s. The main statement is about the prevalence of one specific
anchor which maintains careers stable in the long term and despite
instability times this solid foundation gives people a major identity.
Nevertheless there is the possibility of multiple anchors, some less heavy
than others, providing instead of foundations a support to change
direction in life careers (Inkson, 2007).

Edgar Krau (1997) relates that the choice of the type of careers is
influenced by five factors: vocational abilities, motivation, promotion,
vocational upward mobility and psychological.

Exploration
After the reading about the theories and explanations that engage career
development I realize how it has been my process to develop mine. My
university choice was a mix of family council, parent expectations and bit
of vocation. First of all my main aspiration was to see me working with
activities that require graphic arts and creativity (graphic design,
architecture or advertising) because I really enjoy making images, using
colours and creativity work.

However my mother did not agree with me because she knows my

shortcomings about socialising and her expectations were far different
than mine. So I spent a long time trying to choose a course which could
bring mutual agreement. Later on, I took the advice from my uncle about
considering an engineering course after finishing my school. As I have
some affinity for science and some abilities for math, the option did not
displease me at all. So I took the course, to be honest with some
inconformity at the beginning, but by the time the whole process was
gaining more attention from me year by year until I really came to love it.

Today I look back and believe that the choice was not entirely wrong,
because at the end of the course I could show very good results that gave
the opportunity to take an internship in an important firm even before I
got my degree. During and after the internship my work was valued by my
supervisors, until the point they provided me a post to support their work.

In that time we were in a stage of proving to the company that the

performance in the maintenance routines could be improved and the
group before us was not good enough doing so. At the end, our work
proved to be true and it gain the recognition from top levels. The time
spent in there was really valuable because it provided me relevant
experience and showed me the potential of my work.

After have taken the test about career anchors (see figure x) the results
shows that my anchor is related to helping others and looking for
organisational missions (Service/dedication to a cause anchor). If we
compared the result from the test and go back to my ranking priority
goals (p16) both are interrelated. Based on Inkson (xxxx. P113) I recall the
characteristic associated to my selected anchor as “doing work that meets
personal values”, so it really includes my family, spiritual awareness and
my performance at work. After the test I just linked the results to my
past experience at work and it really describe what I did most of the time
and felt about my actions. During that period I found myself in a mix of
feelings.

First I was quite motivated because my teamwork’s existence was for

improving the conditions, generate ideas and find new solutions to the
issues we had. Moreover we had a total support from my direct managers
to get all the resources to achieve our goals. Secondly some issues just
drain my motivation out: our work sometime had some ecological impacts
and the political culture of the company was not really appreciated for
me.

So the organisation’s conditions and the fact that I was doing the same for
about nearly two years gave the reasons to opt for leaving the job and
coming to the UK for improve my English and complement my
qualifications with this MBA course. That shows how I rejected the vertical
career (for now) and opted instead for a change to see if I can expand my
horizons and gain some ground to work as independent agent.
Nevertheless I would like to work some time further in the energy sector
to add more experience to my basis and gather extra technical skills.

Until now I personally think that I have a major freedom for being at
different places and as I am single I do not see major barriers. However I
have been in a long relationship and could end getting married in the
short-term.