Uyghurs
The Uyghurs (/uːˈiːɡərz, ˈwiːɡərz/; Uyghur: ,‫ئۇيغۇر‬
Уйғур, ULY: Uyghur * [13] [ʔʊjˈʁʊː]; Old Turkic:
[* ; *
14]* Chinese: 维吾尔族; pinyin: Wéiwúěr zú)
are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central
Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomous Region in China, where they are one
of 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities.
They primarily practice Islam, and are a physically
diverse ethnic group ranging from Western Eurasian
(Europeans, Middle Eastern) to a more East Asian ap-
pearance.
An estimated 80% of Xinjiang's Uyghurs live in
the southwestern portion of the region, the Tarim
Basin.* [15] Outside Xinjiang, the largest community of
Uyghurs in China is in Taoyuan County, in south-central
Hunan.* [16] Outside of China, significant diasporic
communities of Uyghurs exist in the Central Asian
countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan,
and in Turkey.* [17] Smaller communities are found
in Afghanistan, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands,
Norway, Sweden, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Australia,
Canada, and the United States.
1 Name
Uyghur is often pronounced /ˈwiːɡər/ by English
speakers, though an acceptable English pronunciation
closer to the Uyghur people's pronunciation of it is
/uː.iˈɡʊər/.* [18]* [19]
Several alternate romanizations also appear: Uighur,
Uygur, and Uigur (Уиғур, Уйгур, and Уигур). The Xin-
jiang Uyghur Autonomous Region provincial government
recommends that the generic ethnonym [ʊjˈʁʊː], adopted
in the early 20th century,* [20]* [21] be transcribed as
“Uyghur”.* [22]
The meaning of the term Uyghur is unclear. The Old Tur-
kic inscriptions record a word uyɣur* [23] which was tran-
scribed into Chinese as *[ɣuɒiɣət] > Huíhé (Chinese: 回
纥) in Tang dynasty annals.* [24] Later, in response to an
Uyghur request, this was changed to [ɣuɒiɣuət] > Huíhú
(Chinese: 回鹘) in 788 or 809 as mentioned in the Old
History of the Five Dynasties.* [25] Modern etymological
explanations have ranged from“to follow, accommodate
oneself”and“non-rebellious”(from Turk. uy/uð-) to“to
wake, rouse, stir”(from oðğur-), none of which is thought
satisfactory because the sound shift ð/ḏ > y did not ap-
pear to have taken place by this time.* [25] The etymology
1
therefore cannot be accurately determined, and histori-
cally the groups it denoted were not ethnically fixed, since
it denoted a political rather than a tribal identity,* [26] or
was used originally to refer to just one group among sev-
eral, the others calling themselves Toquz Oghuz.* [27]
The earliest record of an Uyghur tribe is from the
Northern Wei (386-534 AD). At that time the ethnonym
*[kɑutɕʰĭa] > Gaoche (Chinese: 高车; pinyin: Gāochē;
literally:“high carts”, Uyghur: ,‫ قاڭقىل‬Қаңқил, ULY:
Qangqil) was used, and later, Tiele (Chinese: 铁 勒;
pinyin: Tiělè).* [28] The first use of Uyghur as a refer-
ence to a political nation occurred during the interim pe-
riod between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates
(630-684 AD).* [29]
The term Uyghur disappeared from historical records
in the 15th century but the Bolsheviks reintroduced the
term Uyghur to replace the previously-used Turk or
Turki.* [30]* [31] In modern usage, Uyghur refers to set-
tled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim
Basin who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary
practices, distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic pop-
ulations in Central Asia.
2 Identity
A Uyghur girde naan baker
Throughout its history, the term Uyghur has taken on
an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying
only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in Northern China,
Mongolia, and the Altai Mountains, it later denoted cit-
izenship in the Uyghur Khaganate. Finally it was ex-
2 2 IDENTITY
Uyghur blacksmiths at work. Yengisar, Xinjiang.
panded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with
the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, which
caused Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim
Basin. This migration assimilated and replaced the Indo-
European speakers of the region to create a distinct iden-
tity as the language and culture of the Turkic migrants
eventually supplanted the original Indo-European influ-
ences. This fluid definition of Uyghur and the diverse
ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion about what
constitutes true Uyghur ethnography and ethnogenesis.
Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be
the descendants of a number of people, including the
ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia who arrived at the Tarim
Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, Iranic
Saka tribes, and other Indo-European peoples who in-
habited the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Tur-
kic Uyghurs.* [32] DNA analyses indicate that the peo-
ples of central Asia such as the Uyghurs are all mixed
Caucasian and East Asian.* [33] Uyghur activists identify
with the Tarim mummies, remains of an ancient people
who inhabited the region, but research into the genet-
ics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with mod-
ern Uyghurs remain controversial, both to Chinese gov-
ernment officials concerned with ethnic separatism, and
to Uyghur activists concerned that research could affect
their claims of being indigenous to the region.* [34]* [35]
2.1 Origin of the modern ethnic concept
The Uighurs are the people whom old
Russian travellers called Sart (a name which
they used for sedentary, Turkish-speaking
Central Asians in general), while Western
travellers called them Turki, in recognition
of their language. The Chinese used to call
them Ch'an-t'ou ('Turbaned Heads') but this
term has been dropped, being considered
derogatory, and the Chinese, using their own
pronunciation, now called them Weiwuerh.
As a matter of fact there was for centuries
no 'national' name for them; people identified
themselves with the oasis they came from, like
Kashgar or Turfan.
—Owen Lattimore, “Return to China's
Northern Frontier.”The Geographical Jour-
nal, Vol. 139, No. 2, June 1973* [36]
The term“Uyghur”was not used to refer to any existing
ethnic group in the 19th century, but to an ancient peo-
ple. A late 19th-century encyclopedia titled The cyclopæ-
dia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia said “the
Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes, and formerly
inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary (Xinjiang), which is
now occupied by a mixed population of Turk, Mongol,
and Kalmuck".* [37] The inhabitants of Xinjiang were
not called Uyghur before 1921/1934. Westerners called
the Turkic-speaking Muslims of the oases “Turki”,
and the Turkic Muslims in Ili were known as "Taranchi".
The Russians and other foreigners referred to them as
“Sart”,* [38] “Turk”, or “Turki”.* [39]* [40] In the
early 20th century, they would call themselves by differ-
ent names to different peoples and in response to different
inquiries: they called themselves Sarts in front of Kyrgyz
and Kazaks, while they called themselves “Chantou”if
asked about their identity after identifying as a Muslim
first.* [41]* [42] The term“Chantou”(纏頭, Ch'an-t'ou,
meaning “Rag head”or “Turban Head”) was used
to refer to the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang,* [43]* [44]
including by Hui (Tungan) people.* [45] These groups
of peoples often identified themselves by the oases they
came from rather than an ethnic group;* [46] for exam-
ple those from Kashgar may refer to themselves as Kash-
garliq or Kashgari, while those from Hotan called them-
selves “Hotani”.* [42]* [47] Other Central Asians once
called all the inhabitants of Xinjiang's Southern oases
Kashgari.* [48] The term Kashgari is used in Pakistan's
Gilgit Baltistan region.* [49] The Turkic people also used
“Musulman”, which means“Muslim”, to describe them-
selves.* [47]* [50]* [51]
Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the
ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in Altishahr (the na-
tive Uyghur name for eastern Turkestan or southern Xin-
jiang) before the adoption of the name “Uyghur”in
the 1930s, referring to them by the name “Altishahri”
in his article Modular History: Identity Maintenance be-
fore Uyghur Nationalism. Thum indicated that Altishahri
Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group
separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the no-
madic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq, and
the Han Chinese Khitay before they became known as
Uyghurs. There was no single name used by them to re-
fer to themselves, the various native names Altishahris
used to refer to themselves were Altishahrlik (Altishahr
person), yerlik (local), Turki, and Musulmān (Muslim),
the term Musulmān in this situation did not signify re-
ligious connotations, because the Altishahris would ex-
clude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz when refer-
ring to themselves as Musulmān.* [52]* [53] Dr. Laura J

