IHR RESEARCH GUIDES

General editor: Miles Taylor

USINC FIL/VI
Series editors: Jane Winters, Simon Thafford and Jonathan Blanev

This series is lirr new researchers in history arrcl is manirsccl in association

AS A SOURCE
with the lnstitute of Historical Research (II-{R). By ofIi:ring a practical
introduction to a sub-discipline of tristory, each book equips its reaclers
to navigate a new field of interest. Every volunre provides a survey of the
historiography and current. r'esearch in thc subject; describes relerrant
methodological issucs; looks at irviril:rblc primary sorrrccs in diIÏèrent SIAN BARBER
meclia and fbrmats and the problems of their access and int.crpretati()n.
Each volume includes practical case studies ancl examples to guicle your
research, ancl handy tips on how to avoid some of the pitfalls which nray
lie in wait for the inexperienced reseirrcher.
The guides are suiftrble for aclvancecl final-vear undereraclturtes,
master's and first-year PhD students, as wt:ll as {br indepenclcnt
researchers who wish to take their r,r,ork to a rnore adv:rnc«:d stirge.

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 CONTENTS
I

i
Lisl of illustrations ix
l; ( I'rrt:r'al edil()r's introclucti<lrr xi
I
'\r'krrowledgements xii
( llossary and abbrerriations xiii
I
i

I Introduction I

I I Film and history/ B

It Film firrnr and aeslhetics 28
'l Film hist«l'iography 5t
5 Fornrulating research qlresti()rrs 7r
(i Theory irncl rneth<)dolosv tt8
7 Resorrrces 106
l'l Using sollrces 12ô
1) Writing up yr)ur finclirrgs t45

\r'lt'r:t bibliography and res()rrrces 16I

Irrrlcx r73

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 ACKNOWLEDCEMENTS CLOSSARY AND
I