Newby has also noted that the sedentary Altishahri Tur- as subgroups of the Uyghur based on similar historical
kic people felt themselves as a separate group from other roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similari-
Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.* [54] ties for the Salar. These groups are recognized as separate
The name “Uyghur”reappeared after the Soviet Union ethnic groups, though, by the Chinese government. [70]
took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Kha-
ganate and reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Mus-
lims of Xinjiang,* [55] following western European ori-
entalists like Julius Klaproth in the 19th century who re-
vived the name and spread the use of the term to lo-
cal Turkic intellectuals,* [56] and a 19th-century proposal
from Russian historians that modern-day Uyghurs were
descended from the Kingdom of Qocho and Kara-Khanid
Khanate, which had formed after the dissolution of the
Uyghur Khaganate.* [57] Historians generally agree that
the adoption of the term “Uyghur”is based on a de-
cision from a 1921 conference in Tashkent, which was
attended by Turkic Muslims from the Tarim Basin (Xin-
jiang).* [55]* [58]* [59]* [60] There,“Uyghur”was chosen
by them as the name of their own ethnic group, although
the delegates noted that the modern groups referred to
as “Uyghur”were distinct from the old Uyghur Kha-
ganate.* [38]* [61] According to Linda Benson, the So-
viets and their client Sheng Shicai intended to foster a
Uyghur nationality to divide the Muslim population of
Xinjiang, whereas the various Turkic Muslim peoples
themselves preferred to identify as “Turki”, “East
Turkestani”, or “Muslim”.* [38]
On the other hand, the ruling regime of China at that
time, the Kuomintang, grouped all Muslims, including
the Turkic-speaking people of Xinjiang, into the "Hui
nationality".* [62]* [63] The Qing dynasty and the Kuom-
intang generally referred to the sedentary, oasis dwelling
Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as “turban-headed Hui”to
differentiate them from other Muslim ethnic groups in
China.* [38]* [64]* [65] Westerners traveling in Xinjiang
in the 1930s, like George W. Hunter, Peter Fleming, Ella
Maillart, and Sven Hedin, all referred to the Turkic Mus-
lims of the region as “Turki”in their books. Use of
the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934,
when the governor, Sheng Shicai, came to power in there.
Sheng adopted the Soviets' ethnographic classification
rather than that of the Kuomintang and became the first to
promulgate the official use of the term “Uyghur”to de-
scribe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.* [38]* [57]* [66]
“Uyghur”replaced“rag-head”.* [67] After the Commu-
nist victory, the Communist Party of China under Mao
Zedong continued the Soviet classification, using the term
“Uyghur”to describe the modern ethnic group.* [38]
Another ethnic group, the Tibetan Buddhist Western
Yugur of Gansu, have consistently been called by
themselves and others the “Yellow Uyghur”(Sarïq
Uyghur).* [68] Some scholars say that the Yugur's culture,
language, and religion are closer to the original culture of
the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture
of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang.* [69] Linguist
and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey has argued for inclu-
sion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and the Salar
3
*
Pan-Turkist Jadids and East Turkestan independence ac-
tivists Muhammad Amin Bughra (Mehmet Emin) and
Masud Sabri rejected the Soviet imposition of the name
“Uyghur”upon the Turkic people of Xinjiang. They
wanted instead the name“Turkic ethnicity”to be applied
to their people. Masud Sabri also viewed the Hui people
as Muslim Han Chinese and separate from his own peo-
ple.* [71] The names“Türk”or“Türki”in particular were
demanded by Bughra as the real name for his people. He
criticized Sheng Shicai for his designation of Turkic Mus-
lims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion
among Turkic Muslims.* [72]“Turki”and“Turk”were
demanded as ethonyms instead of Uyghur by Turki intel-
lectuals who opposed Sheng Shicai's introduction of the
“Uighur”name.* [73]
In current usage, Uyghur refers to settled Turkic ur-
ban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin and Ili
who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices,
as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in
Central Asia. However, the Chinese government has also
designated as “Uyghur”certain peoples with signifi-
cantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main
group. These include the Lopliks of Ruoqiang County
and the Dolan people, who are thought to be closer to
the Oirat Mongols and the Kyrgyz.* [74]* [75] The use of
the term Uyghur has led to anachronisms when describ-
ing the history of the people.* [76] In one of his books
the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Mill-
ward.* [77]
“Turkistani”is used as an alternate ethonym for“Uyghur”
by some Uyghurs,* [78] for example the Uyghur diaspora
in Saudi Arabia have adopted the identity “Turkistani”
.* [79]* [80] Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the
Arabic nisba of their home city, such as Al Kashgari from
Kashgar. Saudi born Uyghur Hamza Kashgari's family
originated from Kashgar. Uyghurs who migrated from
the Tarim Basin to Ürümqi and Dzungaria in the northern
portion of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty were known
as Taranchi meaning “farmer”.
We never call each other Uyghur, but only refer to
ourselves as East Turkestanis, or Kashgarlik, Turpan-
lik, or even Turks.- according to some Uyghurs born in
Turkey.* [81]* [82]
3 History
Main article: History of the Uyghur people
The history of the Uyghur people, as with the eth-
nic origin of the people, is a matter of contention
between Uyghur nationalists and the Chinese author-
ity.* [83] Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the
4 3 HISTORY

the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region, probably

Uyghur princes from Cave 9 of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha
Caves, Xinjiang, China, 8th to 9th century AD, wall painting
speakers of various Iranian languages such as the Saka
tribes. Other people in the region mentioned in ancient
Chinese texts include the Dingling as well as the Xiongnu
who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chi-
nese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists
also claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to the
Chinese historical text the Book of Wei, the founder of the
Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),* [25] but
the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.* [84]
The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu, but
founded the Kushan Empire, which exerted some influ-
ence in the Tarim Basin where Kharosthi texts have been
found in Loulan, Niya and Khotan. Loulan and Khotan
were some of the many city states that existed in the
Xinjiang region during the Han Dynasty, others include
Kucha, Turfan, Karasahr and Kashgar. The settled pop-
ulation of these cities later merged with incoming Turkic
people such as the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate to form
the modern Uyghurs.

original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history.