ABBREVIATIONS
].lut',,r0 likc t«r thank ('\.eryone who has been involved irr the prodtrction
lll,-',r,t b..k, i.t:lrtrli,,13 ..,".yorrc at Mant:hcster Univci'sity l'rcss,
Pahli,',,lr.lu Ernrna
Brennn,, ,nj Rachel ÿÿirtterbr>ttom l'or their iatience l|1O-rk:gree mle ensrrres that ch:rracters and obiects rernain on th(i
flltl p'.,f..ri.rnalism. nly t arrf., also go to Miles Taylor of the lnstitute of sarne sicle ol'the fi'ame. lnvert.ing a scenc' or a shot
,-"'lolical Research, who c«rrnmissioned rne to write this volurne, ancl to within a sequence breaks this rule and the rtrles ol'
'ln'|' \À'i,,,..r. wh() to()k time [() read the or-iginal proposal. continrrity editins
l'lri. project would rrot have c()me to fi'tritir>n without tlre support .llll('rrr theory dominant theory within filrn studies rvhiclr suggcsts a
,,r.
.-r,,o,,ll.ngr.r.s and stafl at Royal Flolloway'
tJnivcrsity of London ancl singlc c:reat.ive 'author' lcrr a fih'n texl.
.T"s"n'. Llniversitv Ilelfirst. It wotrld ttever have been finished rvithorrt clr iaroscurr)
l"l ,,rpp.,* of Sally Shaw, Oiirrzr (lhanrbcrs, Kinr Akirss and Cathy
''*"',t.,,l,
stylc of liuhtirrg rvhich clcliber:rtelr" drarvs attcnti()n
liehting
t"â\ks who all prrrvidccl rnuch-treeded s<llidarity. F'inally, as always, my to sh:rclorvs and light; o{iel trsed t() create sl.rips «iI'
to paul, *itlr,r,,t whom none ol this rvould have becn possible. sltirclorv acloss the fi'arnc
r'lroker shot shot of fàce or head which Illls tht' rvholc fiarne
close up hea<l-ancl-shotrl<lcrs shot
rlr'«'p fcrcus/
r k'pt lr <>f fielcl acti()n in A scer)e shown in sharp relicf bot.h in tht-'
backglound irn<l the tirreqr()und
rlirgt'tic sound sourrd in a {ilrn wlrich has a sourcc visible on thc
screen arrcl lvhich can bc' hezrrd by tlte characters.
Non diagetic sorrnd c:rn onlv bc ltearrl by the
audience and is not heard by the character or
present within the scene
lladv lcw tax lcvied on llritish cxhibit<.rrs, who werc lequired
t() repav a percentage of cinerna adrnissions back t<l
the proclrrccrs oI' successfirl fi lms
li'aming how the action is irrranged and sltot
llirys Code H«rllyr,r'ootl productior r cocle r,r,hich determincd tlr<:
c()r)tent of Anrericart filrrrs
.lurnp cut a transition betwecn shots rvhich dcliberately
disnrpts tl're expccted r)irrrativc florv ol- a se(lller)cc
XIV CLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS
leitrrrotif
by removing an expt:cted shot or mis-rnatchins two
sirnilar shots
a rccrrrring mrrsic:rl cue whir:h accompanies
ctlirractcr or action
Inlsc'-c n-scelle the orsairisecl contents of the fiante and how ther
mor)tage
arrdierrcc are irrviterl lo ser. it
style of editing or combination of shots in seqrrcnce
to achieve a particular effect
P2rrl ca[)era rnoüng l-rorizontally on axis
shot/reverse typical sequence of filrnmakins sh()ts often used ftrr
converszrtions and close ups
sutlrre cditing (also known as continuity or invisible editine)
brings indiüclual shots and f'ootase tosether without
showine the .joins. This ensures that the Ilow of a
sequence is maintaincd and characters' eyelines, for
exampler, rernain at. the s:rme level
rilr calnera rnoving vertically on axis
verisimilitude a crafted visu:rl impression of reality
BBFC] British Board of Film Censors, founded in 1912,
known fiom 1984 as ttre British Board of'I;ilm
(ll irssificirtion
R!](]TU Rroadcasl.ing, Entertainment, (linematoeraph and
Theatre Union
BFI British Film Institute
BtJF'VC British Universities Filrn & Vicleo (iruncil
NFFC National Filrn Finance (iorporation. ()ovcmrnent
body which supported the Rritish lilrn indLrstr-y
Nole.' Use of bold thoush thc text inclicates key ter.rns and idezrs. Sonre ol'
t.hese arc fèatrrred in the glossary but otl'rers are highlighted within the
texl. to draw att.errtion to key ideas as appropr.iate in irrcliüdr.ral sections.
à1
INTRODUCTION
I lrc single most powerfirl obstacle t() the historical use of filrn has beert
tlrt' historian's üew that compared with the tnasses of othcr docurnen-
t,rr v t'vidence available film was especially unreliable as evidence.l
l'llrrr lrrovides a fascinating insight into the past through documeutary,
,urlrivlrl and amateur film firotage and a deliberately constmcted
lrtrtolical world through feature films. Howeveq usine lilrn as 'historical
r r'rrk'rr<t:' is far fiom straishtfbrward; speci{rc skills are required ttr
urrrlclstirnd the complexities of the visual rnedir,rm, its relationship to the
1ur r('ry fïom which it emerees, the indtrstry which created it and those
rllro consumecl it.. Despite these obstacles, fihn is a cntcial tneans fbr
rrrrrh'r'sl.:rnding the recent past. William Hughes noted that'the public's
r lruilt'ut the box oflice, proüdes a crtrde lneasure of the accuracy of
tlrr, litrnmaker's hypothesis about popular values', while Paul Srnith
,,rrrsirlt'red that'film recorcls the outlook, intentions and capabilities of
tlrost'who made it; it illustrates irt some way the character of the society
trr wlrich it was produced and fbr which it was designecl'.2
l,ilrrr is one of the clominant cultural firrms of the twentieth and
Irr('nty-first cent.uries. What people chose t() see and whirt filmrnakers
r lrosc to rnake reveal a great deal :lbotrt the nature of contemporary
lilr', pnrvailing social c()ncerr)s. preconceptions, morals and rnanners.
l'rlrrr r':rn reveals a tryriad clf attitudes, not simply of those who are in the
lrlrrr, lrrrt also those of directors, scriptwritcrs, proclucers irnd financiers.
l'r'rlr:rps most importantly, films can help us understand how past
,rrrrlicrrr:es responded to issues, characters and ideals. Film and moving
rn,rg(' ('an help us probe the delicate relationship between culture and
rlr icty, between Ïilm ancl attdience, and benveer) spectat()rs irrr«l the
tlrt.'l'lre filrns that are consumed by a society, the film stars venerated
,rrrrl llrc preferred genres, as well as trends in perftrrrnatrce sÿle,
r ur'nr:rt()graphy and costulne, can all shcd light on preoccupat.ions of
,rrrrlicrr<'es in past decades.
2 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
f'he skills acquired in the fielcls of history politics, English lirerarure,
sociology, cult.ural and rnedia studies can :rll help to explore film as
'historical evidence', hut the sttrcly of film is a cliscipline in its own right.
Filnr cannot bt: treatecl lj-ply as ir historical source, but ratherneeds to
be undcrstood as a distinctive mediurn, possessed of visual and textual
cocles. f'his study euide is intended to provide a starting point firr those
seekirrs to usc film as a s()urce. It is airned at those who want to use
filrn irnd mor,.ing irnaee as the basis fcrr research :urd olïèrs advice on
research methods, theory ancl methodolosv and film-based analysis.
Iiverything included here is also intended to be goocl practice, whether
it be conductins an interview, visiting an archive, undertakins textual
ilnalysis or definins a research question.
It is likcly that r)()t all sections will be relevant for all readers; some
rnay be interested in usins fihn to explore political icleology, others may
be interested in the sttrdy of f'cature films, whilc others may be keen tcr
expkrre audience responscs to particular groups of films. I.-ilrn is a broad
rnedium ancl as well as identiÿing the range of methods throush which
you c:rn approach it, this work also indicates how works supplementary
to lilm can be explored and ut.ilised within research. With this in mind,
this guide sugsests horv you can gather data on film audiences, identiÿ
ancl expkrre film industry d«rcnmentation and locate personal papers of'
filnr industry insiders.
For nrany years filrn was the mass rnedium of education,
communication and entertainrnent. Yet filrn's position has been
eclipsed by the rapid growth of television :rnd, more recently, thc
intenrert. While the medium of television operates under a dilïerent
set ()I' cllltural imperatives, funding stnrctures and production
determinants, a sreat deal of whirt will be explored in relation to the
visual qualities and research potential of film and its importarrce as
:r source carr also be applied to television. Howeveq television as ir
sep2rrate rnecliurn is not the principal lbcus of this work. This book will
lbcus predominantly on fihl, ancl specifically on British films and the
resources that perurin to this body of work. The focus is mainly British;
Hollpvood films are also refèrred to in passinu, yet are not explored
in sisnificant depth or detail. The reason fbr this is twofbld: firstly,
to include zr considcration ol American resources would drastically
increasc tl)e paranleters of this work, and secondly, there are a sreal
number of works which fbcus on Flolllwo<td cinerna and use Holllwood
filrns as research exarnples. This work is intended to scrutinise British
tllrn crrlturc atrd to o11èr ideas on how to explore, analyse, use ancl
INTRODUCTION 3
,.r,rrrrirrc British films and cinema. The approach identified here for
tlrl slrrrly of British {ilrn, cinema and history can be applied to the:
rllllt'rtrrt types of fihn prodtrcecl and consurned any"r,vhere in the worlrl
tlr(l s() rnay be of use to students and scholars of any kind of film and
111uvirrg irnage.
As as being intended fbr those engaged in the study of filrn, this
wcll
glrrk' is also aimed at those who are keen to use film material in tl'reir
rrrr';rrll). There are many diflèrentways in which filrn can be used to
,lrvrloP lesearch, and the films themselves can either contribute to the
rrlr,r ;rll topic of research or perhaps form the main body of the research
rrr,rtclill. For example, researchers rnight be keen to explore the visual
r rpr ('s('ntation of the 'blitz spirit' in Rritish wartime fihn culture through
rrlrvrn'cl fbotage or feature filrns, or to consider film propaganda in the
| \ tr ('rnc fâscist regimes of 1930s. Perhaps the fcrcus might be to examine
, lr,rrrgirrg masculinity in Amcrican films of the I980s by focusing on stars
rrr lr irs Harrison Ford, Michael J. Fox and'lbm Cmise. These research
prniccts would require the researcher to use film in different ways. It
tr rro( simply a case of watching films to see wh:rt they are about and
rtlr,rt tlrcy mean, but rather to analyse their textrral qualities in detail,
, rl,lolt'their production and reception contexts, and their relationship
tr rur(lustry and aucliences.
It is:rlso crucial to examine {ilms in terms of ttreir technical qualities
,rrrrl clraracteristics: films are both technical objects and a lirrm of artistic
, tprtssion, and this du:rlity is crucial to fully understanding them. As
l,rrrrcs Monaco reminds us, 'every art is shaped not only by its political,
plrilosoJrhical and economic factors but also by its technology'.:rIt is
r1o1 r'rrough simply to concentrate on the aesthetic aspecls of film; the
rrlirlcher must irlso krok at the technical factors in order to consider
tlrr. irrrpzrct of new editing, sound and cinematosraphv techniques as
rrrll rrs special effècts and computer-aided design.
l{r'st'arch into film could seek to understand film genres ()r
rrrr\,('rncllts further, to utilise film theory to explain the popularity of
rplcili<' types of films in particular historical periods or to sugeest a link
Itr'tw('('n the üsual culture of a decade and the preoccupations of the
rur ictÿ which created and consumed it. lt coulcl seek to understand how
irrrlrrslry and economics shape film products or explore how audiences
rlrlrrrrrrled to specific films or film events, such as Star Wars (1977),
t itttt' toi.th the Wind ( 1939) or Alien (I979). Research could focus on how
rr,wsl)irpers respond to speci{ic lilm texts such as the'video nasties', or
lrow lilrn theorists understand and critique the work of Lars von Trier or
4 USINC FILfuI AS A SOURCE
.fean Vigo, or how researchers seek to make sense of the use of historv
in films about the past.
In order to clo.justice to any of these topics, an understanding of lilm
as an object is required. Film is a crafted artefact. It is rarely produced by
a sinS4lc person, but rathèi clepencls on the creative and technir:al skills
of a range of people. It is also never produced in a cultural and social
vacuum. It is both a product of a society and an object of consumption
ltrr society. Resardless of its genre and thematic preoccupiltions, filrn
will always suggest sonrethine about the period in which it was rnade.
Orucially, film is essentially a visual rnedium and analysis of visual style
is a key part of'understanding the film itself. Fihn and visual material
docs not -iust present straishtforward narratives in simplistic ways.
Historian.f.A.S. Grenville observed that fihn is much more than simply a
collection of irnases, noting 'the adclition of zr sound track can be made
to influence the visual irnpact of what the camera shot. Montage or the
art of film editing, can create the efIècts clesired by the film maker.'l The
study of lilm reqtrires an unclerstancling of all aspects of procltrction,
reception and visual style, and this work will suggest rvays in which this
can be achieved.
The first chapters of this book deal with the relationship that
exists between history zrnd filrn, filnr aesthetics and fbrrn, and thn
historiography. Chapter 2 considers the way in which the past has been
created on screen and how film rnaterial has been usecl as a source to
explore the past. In doins so it will suggest how even the most inaccurate,
fictitious and crude lilnric representations can be used to exarnine
noti()ns of the past and how such nraterial should be approached.
Chapter 3 will consider the characteristics that are particular to fihn as
a source, specifically a visual source. It will demonstrate how to 'read'
a film, to exarnine how the l,isual and textual language of films has
been deliberately crafted and how it can be understood and explored.
Ohapter 4 will explore the trends that have infcrrmed filrn scholarship
and the way in which filrn has been viewecl, uuderstoocl :rnd studied
in different periods. This chapter will also examine how trends irr
historiography can be discerned within ancl mapped alongside trends
ir.r filrn scholarship.
The next lèw chapters will move awav fiom the theoretical ancl
the historical and suegest a practical approach fcrr studying filrn ancl
usins it as a source. Chapter 5 will offer suggestions on how to iclenti§,
achievable research questions that clraw trpon and relate to film sources.
It will inclicate how research questions can be clevised, how to begirr
INÏRODUCTION 5
rrrrt kirrg on a topic, and how to identiÿ a usefirl approach. This chapter
,rlro ittt lrrdes two detailed cirse studies. Ohapter 6 will fbllow on fiom the
1ll{H('sli()ns oflêred in Ohaptcrs ,[ and ]1 and dernonstrate horv a topic or
n'lr';rrrlr area can be rnatchecl with an appropriate nrethodology and a
liarnework. Drawinc on somc of the kcy theories and zrpproaches
r t llir':rl
trlnrtilicd in Chapter 3, this ch:rpter will also show how these theories
r,lr irrrrl have been used. The exarnples reveal how scholars working
rtltlr lilrn have utilised dillèrent critical and methodological approaches,
.rtttl rlctnonstrate the usefirlness of existing work in helping to stmctrrre,
r,-rrirlch and approach your own {ilm-related topic.
(llrirpters 7 and il relate tri the resonrces that can be used to help
, \l,l()l'c and understand fihn. Ohapter 7 will ofl'er a detailed survey
,,1 tlrt'specilic kinds of resources available, where they are held and
lrul tlrey can be irccessecl. This expkrration will include conventional
r'\r)lu(:es suclt as books and :rcademic.jor.rrnals, but rvill also contain
lrloltrration about primary sources, archival material ancl the extensive
,ligitirl collections that are accessible. Ohapter 8 suggests ways in which
tlrr rlillèrent sorlrces can be used. Exarnples here will draw upon
m'wsl)irper material, account books and ledgers, pcrsonal papers and
trrtr.tview transcripts. fhe chapter will also slrssest horv such rnaterial
r,ur lx: interrosated, fcrr example how film reviews can be read and
rrrl('r'stood, how interviews should be conducted, how to access visual
,,r rvlitten material in an archive ancl the valtre of online fan sites. F'inally,
Llr,rPtcr 9 olIèrs ideas on how research can be written up, the kind of
trrlolrnation which shoulcl be included in essays or research projects,
Irow lhe analysis should be writtcn, what tonc you shorrld adopt, how
r,rrrl work should be stnrctured and t.he way in which material should
lx' rtlèrenced.
'l'lrc book aims to provide the tools to undertake film-related analysis.
\\'lril<' ambitious in sc<-rpc, this work cannot hope to cover everything.
l)r'tlriled explorations of ncw media, television, anlateur filrns and
\i rrr'lirbe content can all be lorrnd elsewhcrc and will only be nrcntioncd
Irrn'where relevitnt.,This suidc is intended to be of use fbr fihn and
trtcrlia studies undereraduates and also lirr those who use film as part oI'
,rrlvirncecl research who may not h:rve studied the subject be{i)re. It will
,rirrr to provicle arlswers to ttre f<rllou,ing qrresti<>ns:
o How do I identilÿ s()urce materials?
r How carr I analyse my material?
r What critical approach shoulcl I adopt?
 6 USINC FIL/V\ AS A SOURCE INTRODUCÏION 7