Uyghur politician and historian Muhemmed Imin Bughra 3.2 Uyghur Khaganate
wrote in his book A history of East Turkestan, stress-
ing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks
have a 9000-year history, while historian Turghun Al-
mas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to con-
clude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of history,* [84]
and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4,000-year
history in East Turkestan.* [85] However, official Chi-
nese view asserts that the Uyghurs in Xinjiang origi-
nated from the Tiele tribes and only became the main
social and political force in Xinjiang during the ninth
century when they migrated to Xinjiang from Mongo-
lia after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, replac-
ing the Han Chinese they claimed were there since the
Han Dynasty.* [84] Many contemporary Western schol-
ars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be
of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate
of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descen-
dants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient
Uyghurs.* [32]* [86]* [87]* [88]

3.1 Early history

Discovery of well-preserved Tarim mummies of a peo-
ple European in appearance indicates the migration of an
Indo-European people into the Tarim area at the begin-
ning of the Bronze age around 2,000 BCE. These people
probably spoke Tocharian languages and were suggested
by some to be the Yuezhi mentioned in ancient Chi-
nese texts.* [89]* [90] However, Uyghur activists claimed
these mummies to be of Uyghur origin, based partly on a
word, which they argued to be Uyghur, found in written
scripts associated with these mummies, although other
linguists suggest it to be a Sogdian word later absorbed
into Uyghur.* [91] Later migrations brought peoples from
An 8th-century Uyghur Khagan
The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a
Turkic confederation called the Tiele,* [92] who lived in
the valleys south of Lake Baikal and around the Yenisei
River. They overthrew the Turkic Khaganate and estab-
lished the Uyghur Khaganate.
The Uyghur Khaganate stretched from the Caspian Sea
to Manchuria and lasted from 744 to 840.* [32] It was ad-
3.4 Islamization
ministered from the imperial capital Ordu-Baliq, one of
the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia. In 840, fol-
lowing a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was
overrun by the Yenisei Kirghiz, another Turkic people.
As a result, the majority of tribal groups formerly under
Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia.
3.3 Uyghur kingdoms
Uyghur king of the Turfan region attended by servants. Mogao
Caves, 409, 11th-13th century.
According to the New Book of Tang, the Uyghurs who
founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall
of the Khaganate; some went to live amongst the Kar-
luks, and some moved to Turpan and Gansu.* [93] These
Uyghurs soon founded two kingdoms and the eastern-
most state was the Ganzhou Kingdom (870–1036), with
its capital near present-day Zhangye, Gansu, China. The
modern Yugurs are believed to be descendants of these
Uyghurs. Ganzhou was absorbed by the Western Xia in
1036.
The second Uyghur kingdom, the Kingdom of Qocho,
also known as Uyghuristan in its later period, was founded
in the Turpan area with its capital in Qocho (modern
Gaochang) and Beshbalik. The Kingdom of Qocho lasted
from the ninth to the fourteenth century and proved to
be longer-lasting than any power in the region, before or
since.* [32] The Uyghurs were originally Manichaean, but
converted to Buddhism during this period. Qocho ac-
cepted the Qara Khitai as its overlord in 1130s, and in
1209 submitted voluntarily to the rising Mongol Empire.
5
The Uyghurs of Kingdom of Qocho were allowed signif-
icant autonomy and played an important role as civil ser-
vants to the Mongol Empire, but was finally destroyed by
the Chagatai Khanate in the 1390s.
3.4 Islamization
Main article: Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xin-
jiang
In the tenth century, the Karluks, Yagmas, Chigils and
other Turkic tribes founded the Kara-Khanid Khanate in
Semirechye, Western Tian Shan, and Kashgaria, and later
conquered Transoxiana. The Karakhanid rulers were
likely to be Yaghmas who were associated with the Toquz
Oghuz, and some historians therefore see this as a link
between the Karakhanid and the Uyghurs of the Uyghur
Khaganate, although this connection is disputed by oth-
ers.* [94]
The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century
beginning with Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, the first Tur-
kic dynasty to do so.* [95] Modern Uyghurs see the Mus-
lim Karakhanids as an important part of their history,
however, Islamization of the people of the Tarim Basin
was a gradual process. The Indo-European Saka Buddhist
Kingdom of Khotan was conquered by the Turkic Mus-
lim Karakhanids from Kashgar in the early 11th century,
but Uyghur Qocho remained mainly Buddhist until the
15th century, and the conversion of the Uyghur people to
Islam was not completed until the 17th century.
Chagatai Khanate (Moghulistan) in 1490
The 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non-
Muslim powers: first the Kara-Khitans in the 12th cen-
tury, followed by the Mongols in the 13th century. Af-
ter the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, Transoxiana and
Kashgar became the domain of his second son, Chagatai
Khan. The Chagatai Khanate split into two in the 1340s,
and the area of the Chagatai Khanate where the modern
Uyghurs live became part of Moghulistan, which meant
“land of the Mongols”. In the 14th century, a Cha-
gatayid khan Tughluq Temür converted to Islam. His son
Khizr Khoja conquered Qocho and Turfan (the core of
Uyghuristan) in the 1390s, and the Uyghurs there became
largely Muslim by the beginning of the 16th century.* [96]
 6 3 HISTORY