o How do I devise a rnethodoloe./? 3 James Monaco, Horu l,o Rcad a l'ilm:

'I-hc Workl ql Moties, Media, an,d
. What are the best sources to use irt lilrn :rrrulvsisi' Multim,edia,: Lan44mge, History, Tlzeorl (New York and ()xfirrd: Oxfbrd
o Do I need to visit an archivc? University Prcss, 2000), p. 49.
o How should I stnrcturc rny lvork? 4 (lrerrvillc, Iiilrn, as Hi.st,or1, p.17.
5 .|amcs Cl'rapman, l,:ihn an.d l{islr»1 (B:rsingstoke: Pirlgravc Macmillan,
As well as ofïering answers to these qucstions, t.lris i4-tritk':tlso sit.ttates 2013); Maartin Perebootn, Ilistorl antl l"il,m: Moaing Pidttres und Llrc Sludl
film-related research work within a tradition ol rrcark'rrri< sclrollrrship of thc I'a.st (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2010); Mar-nie llughes-
and deliberately challenees outdated notiorrs ol lilrrr ;rs :rrt rrrtt'cliable Warrington, Ilisloty Got's Lo t,lu Mouies: Studying llisLory orL l;ilm (Lonclon:
Routleclee, 2007).
historical source. This wnrk does not set ()llt to rcirrvt'rrt llrc rvlrct'l: therc
are a larse number of exceller-rt works which adrlrcss llrt' topi<' ol f ilm irs
a hismrical source, including recent ptrblications on Iilrrr irrrrl lristory by
Jarnes Chapmirn, Martin Pereboorn artd Marnie Husltcs-\{hrli rt gtotr.r' In
I
addition toworkwhich is specific to the discipline ol'filrn slrrrli<'s, thcre art-'
also numerotrs usefirl publications which :rddress lrow histori:rrrs tnake usc
of rnoüng imase. Within suc1.r publications, the iclea of filrn as a source is
usually addressecl, though the textual specificities of the lilrn rneclium are
sometimes overlooked in :r desire to align film with rnore conventional
sources. f'his work intcnds to adclress both issues; it will strggest how tcr
concluct film-related research :rnd zrlso olTer guiclelines on bclth tcxtual
analysis and the rrse ol supplernentary eüclence which extends beyond
the text itsclf. This work refers to the work of others in appropriatc detail,
but in the sections where the sorlrces noted are illustrative, the texLs ancl
authors are rnentionecl only briefl1,. This is t() prevent the inclusion of a
ranse of sample sources within the text itself and bibliographv.
Some readers may also fèel that the archive ancl archival lilrn researclr
inclurled here receives sreirter attentiorl tlrirn textual analysis. This is
due to both the intention of this work to foregrouncl the uses of filrn as
a source and the need ltrr a work which provides a usefirl stnrting point
for those kecn to expkrre {ilm-related archive material.

NOTES

1 J.A.S Grenville, Fihn as Lli.sLorl (llirnrineham: Universitv of Birmineharn

Press, l97t), p.,1 (inaugural lecttrre rielivered irr the University of
Bilminghirm, 5 March 1970).
2 William l{ughcs, 'The evaluation ol lilrn as evidencc' in Paul Smith
(ed.), ltilm anrL th.c Historia'n (Ciirnrl:;ridge: (.larnbridse University Press,
1976), p. 71; ar.rd I'aul Srnith (cd.), film u.ru\. tlLe l:lisLoriun (Carnbriclgc:
Oarnbriclge University Press, 1976), p. 7.