After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the nal solution”of genocide to solve the problem of the
previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan failed to retain Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars,
memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement
the“infidel Kalmuks”(Dzungars) were the ones who built of millions of other people in Dzungaria.* [101]* [102]
Buddhist monuments in their area.* [97] In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui,
From the late 14th through 17th centuries the Xinjiang Uyghur, Xibe, Daurs, Solons, Turkic Muslim Taranchis
region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in and Kazakh colonists, with one third of Xinjiang's to-
the north, Altishahr (Kashgar and the Tarim Basin), and tal population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern
area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern
the Turfan area, each often ruled separately by compet-
ing Chagatayid descendants, the Dughlats, and later the Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.* [103] In Dzungaria, the Qing
established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.* [104]
Khojas.* [94]
The Dzungarian basin itself is now inhabited by many
Islam was also spread by the Sufis, and branches of its Kazakhs.* [105] The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and
Naqshbandi order were the Khojas who seized control of changed its demographic composition as well.* [106] The
political and military affairs in the Tarim Basin and Tur- crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the
fan in the 17th century. The Khojas however split into empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang,
two rival factions, the Aqtaghlik Khojas (also called the migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, and
Afaqiyya) and the Qarataghlik Khojas (the Ishaqiyya). increasing Turkic Muslim power, with Turkic Muslim
The legacy of the Khojas lasted until the 19th century. culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the
The Qarataghlik Khojas seized power in Yarkand where Qing.* [107] It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz
the Chagatai Khans ruled in the Yarkent Khanate, forcing that “the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory
the Aqtaghlik Afaqi Khoja into exile. for Islam”.* [108]
In Beijing, a community of Uyghurs was clustered around
the mosque near the Forbidden City, having moved to
3.5 Qing rule Beijing in the 18th century.* [109]
During the Dungan Revolt (1862–77), Andijani Uzbeks
In the 17th century, the Buddhist Dzungar Khanate grew
from the Khanate of Kokand under Buzurg Khan and
in power in Dzungaria. The Dzungar conquest of Al-
Yaqub Beg expelled Qing officials from parts of southern
tishahr ended the last independent Chagatai Khanate, the
Xinjiang and founded an independent Kashgarian king-
Yarkent Khanate, after the Aqtaghlik Afaq Khoja attempt
dom called Yettishar “Country of Seven Cities”. Un-
to gain aid from the 5th Dalai Lama and his Dzungar
der the leadership of Yaqub Beg, it included Kashgar,
Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the
Yarkand, Khotan, Aksu, Kucha, Korla, and Turpan.
Qarataghlik Khojas. The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim
Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars, who extracted Large Qing dynasty forces under Chinese General Zuo
heavy taxes and tribute from the Tarim Basin cities. Zongtang attacked Yettishar in 1876. After this invasion,
the two regions of Dzungaria, which had been known as
The expansion of the Dzungars into Khalkha Mongol
the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian
territory in Mongolia brought them into direct conflict
Shan,* [110]* [111] and the Tarim Basin, which had been
with Qing China in the late 17th century, and in the pro-
known as“Muslim land”or southern marches of the Tian
cess also brought Chinese presence back into the region
Shan,* [112] were reorganized into a province named Xin-
a thousand years after Tang China lost control of the
jiang meaning “New Territory”.* [113]* [114]
Western Regions.* [98]
The Dzungar–Qing War lasted a decade. During the
Dzungar conflict, two Aqtaghlik brothers, the so-called 3.6 Modern era
“Younger Khoja”(Chinese: 霍 集 占), also known
as Khwāja-i Jahān, and his sibling, the Elder Khoja In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic
(Chinese: 波 羅 尼 都), also known as Burhān al-Dīn, of China. By 1920, Pan-Turkic Jadidist Islamists had
after being appointed as vassals in the Tarim Basin by
become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin
the Dzungars, first joined the Qing and rebelled against
who controlled Xinjiang. Uyghurs staged several upris-
Dzungar rule until the final Qing victory over the Dzun-
ings against Chinese rule. Twice, in 1933 and 1944, the
gars, then they rebelled against the Qing, an action which
Uyghurs successfully gained their independence (backed
prompted the invasion and conquest of the Tarim Basin
by the Soviet Communist leader Joseph Stalin): the First
by the Qing in 1759. The Uyghurs of Turfan and Hami East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived attempt at in-
such as Emin Khoja were allies of the Qing in this con-
dependence around Kashghar, and it was destroyed dur-
flict, and these Uyghurs also helped the Qing to rule the
ing the Kumul Rebellion by Chinese Muslim army under
Altishahr Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin.* [99]* [100] General Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan at the Battle of
The final campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750s Kashgar (1934). The Second East Turkestan Republic
ended with the Dzungar genocide. The Qing “fi- was a Soviet puppet Communist state that existed from

1944 to 1949 in the three districts of what is now Ili
Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture during the Ili Rebellion
while the majority of Xinjiang was under the control
of the Republic of China. Religious Uyghur separatists
from the First East Turkestan Republic like Isa Yusuf
Alptekin and Muhammad Amin Bughra opposed the So-
viet Communist backed Uyghur separatists of the Second
East Turkestan Republic under Ehmetjan Qasim and they
supported the Republic of China during the Ili Rebellion.
Map showing the distribution of ethnicities in Xinjiang according
to census figures from 2000, the prefectures with Uyghur majori-
ties are in blue.
Mao declared the founding of the People's Republic of
China on October 1, 1949. He turned the Second East
Turkistan Republic into the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Pre-
fecture, and appointed Saifuddin Azizi as the region's
first Communist Party governor. Many Republican loy-
alists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries.
The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Au-
tonomous Region, where Uyghurs are the largest eth-
nic group, mostly concentrated in the southwestern Xin-
jiang.* [115] (see map, right) The Xinjiang conflict is an
ongoing separatist conflict in China's far-west province
of Xinjiang, whose northern region is known as Dzun-
garia and whose southern region (the Tarim Basin) is
known as East Turkestan. Uyghur separatists and inde-
pendence movements claim that the region is not a part
of China, but that the Second East Turkestan Republic
was illegally incorporated by the PRC in 1949 and has
since been under Chinese occupation. Uyghur identity re-
mains fragmented, as some support a Pan-Islamic vision,
exemplified by the East Turkestan Islamic Movement,
while others support a Pan-Turkic vision, such as the East
Turkestan Liberation Organization. A third group would
like a“Uyghurstan" state, such as the East Turkestan in-
dependence movement. As a result, "[n]o Uyghur or East
Turkestan group speaks for all Uyghurs, although it might
claim to”, and Uyghurs in each of these camps have com-
mitted violence against other Uyghurs who they think are
too assimilated to Chinese or Russian society or are not
religious enough.* [116] Mindful not to take sides, Uyghur
7
“leaders”such as Rebiya Kadeer mainly try to garner in-
ternational support for the “rights and interests of the
Uyghurs”, including the right to demonstrate, although
the Chinese government has accused her of orchestrating
the deadly July 2009 Ürümqi riots.* [117]
4 Uyghurs of Taoyuan, Hunan
Around 5,000 Uyghurs live around Taoyuan County and
other parts of Changde in Hunan province.* [118]* [119]
They are descended from Hala Bashi, a Uyghur leader
from Turpan (Kingdom of Qocho), and his Uyghur sol-
diers sent to Hunan by the Ming Emperor in the 14th
century to crush the Miao rebels during the Miao Re-
bellions in the Ming Dynasty.* [16]* [120] The 1982 cen-
sus records 4,000 Uyghurs in Hunan.* [121] They have
genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present
day. Genealogy keeping is a Han Chinese custom which
the Hunan Uyghurs adopted. These Uyghurs were given
the surname Jian by the Emperor.* [122] There is some
confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not. Some
say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not
practice Islam anymore, and only their genealogies indi-
cate their Uyghur ancestry.* [123] Chinese news sources
report that they are Muslim.* [16]
The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming
Emperor to crush Miao rebellions and were given titles
by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the
Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur
have the surname Sai. Hui and Uyghur have intermar-
ried in the Hunan area.* [124] The Hui are descendants of
Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried, and they share
the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan.* [124] It
is reported that they now number around 10,000 people.
The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious, and eat
pork.* [124] Older Uyghurs disapprove of this, especially
elders at the mosques in Changde, and they seek to draw
them back to Islamic customs.* [124]
In addition to eating pork, the Uyghurs of Changde Hu-
nan practice other Han Chinese customs, like ancestor
worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the
Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest.* [124] Also,
the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the Uyghur language,
instead, they speak Chinese as their native language, and
Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.* [124]
8 5
5 Genetics
Diversity of Uyghur people
Uyghurs in
Kashgar
A young
Uyghur girl in Turpan, Xinjiang, China
Group of
boys in Hotan
The Uyghurs are a Eurasian population with Eastern
and Western Eurasian anthropometric and genetic traits.
Uyghurs are thus one of the many populations of Cen-
tral Eurasia that can be considered to be genetically re-
lated to European and East Asian populations. How- The paper further concludes:
ever, various scientific studies differ on the size of each
component.* [125] One study, using samples from Het-
ian (Hotan) only, found that Uyghurs have 60% Euro-
pean ancestry and 40% East Asian ancestry.* [126] A
further study showed slightly greater European compo-
nent (52% European) in the Uyghur population in south-
ern Xinjiang, but slightly greater East Asian compo-
nent (47% European) in the northern Uyghur popula-
tion.* [127] Another study used a larger sample of indi- Region of China. When we have collected
viduals from a wider area, and found only about 30%
European component to the admixture.* [128] A study
on mitochondrial DNA (therefore the matrilineal genetic
contribution) found the frequency of western Eurasian-
GENETICS
specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42.6%, and east-
Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%* [129] A further study
shows that the western-Eurasian patrilineal Y-DNA hap-
logroup in Uyghurs is around 65% to 70%, and east-Asian
Y-DNA haplogroup around 30% to 35%.* [130]
The admixture may be the result of a continuous gene
flow from populations of European and Asian descent,
or may have been formed by a single event of admixture
during a short period of time (the hybrid isolation model).
If a hybrid isolation model is assumed, it can be estimated
that the hypothetical admixture event occurred about 126
generations ago, or 2,520 years ago assuming 20 years per
generation.* [126]* [131]
According to the paper by Li et al.:
... the western East Asians are more
closely related to Uyghurs than the east-
ern East Asians. ... STRUCTURE cannot
distinguish recent admixture from a cline
of other origin, and these analyses cannot
prove admixture in the Uyghurs; however,
historical records indicate that the present
Uyghurs were formed by admixture between
Tocharians from the west and Orkhon Uyghurs
(Wugusi-Huihu, according to present Chi-
nese pronunciation) from the east in the 8th
century AD. The Uyghur Empire was origi-
nally located in Mongolia and conquered the
Tocharian tribes in Xinjiang. Tocharians such
as Kroran have been shown by archaeological
findings to appear phenotypically similar to
northern Europeans, whereas the Orkhon
Uyghur people were clearly Mongolians. The
two groups of people subsequently mixed
in Xinjiang to become one population, the
present Uyghurs. We do not know the genetic
constitution of the Tocharians, but if they
were similar to western Siberians, such as the
Khanty, admixture would already be biased
toward similarity with East Asian populations.
—* [128]
... that the Uyghurs' genetic structure is
more similar to East Asians than to Europeans,
in contrast to the reports by Xu and Jin, whose
work may have been affected by their sparse
population coverage. The median line of the
Eurasian genetic landscape appears to lie to
the west of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
more data on these 34 populations, we should
be able to refine these estimates.
—* [128]
6.2 Language 9