à I
h
FIL/V\ AND HISTORY
The peculiariry of historical films is that thcy are defined irt't'oltlittg to
a discipline that is completely outside the cinema.l
Whcn thinking about film as a source, one of the kev clttt:sliotts which
emerses is the lilrn's relationship to the past it represettts and ltou'
filrns operate as historical obiects. The relationsltip benvccn lilm and
the historical past is a curiorts onc and so this chaPter will cxplore a
number of difl'erent approaches avirilable t() th(: resear-cher lo better
trrrclerstancl this relationship. Firstl,v, this chapter rvill briellv c<lnsiclet'
the rvays in which the historical past is presenterl ()n screen and thc
challenses this can pose t() the histori:rn. Films never Preserlt th<: past in
a straightlbrward way and so cliff'erent approaches to charircter, narrative
and period need to be delicately probed- Secorrdly. the import.ance ol'
filrns as historical s()urces will be discussed. This section will consider
the range and imp()rtance of diflerernt types of'rnovitts inrage ancl
their usefirlness 1.() contemporary historians. As rvcll as feature filnrs
about the past, docunlentary and alchive li)otafï(:, aln:ltetlr ftrotage ancl
nelvsrcels rvill also be briefly examitte'cl ancl their relcvance fcrr historians
critiqued. Thirdly, ttris chapter will strggest wa,vs in rvhictr tristorians can
use moving inrage in mindful wavs alrd the key qtl(:sti()ns which shotrld
be considered when trndcrt.aking analysis «rf rnoving imase material.
The last section i1cllfles tw6 distinct case stuclies u'hich inclicatt:
different ways to explorc the relat.ionship between historv ancl film.
THE HISTORTCAL PAST ON SCREEN
Big-btrdget fèature films such ts liobi'n llood: Ptiru:e of 'l'ILiettes (1991),
Brauehearl (1995) and PenrL [:larbor (2001) arc frequently ridiculed for
presenting irtaccurate or fictitious accourlts of the past. But this kinrl
of historical filrn l'ras less to do nith history as Atr acadcmic clisciplinc
FILM AND HISTORY 9
;rrr«l more to dcl with makingç narratives of the past accessible ancl
t'rrtt:rtaining for audiences. AsJohn Tbsh has observed, 'rvhen the past is
. (,nserved or re-enacted for otrr ent.erl.ainment, it is usually presented in
its most attractive light.'2 Films noted for their cavalier treatrnent of the
l):rst, including those mentioned above, are usually highly converrtional
irr filmic terms. They obey all the rules of classical filmic storytelling
- rrarrative, structure, characl.er-, plot resolution - and it is in terms of
lilrnmakins, rather than in terms of history, that these films shor-rld first
lx'evaluated.
For all their srandiose claims for historical accuracy and authenticity,
lristorical films can never oflèr an interpretation of history 'as it really
wirs' and are rirrely tryir.rg to attempt such a feat, prefèrring instead to
on a version of history rvhich can be sold to audiences. We can use
lir«'trs
lilrns to explore what versions of the past are pref'erred by audiences,
Irow and why filrns use the historical p2rst to entcrtain or to educal-e, and
lrow history is used to allay contemporary fèas.
Historical representatiolls may range from the reverential to the
lillald, fiom cavalier to camp and mocking to rnelodramatic. However,
cvcn films which deal with the past in farcical, comical and irreverent
wilys are not useless or unworthy of study, Ilor can it. be saicl that. such
lilrns simply present 'bad' history. Canl Ort u,p t,he Khybn (1968) may say
little ab«»rt British lndia, but says a great <leal about attitudes towards
llritish imperialism, colonialism, race, gender and ideas of comedy and
nirtional identity in late 1960s llritain. Sometimes it is the treatment and
lrandling of the historical subject that is most interesting, rather than
lristorical accuracy.
Representations of the past will also differ according to the period in
wlrich they are macle. For example, Kenneth Branap;h's 1989 aclaptation
ol Shakespeare's Henry V is a very different film to f-aurence Oliüer's
rutrchlaucled 1944 irnagining. Although both filrns are drawn fronr
cxzrctly the same source text and follow the same narrative with the sarne
( haracters, visually they are very clifïèrent. Olivier's version was macle at
tlrc height of the Second World War in 1943 and released into cinemas
irr 1944. AsJames Chapman has shown, wartime audiences would have
lJrpreciated the war narrative, while the need fbr the film to be positive
rrrrd upbeat accourrts fbr its lack of bloodshed.3
By contrast Branagh's 1989 adaptation is dirty, gritty and viciously
bloody. Scenes fiom the original play that were rem()ved fiorn Olivier's
vcrsion such as Henry's decision to execute the prisoners, Henry's
«krubts on the eve of' battle, ancl the Kins's assression and warlike
1O USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
demeanour are all present in Branagh's interpretation. Macle over lbrty
years later, the Branagh fihn has a very clillèrent purp()se and w«ruld
have been seen by audiences fâr more used to graphir: clcpictions of
warfare. Since the conclusion of' the Second World War, tclevised
wars, includins Korea, Vietnâm and the first Gulf War, had presented
audiences with glimpses of rnodern warfare. 'fhe Branagh filrn builds
on this tradition; the Iighting scenes are graphic and visceral and depict
behaviour - including the pillaging of corpses on the battlefield and the
slitting of throals ol'enemy soldiers - which would never have fèatured
in a film rnade in 1944.
It is also crucial to remember that Shakespeare's Hmry V cannot
be seen as an accurate historical portrayal but rather a piece of Tudor
propaganda which itself needs to be scrutinised as a historical source.
Any discussion of the film adaptations would have to take note of the
versions of history at work in both the filmic interpretation and within
the original play. Issues of adaptation loom large in discussions of'
history on filnr. lf exploring historical adaptation, you need to consider
if the fllm is based upon a novel such as Marsaret lrwin's bestselling
YoungBess, a poem such asTennyson's'The charse of the LightBrigade'
or a play like Oh! What a, I-oue$ Wr.
Films adapted fiorn pre-existing material have a further layer of
authorship that needs to be acknowledged and explored. The past is never
simply being recreated but rather it is being interpreted. A screenwriter
may be aclapting an earlier source text into a film, but to what extent is
the author of the source text then influential in shaping the film itselfi
For exarnple, the swashbuckline adventures <tf Tbm Jones (7963) are
based on the novel by Henry Fielding and set in the eighteenth century.
While the character, narrative and setting are Fielding's, the lilm's visual
style, costumes, performance and rnusic must all be seen through a filter
of the period when the film was made and are the result of deliberate
choices by the filmmakers, screenwriters, actors and technical crew. The
film is a costumed romp which incorporates traces of the heady, sexually
Iiberated and vibrant 1960s and blends them with the historical past
t() create a {ihn lbr contemporary audiences. Albert Finney swaggers
across the screen as Fielding's eponymous hero, fighting, drinking and
fcrrnicating with scant regard for period trappings.
,SinrilarlyJohn Schlesinger's l'ar from the Maddi.ng Croud (1967) also
takes a traditional literary narrative and brings it to the screen in sun-
drenched, colour-saturated glory which cannot but remind audiences of
the 'swinging 1960s' rather than evoking the more muted nineteenth-
FILM AND HISTORY 11
r ('ntllry settings described in Thomas Hardy's original novel. InJoseph
l,,rsey's 'l'h,e Go-Behrcen (1971), the grand houses and wide ourdoor
\l)aces are bathecl in slightly sour sunlight, while the modernity of the
r lurracter's mannerisms and the way in which the dialogue is delivered
rits awkwardly alongside the period costumes and setting. The anxieties
, rl 1970s fernininity are evident within the film and the casting
of 3O-year-
,rl<l.fulie Christie as L.P. Hartley's l9-year-old heroine Marian only adcls
to the awkwardness which pervades this heritage-infused drama of life
.rrr<l loss.
One of the most interesting issues with adapting the past is how