6 Culture 6.2 Language

Main article: Uyghur language
6.1 Religion The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke

Map of languages in Xinjiang

different languages such as Saka (Khotanese), Tocharian

and Gandhari. The Turkic people who moved into re-
gion in the 9th century brought with them their languages
which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the lo-
cal inhabitants. By the 11th century, it was noted by
Mahmud al-Kashgari that the Uyghurs (of Qocho) spoke
a pure Turkic language, but they also still spoke an-
other language among themselves and have two differ-
ent scripts. He also noted that the people of Khotan did
not know Turkic well, and have their own language and
script (Khotanese).* [141] Writers of the Karakhanid pe-
riod, al-Kashgari and Yusuf Balasagun, referred to their
Turkic language as Khāqāniyya (meaning royal), or the
“language of Kashgar”, or simply Turkic.* [142]* [143]

An Uyghur mosque in Khotan. The modern Uyghur language is classed under to the
Karluk branch of the Turkic language family. It is closely
related to Äynu, Lop, Ili Turki, and Chagatay (the East
Karluk languages), and slightly less closely to Uzbek
The ancient Uyghurs believed in Shamanism and (which is West Karluk). The Uyghur language is an
Tengrism, then Manichaeism, Buddhism and Church of agglutinative language and has a subject-object-verb word
the East.* [132]* [133] People in the western Tarim Basin order. It has vowel harmony like other Turkic languages,
region began to convert to Islam in significant number and has noun and verb cases, but lacks distinction of gen-
early in the Kara-Khanid Khanate period.* [95] Modern der forms.* [144]
Uyghurs are now primarily Muslim, and they are the
Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for
second largest Muslim ethnic group in China after the
their language. The Arabic script, known as the Chagatay
Hui.* [134]
alphabet, was adopted along with Islam. This alphabet is
The majority of modern Uyghurs are Sunnis, although known as Kona Yëziq (old script). Political changes in
conflicts exist between Sufi and non-Sufi religious or- the 20th century led to numerous reforms of the writing
ders.* [134] While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be scripts, for example the Cyrillic-based Uyghur Cyrillic al-
part of their identity, religious observance varies between phabet, a Latin Uyghur New Script, and later a reformed
different regions. In general, Muslims in the southern re- Uyghur Arabic alphabet which represents all vowels un-
gion, Kashgar in particular, are more conservative.* [135] like Kona Yëziq. A new Latin version, the Uyghur Latin
For example, women wearing the full veil (brown cloth alphabet, was also devised in the 21st century.
covering the head completely) are more common in Kash-
gar but may not be found in some other cities.* [136]
There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the 6.3 Literature
Hui Muslims in Xinjiang, and they normally worship in
different mosques.* [137] There had been Christian con- The literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly
versions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but these translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious
were suppressed.* [138]* [139]* [140] texts,* [145] but there were also narrative, poetic, and epic
10
works apparently original to the Uyghurs. However, it is
the literature of Kara-Khanid period that is considered by
modern Uyghurs to be the important part of their literary
traditions. Amongst these are Islamic religious texts and
histories of Turkic peoples, and important works surviv-
ing from that era are Kutadgu Bilig “Wisdom of Royal
Glory”by Yusuf Khass Hajib (1069–70), Mahmud al-
Kashgari's Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk “A Dictionary of
Turkic Dialects”(1072), and Ehmed Yükneki's Etebe-
tulheqayiq. Modern Uyghur religious literature includes
the Taẕkirah, biographies of Islamic religious figures and
saints.* [146]* [147] Robert Barkley Shaw translated ex-
tracts from the Tazkiratu'l-Bughra which was about the
Muslim Turkic conquest of the“infidel”Khotan.* [148]
The Turki-language Tadhkirah i Khwajagan was writ-
ten by M. Sadiq Kashghari.* [149] Between the 1600s
and 1900s many Turki language tazkirah manuscripts
devoted to stories of local sultans, martyrs and saints
were written.* [150] Perhaps the most famous and best-
loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature are Abdurehim
Ötkür's Iz, Oyghanghan Zimin, Zordun Sabir's Anayurt
and Ziya Samedi's novels Mayimkhan and Mystery of the
years.
6.4 Music
Uyghur Meshrep musicians in Yarkand.
Muqam is the classical musical style. The 12 Muqams
are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam
system developed among the Uyghur in northwest China
and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years
from the Arabic maqamat modal system that has led to
many musical genres among peoples of Eurasia and North
Africa. Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after
the oasis towns of Xinjiang, such as Dolan, Ili, Kumul
and Turpan. The most fully developed at this point is
the Western Tarim region's 12 muqams, which are now a
large canon of music and songs recorded from the tradi-
tional performers Turdi Akhun and Omar Akhun among
others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic
system. Although the folk performers probably impro-
vised their songs as in Turkish taksim performances, the
present institutional canon is performed as fixed compo-
6 CULTURE
sitions by ensembles.
The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by
UNESCO as part of the Intangible Heritage of Human-
ity.* [151]
Amannisa Khan, sometimes called Amanni Shahan,
(1526–1560) is credited with collecting and thereby pre-
serving the Twelve Muqam.* [152] Russian scholar Pan-
tusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own
musical instruments; they had 62 different kinds of mu-
sical instruments and in every Uyghur home there used to
be an instrument called a "duttar".
6.5 Dance
Sanam is a popular folk dance among the Uyghur peo-
ple.* [153] It is commonly danced by people at wed-
dings, festive occasions, and parties.* [154] The dance
may be performed with singing and musical accompani-
ment. Sama is a form of group dance for Newruz (New
Year). Some dances may be alternate between singing
and dancing, and Uyghur hand-drums called dap are
commonly used as accompaniment for Uyghur dances.
6.6 Art
Wall painting at Bezeklik caves in Flaming Mountains, Turpan
Depression.
During the late-19th and early-20th centuries, scientific
and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang's
Silk Road discovered numerous cave temples, monastery
ruins, and wall paintings, as well as miniatures, books,
and documents. There are 77 rock-cut caves at the site.
Most have rectangular spaces with rounded arch ceilings
often divided into four sections, each with a mural of