lilrrrrnakers return f.ô the work of certain authors again and again.
Srrzanne Pucci and.|arnes Thompson suggest that the constant return of
lroth filmrnakers and audiences toJane Austen and the Regency period
lr:rs a great deal to do with nostalgia fbr an imagined past, the mediation
l)('tween past and present and the residual cultural capital of Austen,s
rvork which continues to make her world and its character's relevant for
rr rodern-day audiences.a
'fhe adaptation of.fane Austen's Etnmainto the high-school
comedy
(llu,eless (1995) shiftstheprescriptiveRegencysocietysatirisedbyAusten
to modern-day Beverley Hills. Within this adaptation the teenage
llrr)tasonists are preoccupied with clothes, scandal, sex and popularity
( ()ncerns that also dominated Regency society. In this
way the Regency
p:rst is made relevant for modern audiences, specifrcally young cinema-
;ioing audiences lamiliar with high-schooI comedies. This selÊconscious
r ()ntemporary feel, which Andrew Higson identifies, is not conlined to
'\rrsten but can also be discerned in updates of Dickens and Shakespeare.
liilrrrs made in this period include: Baz Luhrman's Wiltiam Shahespeare,s
lir»neo andJu,liet (1996); 10 Things I Hate About You (l9gg), which is an
rr;r<late <>f' Tirming of th.c Shrcrul O (2001), a modernday interpretation of
{)thello; and Great Dxpectations (1998), re-imaginecl by Alfbnso Cuar«in.i
l\lrtking the past relevant for teenagers is a key feature of all of these
lilrrrs and while their settines may not be historical, the historical source
rr raterial makcs these modern-day adaptations important contributions
to the broad church of historical and heritage films (see fig. l).
While there are cross()vers. it is important not to conflate ideas oI'
lrcritagc and of history; heritaee carries with it a set of expectations that
olicn bear little resemblance to more conventional history. Alclrew
lligson contends that'one oI the key characteristics of the modern
l,,rrglish past represented in costume dramas ... is the display of heritage
spt'ctacle, in terms of landscape, architecture and interior design,.6
12 USINC FIL/VI AS A SOURCE
i
I Shakespcar-c reworked; PatrickVerona (Heat.h Leclger) woos feisty
K:rt:rrina Stratfirrcl (Julia Stiles) in 10 7-hings I ËInLe Abotrl l/oz (1999)
Within this cateuory he inclucles the lavish Merchant Ivory adaptations
srtch as Room aith a ViaLt (1985) and lJotuards End (1992), country-
house period drarnas such as Rerna,i,ns of the Dary (1993) and Sha,doularul,s
(1993) ancl the Austcn adaptations. fb this sroup we could also adcl
televisiorr dramas llke Upstnirs l)ownstuir.ç (1971-1975), 'l'he House of
Elliott (1991-1994) and [)outn,ton Abbq,(2010-present) which all share a
similar heritage aesthetic :rnd narrative preoccrrpati()ns.
FILM AND HISÏORY 13
'l'hese fihns ancl proerammes are lbcused on rcpreselrtine a period
,rrsthetic to make the past appealing. Regçardless of the activities of the
r llu':rcters and the development of thc narrative, it usually takes place
rvitlrin the con{ir}es of a specifically irnagined and lovinsly recreated
lrist<>rical world of wealth and privilege. Such films fbcus on the lives
ol the wealthy and well-born, and the narrativc is usually preoccupied
witlr mone,v, marriage and class. A heritagc filrn does not need tr>
r ornmunicate or represent a cornplex historical past but rather simply
llr'('sents a beautifully crafted worlcl. Yet, in orcler fbr tl-rese films to be
ttttrlerstood, well received and populaq thc world theli recreate needs
t(, be instirntly recoenisable t() audiences. The popularity of British
lrcritage cinema, both in Britain and beyond indicates the consistent
lrrrl resicluzrl appeal of this specific representation of the past, brlt ho\,v
( lrn these kind of flhns be understood and used as historical sources irr
llr<'ir own right?
THE MOVING IMAGE AS A SOURCE
As well as beine artist.ically created olrjects, films :rre also artelàcts rvhich
ollcr evidence of an historical past; that is, the past in r,r.hich they were
rttirde rather than the period in which they are set..J.A.S Grenville has
obscrved that the 'realit'l' which Iilms present is 'rearrangcd to suit the
lilrnmaker's artistic, social or political intentions' and that filmmakers
citn banish ternporal ancl spatial limitations through a variety of difÏerent
lcchniques.T \Vhen (]rcnvillc wrote about usins fihn as evidence he was
l)r'edominantly concerned - as were the maior:ity of modern cultural
lristorians - with docurnentary filrn, specifically with film lbotage rvhich
captured 'real' events and used 'real' people. Tbny Barta confirmed
this historical prcoccupation, notins how 'writers of scholarly history
tt:main unent.husiastic about a cinematic comparison: fihn is still easier
lo see as either an authentic (recordecl) past or a fàke (acted) past'.8
ln I980, Pierre Sorlin boldly challenged the assurnptions that
newsreels and documentary fiLn fbotage were authentic, asserting
instead, 'we are obliged t() treat newsreels as 'distorted' or rather as
rlirected imaees of society'.!' Ixlay, in our mediatised world, much of
what we absorb as part of our everyday lived experience is specifically
generated lirr the purposes of being seen, and many, if not all, of our
rnedia experiences are directed. The way in which we experience visual
t:rrlture h:rs also changecl: Iilms are now available to download, televisior-r
14 USINC FIL/V\ AS A SOURCE
rlrns fi)r twenty-fbur hours and can be pauscrl, x'torrl«'rl irrrrl nrplayed,
while the internet ofIèrs a seerningly cndlcss s(t'ouln ol rrrovirrg irnaee
and has becorne the ultirnzrte viewins arrrl slralirrg pl:rtlirlrrr firr user-
generated rnaterial.
While the experience of waictrirrg arr<l vicrvirrg lrrrs < lrrrrrgt:cl, the
material which is now so easily ar.'ailalrlt: r'<'rrririrrs rr rrsclirl trrltural
indicator and can be efÏèctively rtsod to t'xplor'<' llrt' prr'<orrcuptions
and concerns of modern society. Our unrlt'rslurr<[irrg ()l llt(' itnlx)rtancc
of visual culture as a historical ancl culttrrirl sotrr'<t'lurs rk'r'1>r:ned, ycl
discussions about the unreliable natur'(' ()l [i'irlur'(' Iilrrr irrrrl rnoving
image as historical evidence persist, r'vitlr rrr,,r'irrg irrr;rgc rnaterial
constantly cited as a flawecl source. Ignolirre tlr<' Potcrrti:rl of using
films as sources misses the point tl'rat:lll s()llrl'('s irlt'Ilirrv<'«l, zrnd that
rnoving image sources simply need t.() bc trt:at«'tl witlr tlrc slrrrrc rigorous
investisation as traditional sources. f,rrrlrnillir.forrlirrrovrr Iras pointed
out, 'inevitably some documents are ill()rc r-t'li:rlrlt', l<'ss ovt'r'tly rncdiatecl
than others, but all, by their very nature, :rrt' rrorrctht'lt'ss rrrcrliat.ions'.rl'
Film - whether a cinema newsreel, a documcnlirlv witlr irn ()v('r't political
agenda, a light I930s musical comedy or thc lutcsl irrslrrllnr('nt in thc
Harry Potter franchise * must be evaluated in t.clrrrs ol its olrjcctive and
bias as well as its content, aesthetics:rnd lirrnr. In this wlr,v lilrns are n()
diffèrent from conven tional written s()urces.
Sorlin suggested that, while newsrcels ofTt'r' Iilrrrerl :rrrrl seler:ted üews
of the past, feature fihns possess rnuch nron' inlrercrrt valrre as they arc
texts which are produced by an inclustry :u'rd c<>rrsrrrrrerl by audiences.
He argued that it is this relationship bct.wcen procluction and reception
which makes feature films so fascinatins as histolical r:viderrce, as they
can be used to explore contemp()rary mr)res, nranncrs. expcctations and
attitudes.rr But does this make the rnoving irnage less reliable t.han other
sources? Robert Rosenstone acknowledges that the discipline of history
involves privileging specific narratives, representing particular points oI'
view and focusirrg on key events to expkrre wider issues. In this way he
sugsests that to a certain exterrt written uarratives are 'r,erbal fictions' anrl
concedes that 'visual narratives will be "risual fictions" ... not mirrors of
the past but representations of it'.'2 Tl'ris is the case fcrr all films, not simplv
those which are set in or abotrt the past. All filrns offer zr representation oI'
reality, but film is not, and never cal) be, a rnirror of socieÿ.
Another charge levellecl at representatiorr of'history on filrn is that
throush the srand narrative of storytelling, elements which are held
so dear to historians are overlooked, specifically historical nuance,
FIL/\A AND HISTORY 15
r orrllicting accounts zrnd the importance ol hist.orical evider-rce.
l{ost:nstone considers that the straightlbrward narrative stratesÿ
rlr'ployed in many c()nventi()nal historical films 'denies historical
,tltcrnatives, does away with cornplexities of motivation ot' causation,
,rrrrI banishes all subtlety fiom the worlcl of history'.r'r
ls this reallv the czrse? Film as a lbrm can ofÏ'cr a rnultiplicity of
rrrr':rnings and interpretations, and this arnbiguity shares a great. deal
witlr the nlrance ancl subjectivitywhich is so irnportant to the discipline
ol lristory. Fihn is not without nuance and rnany films can and clo
rrtilise their storytelling capzrbilities in mcaningfirl ways; fbr exarnple,
rkrcttmentaty lilrns fiequentlv use Iihnmaking techniqrres to adclress
l)iuticular issues, while in earlier periods political ideolosy has becn
attt hored in inclividual filrls in order t() present a particular l,iew of thc
lrirst. The epic filrrrs rnacle by Sersei Eisenstein such as lSatLllslrip PoLernhitt
(11)25) ancl Ohtobn (192U) provicle an insisht into both c()nternp()rary
Soviet society and alsr» hiehlight key events from the historical past.
l'lrrough his use of montage, editir-rg and sound, Eiscnstein oflers a
lritical historical perspective, nhich illuminates Soviet filmmaking in
tlrt' 1920s and the politicirl ideology which underpinned the production
ol his filrns.
.fust as filmmaking can be political, thoughtfül and nuanced,
,rrrdiences also respond to Iilms in inlbrmed and thor-rghtful ways.
l'ltc 'meaning-making' power of thc audience has frequently beer)
ovt:rlooked in critiques of film, with experts deploril'rg historical
irrlccuracies arrd srrssestins that audiences will accept the mytholoeised
irrrd often fantastical worlcls presented ()n screen zrs 'fâct'. But this is to
lulderestimate the capabilities of both audie nces and fihnmakers. Tony
llirrta sussests that the hostility of historians to fihnic representations
ol the past has rnore to do with anxieties about the discipline of history
itst:lf. He observes that 'instant hist.ory on the screen fore-grouncled
"lristory" the process - as unstable and open', perhaps sugsesting that
irllowins hoi polloi without historical training to acccss the past. in such
ir way permitted àudiences to ensase with the past in a way which was
n()t dependent on historical scholarship.''' Moclern audiences are filû)
slwy, hiehly aware arld heavily critical. They are also carefuliy attuned
to Iilmic conventi<-rns and tropes, particularly those used to present the
1xrst, such as the fiaming of the past through the lens of the present with
characters looking back on past events ancl accompanied by flashbacks
ol voiceovers, or the accessing of the past through a historical object
srtch as a diary, a painting or letter.
16 USINC FILM A5 A SOURCE
It is also irnportant to note that filrns are n()t tlrt' orrlv sorrrces thal
claim to present unbiased'tnrth'. Diaries, persorral ir((()llnls, Iir-rancial
ledgers, newspaper articles, interviews, wil.ncss stlrl('rn('lrts, official
proclamations and n)any other s*ources rnirkt: ur':rrttlir»s«' r'Iitinrs fot'
historical autherlticity and ilccuracy. Wc shorrlrl nt'vt'r' rr( ('('l)t :rny o1'
ttrese sotrrces at face value but rathcr bc sccpt.i('rl ol rvlrirt tlrcy clainr
to do and carefirlly evaluate the source. All sorrrt:t's lravc lrias irrrd films
arc no diffêrent. As William Hughes points out, n,ith [ilrrr ls wit]r other-
sources we rnust be concerned with thc lirrniliar- prrrlrlcrrrs of dating.
authorship, point of view, aut.hentication anrl vclilicaliorr.r"
Along with documentaries and ne\^/s rep()rts, Iirirtul'c Iilrns can als<r
seek to ofler'authentic'versions of the pastby irrc<»rpollrtirrg leal lilmed
fbotage of past events or drirwing on other visruü irrragt'r'r''. 'fhe lavish
biopic of Queen Victoria, Sixty Glnrious Iaars (1938), rrst:s lvcll-knowrt
paintings, engravings and portraits to recreate set-pie(:e tltblt::nrx suclt
as the marriage of Victoria ancl Albert, Victoria in mourrrirrg and the
Queen and her larnily visiting the Crimean War wouncletl in hospital.
Using existing source rnaterial in this way creates a sense o1'authenticitr
arrd lamiliarity within the mise-en-scene. The operring sequcnces of 'l'hi.;
is li'ngllnd (2006) also refèr'ence a historical past, but in a diflèrent wav.
Director Shane Meadows uses historic:rl news footage of events such as
the election of Marearet Thatchcr and British Nation:rl I'arty marches
to create periocl authenticity and to locate the narrative {irrnly rvithin a
specilic tirnefiarne. It also serves to make audiences aware of'key events
such as the Falklands \À'ar which are so important to the development oI
thc film's narrative.
It is als<,r important to think about the context in which these films
ofTer their retelling of the past. For exarnple, the Biblical epics producecl
in 1950s Holll.lvood reliecl on extensive sets, a vast hrrclget and a cast of
thousands. This cycle of fihns drew upon classical antiquity - Ancient
(}reece, Rorne and Egypt - fbr their fihns about the past. Fihns of this
type inclurled 7'he Robe (1953), 'fhc Tbtt Com'man,dmen,rs (1956) and Ben.-
Hur (1959). Holly,r,vood's decisions to focus on a distant past and far
away lands allowed firr a presentation of the exotic otherness of the past
zurd to sidestep both the USA's own relativc lack of I'ristory and its more
contentious history, notably slavery and civil war as well as contemporary
anxieties such as the Mc(larthyisrn which stalked Hollyr',ood.
.fust as the past is not 'fixed', neither is our interpretation of it.
Andrew Hisson has suesested that within films, 'clifïerent aesthetic and
ideological traits, cliffèrent cultural traditions and identities are adopted
FIL/V\ AND HISTORY 17
t() represent diflèrent pasts and appeal to diflèrent audiences'.r" Unlike
lcirdemic history, films are cleliberatcly intended to appeal to audiences
irrr<1, in exploring films set in the past or about the past we nee d to think
lllout what audiences need to know and understancl. The past on lilm
is rnade relevant fbr audiences fbr a varicty of'clifïèrent reasons. Pierre
Sorlin notes:
'Ihe cultural heritage ol every c()untry and every community includes
dates, cve nts and characte rs known to all mernbers of that community
... it is enough to select a Ièw details fiom this firr the audience to
known lhat it is watching a historical film and to place it, at least
approximately.ri
lrr this way, he arlrres, historical film allorvs lristorizrr-rs to establish
llre 'basic historical knowleclge' of a society and explore the way in
which that knowledee is cornmunicirted, developed, challenged and
confronted tlrroush the film rnedium.rs Peter llurke also noted l.hat
lrrltur:rl history enables the 'translation' of the lansuage of the past
irrto that of the present, rnakins ttre past 'both visible ancl intelligible'.r1'
'l'his is certirinly the case with the historical fihn, which strives to make
tlre past accessible fbr film aucliences, but-just as we cannot speak o1'
'tlre past' it is also difficult to seneralise about 'the historical film'. We
nr:ed to consider what kind of historical film it is. Is it a costurne filrn,
ir literary adaptation or a heritase fihn? Is it a srandiose tristorical epic
or a low-budget romp? Does it base its relationship to the past upon a
s()urce text, a novel, pailtirrg, persoll or scries of historical events? And
lr«rw is it using historical nraterial; does it tell a story, is it being used to
krcate a specific narrative, does it provicle periocl cletail or authenticity,
or is it beins used to reflect upon the pâst?
HOW TO USE THE MOVING IMAGE
A5 A HISTORICAL SOURCE
l'ilm is not like written history irnd its purp()se is rrot sirnply to educate
or to infbrm. Its purpost: is gcnerirlly commcrcial entertainrnent ancl
in ordcr firr a filrn to bc a success thc subject matter-, narrative and
characters need to be appealing in a competitive market. The lives
of fourteenth-century peasants, eishteenth-century workers, failed
revolutionaries destined fbr anonymitv, plantation slaves or oppressed