Buddha. The effect is of an entire ceiling covered with
hundreds of Buddha murals. Some ceilings are painted
with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, includ-
ing Indians, Persians and Europeans. The quality of the
murals vary with some being artistically naïve while oth-
ers are masterpieces of religious art.* [155]
6.8 Medicine
Xinjiang carpet factory
6.7 Education
Historically, the education level of Old Uyghur people
was higher than the other ethnic groups around them. The
Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants
of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a
high status in the Mongol empire. In the Islamic era, ed-
ucation may be provided by the mosques and madrassas.
During the Qing era, Chinese Confucian schools were
also set up in Xinjiang,* [156] and in the late 19th cen-
tury Christian missionary schools.* [157]
In the late nineteenth and early 20th century, school were
often located in mosques and madrassah. Mosques ran
the informal schools, known as mektep or maktab, at-
tached to the mosques,* [158] The maktab provided most
of the education and its curriculum was primarily reli-
gious and oral.* [159] Boys and girls may be taught in sep-
arate schools, some of which may also offer modern secu-
lar subjects in the early 20th century.* [156]* [157]* [160]
In Madrasas, poetry, logic, Arabic grammar, and Islamic
law were taught.* [161] In the early 20th century, the
Jadidists Turkic Muslims from Russia spread new ideas
on education,* [162]* [163]* [164]* [165]* [166] and popu-
larized the identity of “Turkestani”.* [167]
In more recent times, religious education is highly re-
stricted in Xinjiang, and the Chinese authority had
sought to eradicate any religious school they considered
illegal.* [168]* [169] Although Islamic private schools
(Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported
and permitted by the Chinese government among Hui
Muslim areas since the 1980s, this policy does not
extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of sepa-
ratism.* [170]* [171]* [172]
Beginning in the early 20th century, secular education be-
came more widespread. Early in the PRC era, Uyghurs
may have a choice from two separate secular school sys-
tems, one conducted in their own language, and one of-
fering instructions only in Chinese.* [173] Many Uyghurs
link the preservation of their cultural and religious iden-
tity with the language of instruction in schools and there-
11
fore prefer the Uyghur language school.* [157]* [174]
However, from the mid-1980s onward, the Chinese gov-
ernment began to reduce teaching in Uyghur, and start-
ing mid-1990s also began to merge some schools from
the two systems. By 2002 Xinjiang University, origi-
nally a bilingual institution, had ceased offering courses
in the Uyghur language. From 2004 onward, the govern-
ment policy is that classes should be conducted in Chi-
nese as much as possible, and in some selected regions,
instruction in Chinese began in the first grade.* [175] The
level of education attainment among Uyghurs is gener-
ally lower than that of the Han Chinese; this may be due
to the cost of education, the lack of proficiency in the
Chinese language (now the main medium of instruction)
among many Uyghurs, and a poorer employment prospect
for Uyghur graduates.* [176] Uyghurs in China, unlike
the Salar and Hui who are also mostly Muslim, generally
do not oppose coeducation.* [177] Girls however may be
withdrawn from school earlier than boys.* [157]
6.8 Medicine
Their traditional medicine is Unani (Greek)
medicine.* [178] Sir Percy Sykes described the medicine
as “based on the ancient Greek theory”and mentioned
how ailments and sicknesses were treated in Through
Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.* [179] Today, tra-
ditional medicine can still be found at street stands.
Similar to other traditional medicine, diagnosis is usually
made through checking the pulse, symptoms, and disease
history, and then the pharmacist pounds up different
dried herbs, making personalized medicines according
to the prescription. Modern Uyghur medical hospitals
adopted modern medical science and medicine and
applied evidence-based pharmaceutical technology to
traditional medicines. Historically, Uyghur medical
knowledge has contributed to Chinese medicine in
terms of medical treatments, medicinal materials and
ingredients, and symptom detection. It introduced to
Chinese medicine the medical use of snakes, opium and
many new kinds of plants.* [180] During the Qing era
the Uyghurs used Chinese medicine.* [181]
6.9 Cuisine
Main article: Xinjiang cuisine
Uyghur food shows both Central Asian and Chinese el-
ements. A typical Uyghur dish is polu (or pilaf), a dish
found throughout Central Asia. In a common version of
the Uyghur polu, carrots and mutton (or chicken) are first
fried in oil with onions, then rice and water are added,
and the whole dish is steamed. Raisins and dried apri-
cots may also be added. Kawaplar (Uyghur: Каваплар)
or chuanr (i.e., kebabs or grilled meat) are also found
here. Another common Uyghur dish is leghmen (‫لەغمەن‬,
ләғмән), a noodle dish with a stir-fried topping usually
made from mutton and vegetables, such as tomatoes,
12 6 CULTURE

Uyghur polu ( , полу)

onions, green bell peppers, chili peppers, and cabbage.

This dish is likely to have originated from the Chinese
lamian, but its flavor and preparation method are distinc-
tively Uyghur.* [182]
Uyghur food (Уйғур Йәмәклири, Uyghur Yemekliri) is
characterized by mutton, beef, camel (solely bactrian),
chicken, goose, carrots, tomatoes, onions, peppers,
eggplant, celery, various dairy foods, and fruits.
A Uyghur-style breakfast consists of tea with home-
baked bread, hardened yogurt, olives, honey, raisins, and
almonds. Uyghurs like to treat guests with tea, naan, and Dopa Maker, traditional Uyghur hats, Kashgar
fruit before the main dishes are ready.
Sangza (Uyghur: ‫ساڭزا‬, Саңза) are crispy fried wheat тәлпәк, salwa tälpäk) is worn by Uyghurs.* [187]
flour dough twists, a holiday specialty. Samsa (Uyghur:
‫سامسا‬, Самса) are lamb pies baked in a special brick
oven. Youtazi is steamed multi-layer bread. Göshnan
(Uyghur: ‫گۆشنان‬, Гөшнан) are pan-grilled lamb
pies. Pamirdin (Uyghur: Памирдин) are baked pies
stuffed with lamb, carrots, and onions. Shorpa is lamb
soup (Uyghur: ‫شۇرپا‬, Шорпа). Other dishes include
Toghach (Uyghur: Тоғач) (a type of tandoor bread) and
Tunurkawab (Uyghur: Тунуркаваб ). Girde (Uyghur:
Гирде) is also a very popular bagel-like bread with a hard
and crispy crust that is soft inside.
Due to a price gouging scam involving a traditional
Uyghur nut cake (Chinese: 切 糕; pinyin: qiēgāo; lit-
erally: “nut cake”)* [183] or (Chinese: 核 桃 糕;
pinyin: hétao gāo; literally: “walnut cake”) or 瑪仁糖
(Chinese: 瑪仁糖; pinyin: mǎréntáng) sold by Uyghur
vendors called 切糕党 (Chinese: 切糕党; pinyin: qiēgāo
dǎng; literally: “nut cake party”), ethnic tensions have
risen.* [184]* [185]* [186]

6.10 Clothing
See also: Uzbeks § Attire

Chapan is worn by Uyghurs. Doppa is headgear worn Uyghur girl in clothing made of fabric with design distinctive to
by Uyghur men. Another headwear, Salwa telpek (салва the Uyghurs

Yengisar (‫يېڭىسار‬, Йеңисар) is famous for manufac-
turing Uyghur handcrafted knives,* [188]* [189] called
“Yingjisha”knife (英 吉 沙 刀) or (英 吉 沙 小 刀) in
Chinese.* [190]* [191]* [192]* [193] The Uyghur word for
knife is pichaq (‫پىچاق‬, пичақ) and the word for knives
is pichaqchiliq (‫پىچاقچىلىقى‬, пичақчилиқ).* [194]
Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for
their knife manufacture. Uyghur men carrying knives
on their body is a major part of Uyghur culture. The
knives are intended to demonstrate the masculinity
of the wearer* [195] but have also led to ethnic ten-
sion.* [196]* [197] Limitations were placed on knife vend-
ing due to terrorism and violent assaults where they were
utilized.* [198]
In the early 20th century, face covering veils with caps
velvet with trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets
by Turki women in public in Xinjiang as witnessed by the
adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s.* [199] Travelers
of the period Sir Percy Sykes and Ella Sykes wrote that in
Kashghar women went into the bazar “transacting busi-
ness with their veils thrown back”but mullahs tried to en-
force veil wearing and were“in the habit of beating those
who show their face in the Great Bazar”."* [200] Uyghur
women who had non-Muslim Han Chinese husbands did
not wear veils due to their slackness in regards to reli-
gion in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended.* [201]
Belonging to different social statuses meant a difference
in how rigorously the veil was worn.* [202]
Qing era Muslim Turkestani men cut all the hair off
their head.* [203] It was observed that the Turki Muham-
madan, accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a
substantial fur-cap when the temperature is so low as it
was just then. by Sir Aurel Stein.* [204] No hair cutting
for men took place on the ajuz ayyam.* [205] High status
Begs were permitted to adopt queues when they begged
for it after the war with Jahangir Khoja* [206]
6.11 Names
Since Islam reached them much after Altishahr, personal
names of non-Islamic Old Uyghur origin are still used in
Qumul and Turfan while people in Altishahr use mostly [8] “Nitaqat rules for Palestinians and Turkistanis eased”.
Islamic names of Persian and Arabic origin.* [207] Af-
ter the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs
who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suf- [9] ‫"قرية الزنبقي السورية أقرب إلى الصين منها الى‬
fixes to Russify their surnames and make them look Rus-
sian.* [208] Names from Russia and Europe are used
in Qaramay and Urumchi by part of the population of [10] ."‫"داعش جلب آلاف المقاتلين مع عائلاتهم إلى الرقة‬
city dwelling Uyghurs. Others use names with hard to
[11] ."!‫"قرية الزنبقي صينية أم سورية‬
understand etymologies, with the majority dating from
the Islamic era and being of Persian or Arabic deriva- [12] ‫ قرية الزنبقي يتحول الى مستوطنة‬: ‫"بالفيديو‬
tion.* [209]
13
7 See also
• List of Uyghurs
• Meshrep
• Uyghur timeline
• Uyghur people in Beijing
• East Turkestan independence movement
• Makan Map
8 References
[1] “About Uyghurs”. uyghuramerican.org. Uyghur Amer-
ican Association. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
[2] Агентство Республики Каписью на 26,1% и составила
10098,6 тыс. человек. Увеличилась численность
узбеков на 23,3%, составив 457,2 тыс. человек, уйгур
- на 6%, составив 223,1 тыс. человек. Снизилась
численность русских на 15,3%, составив 3797,0 тыс.
человек; немцев - на 49,6%, составив 178,2 тыс.
человек; украинцев – на 39,1%, составив 333,2 тыс.
человек; татар – на 18,4%, составив 203,3 тыс.
человек; других этносов – на 5,8%, составив 714,2
тыс. человек.
[3] Национальный статистический комитет Кыргызской
Республики : Перепись населения и жилищного
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8.1 Bibliography
• This article incorporates text from The cyclopædia of
India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: commer-
cial, industrial and scientific, products of the min-
eral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, useful arts
and manufactures, by Edward Balfour, a publication
from 1885 now in the public domain in the United
States.
• Austin, Peter (2008). One Thousand Languages:
Living, Endangered, and Lost. University of Cali-
fornia Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25560-9.
• Coene, Frederik (2009). The Caucasus - An In-
troduction. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-
87071-6.
20
• Dillon, Michael (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim
Far Northwest. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-
16664-2.
• Drompp, Michael Robert (2005). Tang China And
The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documen-
tary History. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-14129-4.
9 Further reading
• Fairbank, John King; Chʻen, Ta-tuan (1968). The
Chinese world order: traditional China's foreign re-
lations. Harvard University Press.
• Golden, Peter B (1 January 1992). An Introduc-
tion to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogene-
sis and State-formation in Medieval and Early Mod-
ern Eurasia and the Middle East. O. Harrassowitz.
ISBN 978-3-447-03274-2.
• Güzel, Hasan Celal (2002). The Turks: Early ages.
Yeni Türkiye.
• Hahn, Reinhard F. (2006). Spoken Uyghur. Univer-
sity of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98651-
7.
• Köprülü, Mehmet Fuat; Leiser, Gary; Dankoff,
Robert (2006). Early Mystics in Turkish Literature.
Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-36686-1.
• Lattimore, Owen (1973).“Return to China's North-
ern Frontier”. The Geographical Journal. 139 (2):
233–242. doi:10.2307/1796091. JSTOR 1796091.
• Mackerras, Colin (1968). The Uighur Empire (744-
840): According to the T'ang Dynastic Histories.
Centre of Oriental Studies, Australien National
Univ.
• Mair, Victor H (2006). Contact And Exchange in the
Ancient World. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN
978-0-8248-2884-4.
• Millward, James A. (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A
History of Xinjiang. Columbia University Press. p.
69. ISBN 978-0-231-13924-3.
• Özoğlu, Hakan (2004). Kurdish Notables and the
Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loy-
alties, and Shifting Boundaries. SUNY Press. ISBN
978-0-7914-5994-2.
• Russell-Smith, Lilla (2005). Uygur Patronage In
Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The North-
ern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries.
BRILL. ISBN 90-04-14241-X.
• Tetley, G. E. (17 October 2008). The Ghaznavid
and Seljuk Turks: Poetry as a Source for Iranian His-
tory. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-89409-5.
• Walcott, Susan M.; Johnson, Corey (12 Novem-
ber 2013). Eurasian Corridors of Interconnection:
From the South China to the Caspian Sea. Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-135-07875-1.
9 FURTHER READING
• Wei, C. X. George; Liu, Xiaoyuan (2002).
Exploring Nationalisms of China: Themes and Con-
flicts. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31512-
1.
• Chinese Cultural Studies: Ethnography of China:
Brief Guide acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu
• Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). Empires of the Silk
Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze
Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN
978-0-691-13589-2.
• Berlie, Jean A (2004). Islam in China: Hui and
Uyghurs Between Modernization and Sinicization.
White Lotus Press. ISBN 978-974-480-062-6.
• Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. The Turks in World
History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
516770-8, ISBN 0-19-517726-6 (pbk.)
• Hessler, Peter. Oracle Bones: A Journey Through
Time in China. New York: Harper Perennial, 2006.
• Hierman, Brent. “The Pacification of Xinjiang:
Uighur Protest and the Chinese State, 1988–2002.”
Problems of Post-Communism, May/Jun2007, Vol.
54 Issue 3, pp 48–62
• Human Rights in China: China, Minority Exclusion,
Marginalization and Rising Tensions, London, Mi-
nority Rights Group International, 2007
• Kaltman, Blaine (2007). Under the Heel of the
Dragon: Islam, Racism, Crime, and the Uighur in
China. Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-
0-89680-254-4.
• Kamberi, Dolkun. 2005. Uyghurs and Uyghur iden-
tity. Sino-Platonic papers, no. 150. Philadelphia,
PA: Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civiliza-
tions, University of Pennsylvania.
• Millward, James A. and Nabijan Tursun, (2004)
“Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–
1978”in Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland, ed.
S. Frederick Starr. Published by M. E. Sharpe.
ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9.
• Rall, Ted. Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New
Middle East? New York: NBM Publishing, 2006.
• Rudelson, Justin Ben-Adam, Oasis identities:
Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road, New
York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
• Thum, Rian. The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History
(Harvard University Press; 2014) 323 pages
 21

• Tyler, Christian. (2003). Wild West China: The Un-

told Story of a Frontier Land. John Murray, London.
ISBN 0-7195-6341-0.

10 External links
• Cartogracy: Uighur Independence Movement

• Britannica Uighur people

• London Uyghur Ensemble Uyghur Culture and His-
tory; multimedia site-links to cultural and historical
background, current news, research materials and
photographs.
• Uyghur News News aggregator representing the
views of Uyghur activists
• Introduction to Uyghur Culture and History Links
to cultural and historical background, current news,
research materials and photographs.

• Map share of ethnic by county of China

22 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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nadil, Xinjiang guy, Adûnâi, Antondimak, Bohemian Baltimore, Geruese, Snaitniom, Banderheits, Lux ex Tenebris, Cartakes, 就是高富
帥, AnimeMagic2112, Uigur Cämiyät, ChemicalyImbalanced, Coolabahapple, Tariknuman97, Alexander002, LL221W, Akimon~enwiki,
Unixe96, 92slim, GeneralizationsAreBad, KasparBot, Scionli, Namela123, Lijiefu, HomeEndInsertDelete, GreenC bot, Yoljigda, Kookie-
jamz, Ghfionpendpnc, TheBestTheBetter, Bender the Bot, DragoniteLeopard, LeoHsn and Anonymous: 786
11.2 Images 23

11.2 Images
• File:Chagatai_Khanate_(1490).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Chagatai_Khanate_%281490%
29.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Betta27. Original artist: Ro4444 at English
Wikipedia
• File:Chirayliq.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Chirayliq.ogg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Royal Oculus & Gramophone Co. Original artist: Kaxgar Kizi (Gurdjieff at en.wikipedia)
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Dunhuang_Uighur_king.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Dunhuang_Uighur_king.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Dunhuang Mogao Caves. Scanned from Cave Temples of Dunhuang: Art and History on the Silk Road. Orig-
inal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
• File based on the specification given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -xfi-
• File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for the
Sodipodi SVG flag collection, and is public domain.
• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: the actual flag Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' ti-
tle='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Flag_of_Syria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: see below Original artist: see below
• File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
• File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oʻzbekiston Respublikasining Davlat bayrogʻi. The officially defined colours are Pantone
313C for blue and 361C for green (source: [1], [2]). Drawn by User:Zscout370.
• File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/
Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.
svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides
• File:Islam_in_China.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Islam_in_China.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Rockfang. Original artist: Cunado19 at English Wikipedia
• File:KashgarNaan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/KashgarNaan.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Doron
• File:Khotan-fabrica-alfombras-d09.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/
Khotan-fabrica-alfombras-d09.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 es Contributors: Own work Original artist: Colegota
• File:Khotan-mercado-chicos-d01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Khotan-mercado-chicos-d01.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 es Contributors: Own work Original artist: Colegota
• File:Khotan-mezquita-d03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Khotan-mezquita-d03.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 es Contributors: Own work Original artist: Colegota
• File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
• File:Map_of_language_areas_of_Xinjiang.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Map_of_language_
areas_of_Xinjiang.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on [1]. Original artist: Postmann Michael (Michael Post-
mann).
24 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Turpan-bezeklik-pinturas-d02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/

Turpan-bezeklik-pinturas-d02.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 es Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Uighur_Prince.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Uighur_Prince.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tilivay
• File:Uighur_princes,_Bezeklik,_Cave_9,_c._8th-9th_century_AD,_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum,_Berlin_-_
DSC01747.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Uighur_princes%2C_Bezeklik%2C_Cave_9%2C_c.
_8th-9th_century_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01747.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Daderot
• File:Uyghur-Dopa-Maker.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Uyghur-Dopa-Maker.jpg License: CC
BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/7817522@N05/4993356022 Original artist: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
7817522@N05/
• File:Uyghur-elders-sunday-market-Kashgar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/
Uyghur-elders-sunday-market-Kashgar.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/90987386@
N05/8266396135/in/set-72157632234085940 Original artist: https://www.flickr.com/photos/90987386@N05/
• File:Uyghur-redhead.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Uyghur-redhead.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Gusjer from Aranjuez, Spain
• File:Uyghur_Meshrep.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Uyghur_Meshrep.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/travelingmipo/5086682054/ Original artist: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
travelingmipo/
• File:Uyghur_blacksmiths_-_Yengisar_Flickr.webm Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Uyghur_
blacksmiths_-_Yengisar_Flickr.webm License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/taylorandayumi/2532670213
Original artist: https://www.flickr.com/photos/taylorandayumi/
• File:Uyghur_girl_in_Turpan,_Xinjiang,_China_-_20050712.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/
Uyghur_girl_in_Turpan%2C_Xinjiang%2C_China_-_20050712.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-photographed Original
artist: FACT NEEDED at en.wikipedia
• File:Uyghur_polu_closeup.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Uyghur_polu_closeup.JPG License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rjanag
• File:Uyghurche.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Uyghurche.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Amateur55
• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
• File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
• File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester
• File:Xinjiang_nationalities_by_prefecture_2000.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Xinjiang_
nationalities_by_prefecture_2000.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Zhongwen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Zhongwen.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?

11.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0