18 USING FIL/VI AS A SOURCE
citizensûraynotbeobviotrsbox-olli<<'tlt:trvs:tttrlil r.tttlrt;rrlr:rllt'trgettr
make these narratives appcalirrg to t ittt'ttt:t:tttrlicttr t s. ( )ttc rt';rv irr which
to enliven such tâles of minr>r'ity B11)tll)s is 1,, li, liotr,tlisr'.r\l)('( ls ol these
narrativesandthusmovenwtryfirrlrrllrcsoli<llortttrl:rtiottsol lristoryand
into the realms of historical 1:rntast'.
Films can olten ltt: most ilttt'r't'stirrg irr rrlt:tl lltcr (l() ll(,1 sltt>w; for
example, the inforrnation that is ilrrplir'<l itr st l rL silirr. tttttsit ol ( ()stumc
but never said. If the p:rst is ltcirrg pttst ttlt'rl itt lt p:ttlir ttlltt way, thc
researcher'sjob is not to bctnoittt tlt«' lltt l< ol :tttlltt ttlir itt « rirk'rrt. in thc
perioddetail,buttoaskwhythelxrs(ltltslrt'«'ttttrottligtttt'rlittstt<'haway.
We should consider: who thc Iilrrr is:rirrr«'tl ltl, rvlt:tl tvt tt' lltc irrlt'tttions ol
the directoq whatwere the iltf lttt'tt< t's ott lltt'st'l lttttl ( ()sllllll(' rlt'signers.
All films oflèr a range of vicrvitre plt'ltstttts lirr tlrt ir :rttrlicttt«'s and it
is important to recognise tlte spcciIit t'x1x'tit'ttrts llr:rl rlolltt's, music,
dialogue, character and narrirtivc olli'r' irr <lillt'r ('ttl kirr(ls ol lristorical
{ilms and films wl'rich use the past. All rltt<'sliotts :tlxrttl Iltc rv:tys in which
the films construct a historical pâsl ll('('(l lo lrt' lilttttt'rl :ttrrttltrl general
qrtestions of wlrat the film is trying l.o rlo :trr<l Irorv il is <loirrg it.
As with all scholarship, film sottrccs Itct'tI lo lrt' ittl«'t t og:ttt'<l and their
probitychallenged. Inordertouse anyfilrrrirsrrs()tIr'((',w('l)ltlstaskhow
ithas been created, why it has been crelttcrl lrrtrl rvlro il lr:rs lrt't'tt created
for. We need to exalnine what it presents tlrl(l wltitl is srrgg«'stt'tl thror'rgh
the narrative but we should zrlso look lirr t>tttissiotts, olrlits<'at.i<lns and
absences within the text. Are the anachrortistrts rlt:lilrt't lttt', or simply the
result of poor research?
Difl'erent films visualise the past in diflclcnt \\rays arr(I, as Natalie
Zemon Davis points out, there catr be rnany pitl:rlls in a visualised
historical past. She draws attention to 'obtrtlsiveness or staginess of props
or costumes' which can obscrtre the historir:zrl period and the narrative
but she also consiclers that an ovet'done period look can render a filn)
'static' and emotionless.20 StanleyKrrbrick and his cinematosrapher [ohn
Alcott clrew inspiration for his adaptation of Thackeray's Bolry Lyndon
(1975) from landscape paintings by Lawrence and Watteatl, while the
influence of the portraits executed by Larvrence and (]ainsborough cart
be seen in the visualisation of the courtly characters in DerekJarman's
reworking of 'l'he Tbrnpest (1979). But wtrat does this kind of attention
to historical detail suggest about the production of the fihn and the
creative personal behind it?
Money is a key factor in film production and the costs behind any
film reveal a sreat deal about its intended atrclience and how it is being
'--.:i
r"
FILM AND HISTORY 19
positioned in the rnarket. If the film is intended to tap into the heritage
rrrirrket and the production has a suhstantial budget, then it is likely
tlr:rt the setting will be laüshly authentic with a high level of attention
to detail. Stately homes have stood in as key locations in a range of
lrist<rrical films from Golford Park (2001), Vanity Fair (2004), Aktnemen,t
(?{)07) ancl Ja.ne Eyre (2011) with production designers making use
ol the magnificent exterior and interiors of locations such as Castle
lloward and Chatsworth to create a 'look' of the past but also to suggest
r lirss or wealth through thc sct dressins and the resulting mise-en-scene.
lrrlirrmation about fllm locations arrd the specific look desired by set
rl«'signers and cinematoeraphers can often be found in magazine zrnd
r('wspaper articles and provide a useful insight into the reasorls behind
t lrc choice of specific locations.2r As well as location filming, re searchers
rlrould think about how the sets have been constmcted. Are they well
r r';rfted and realistic looking? Is more suggested by the set than simply
lristorical accuracy or loc:rtion setting? A clever set desisner will make
tlrt: film set suggestive of far rnore than simple historical period. Artist
l)t'rekJarman fàmously designed the city walls of seventeenth-century
l,oudun in Ken Russell's aclaptation of The Deuik (197I) to krok like a
prrblic lavatory. The grubby white tiles not only provide a sordid and
rk'gradecl backdrop to the narrative of religious corruption which
rrrrlolds but also fit in with the source material in which Aldous Huxley
rlt'clared that the exorcism of SisterJeanne was similar to'a rape in a
prrblic lavatory'.2?
We also must consider if the past is being fashioned for a particular
Irrrrpose - lbr example, to appeal to a modern, young audience. Does
tlrc dialogue sound authentic or is it anachronistic? Does it sit well with
tlrc rest of the Iilm or does itjar with the fihn's üsual style? Is everyone
rpeaking with cut-glass English accents or in drawling American tones?
llas there been an effort to make the characters sound as if they
r orne from a difl'erent era? Is reuionality expressed in the accents of
irrclividual characters and, if so, does this relate to class, status, wealth
, rl background? Is music used within the film to create a period feel? Is
it rnusic from the time in which the film was set - fbr example, classical
picces which may be recognisable to audiences - or is it deliberately
,rrrachronistic to challenge ideas of historical authenticity? For example,
rlrc anachronistic touches in Sofia Ooppola's Mnrie Antoinette (2006)
irrclude the use of pop rnusic on the soundtrack and shots of modern
Ilainers underneath hooped ball-sowns. Such deliberate touches need
to be considered as part of the film's mise-en-scene and seen as evidence
20 USINC FIL/V\ AS A SOURCE
of the specific decisions made by set arrrl ('()slurn('«lt'sigrrt'r's. Othcr
questions to ask c<luld be: has the nrrrsic llct'rr spccili<:rlly r'<lrnposerl
fcrr the lihn ancl if so, who composcd it.? Ar<'a vllictv ol rrrrrsical pieccs
included? Do characters within tht: filrn t'orrtrilrtrlt' l() tll(' musical
aspects of the film by plirying an instnrrrrt:nl lrs l)lll ol llr<' rrarrativci
Piano perfbrmances f'eature heavily in hrr-itaec lilrrrs rrrr<l lrclit>rl dramas
and the music used and the way in whir:h it is rk'lir'<'rtrl is olit'n heavilr
linkecl to character. It is irnportant [() rcnr('nllrcl llrirl sorrrr<l includes
much more then simply music: whirt sotrrt<ls <iur ll<'rlisct'r'rtcrl on tht'
soundtrack ancl wtrat. kind of sctting, moorl or li't'lirrs tlo llrcy evoke?
Case study:
the Tudors on film
This case study will krok at reprersentations oI tlrr''lirrlor'<lyrxtsty and
the range of ways in which these historical f igrrlcs llrvt' lr<'r'rr explorecl.
As Sue Harpcr reminds us, 'History c:rn carrv urr irrlirrit<'r'urrge of
meanings and societies resularly refoLnrulitlr: il li»r'<'rrlrt'rrt rrse.'2:t
Films which depict the same historical chirrat tt'r' lrtrt wlrich
are produced in very diUèrent periods ofli:r'arr irrsielrt irrto thc
expectations o1' difIèrent audiences. For cxarnpl<r, ( lut.c Blanchett's
Elizabeth I is vcry different to portray:rls of'tlre Virsirr Qrrt'en by
Glenda.fackson, Bette Davis or Fkrra Robson.:r 'l'ht' granrliose style of
Robson, the imperious theatricality of [)avis an(l tho politic:rl astuteness
ofJackson indicate different:lspects of thc salnc fictional character, bul
also draw attention to the clifferent peliods in which t.hese successive
films were rnade and the modern conc(-'rns rvhich rnay havc shaped
audiences' resp()nses. As a firrther c()ntrast, Miranda Richardson's
simpering Qrreenie in the BB(l television series Rl,achuddar ( 1986) offèrs
yet an()ther portrayal which needs to be viewecl in tl're traclitions of
hear,y satire fàvor.rrecl by ttris prosramme.
Sirnilarly, representations of Henry MII also vary widely and include
the serious and sombre portrayals of a monarch battling with his
conscience and preoccupied with the late of Eneland, to the sex-
obscsscd :rnd bad-ternpered Henry of the Carry On series memorably
caricattrred by Sid.farnes it Canl On l[enry (1971). Recent historical
representations have focusecl unashamedly on Henry's love lifè, with
'l'\rc Other Bokln Girl (2008) dwelling on the bedroom antics of the
monarch as he is caught between two sisters. A similar approach is
FIL/V\ AND HISTORY 21
trrken within the BBC television series 7h, T'udors (2007-2010), which
locuses upon the sex and scandal ofthe period. Such an approach
1»icks rrp on the promise implicit in Alexander Korda's The Priaate
Life of Henry VIII (1933) but delivers fâr more graphic and salacious
rrraterial due to altered notions of acceptability, relaxation of
t cnsorship ancl changes in attitudes towards monarchy.
Interpretations of the past are less about historical accuracy and
rrrore about entertainment, costurnes, visual style, character and
spectacle. We need to search fbr nuance and implication in the rnise-
('n-scene, in precisely the same \,vay that historians search lbr nuance
:rnd strbjectivity in sources. As Natalie Zemon Davis has wondered:
'lIow then is historical atrthenticity conceived in the common
lrarlance of the film world? Most frequently it is a matter of the look
ol'the past or rather "the pcriod look", "period props" and "period
r'ostume".'?r'We must consider how rnuch attention has been given
t«r period detail in the film, what the costumes and textures are like.
Are they historically accurate or do they look overdone and ornate or
:rlternatively cheap and unrealistic? \.Vl-rat kincl of colours have been
rrsed within the set? If it is a Tüclor-set piece then there is likely to be a
Breat cleal of red and sold to fit in with period detail drawn fïom iconic
( ontenlp()rary paintings by Holbein and Hillier.
It is also helpful to think about conditions of production;
llollpvoocl's take on the hdors will be very differcnt from a British
rc-imagining. This may be in part due to the arnount of money which
sttrdios have to spend, but will also say sonrething about aucliences
lnd who the film is intcnded for. For example, is it a bi5r-budget epic
which will appeal to the widest possible audience, or it is a heritage
production which is targeting the art-house audience? We also need to
think abor"rt the specifics of the past being shown. For exarnple, is the
lilm about HenryVIII gaining a divorce fiom Catherine orArason ancl
lrreaking wit.h the (lhurch in Rome to marry Arure Boleyn, as in Anne oJ'
tlte T-housand Dals ( 1969) or A Man fnr All Seaso'ns ( 1 966) , or is the firdor
settins sirnply the krcation fbr some historical rornping? (see fig. 2).
One ol the dilïculties in analysine uses of the past on filrn is fincling
< ritical responses that move beyond simplistic notions of historical
irccuracy and authenticity. One film reüewer clubbed King Henry \|III
it'fhe Olher Bolqn, Girlas'nothing nrore than a gullible sex addict
in wacky shoulder pads'.2tiYet to disrniss a film fbr being historically
irtaccurate is unhelpful. 'l'he Other llolEn Girlwas rnade as a lavish
lrig-btrdget production and featured AJist Hollyr,,rood stars Natalie
22 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
s.
**
Ë real footage/real events
2 Tüdor magnificence in An,ne of the Thousa'nd Dals ( 1969), starring
Richarcl Burton as Henry \4II and Genevieve Buiold as Anne Boleyn
Portman, Scarlett.lohansson and Eric Bana. Based on a bestselling and
popular novel by Philippa G,regory the film's principal pre()ccupation
would have been to appeal to as wide an audience as possible and to
present the historical ch:rracters as modern individuals to irppeal to
and resonate with a modern audience. Such a film coukl never include
a level of historical detail and accuracy which would please historians,
and the film blends together a few facts with historical {iction to
showcase the appeal of the past throueh scandal, ir.rtrigue, sex and
clrama.
We also need to consider whether the narrative is based on 'real'
events or is a fictionalised account, a missing chapter or a 'secret
history' of a prrrminent individual.John Maclden's Shahespeare in,
Loue (7998) takes a great deal which we do know - Stratford-born
plalwright, royal patronage, Romeo tmd.lulietand bawdy Elizabethan
humour - and rnixes it with fictional elements, a love affair which
inspired one of Shakespeare's famous plays and a selection of invented
characters, as well as modern :rnd anachronistic touches which appeal
to modern audiences. Mention of Anne Hathaway's cottage - a key part
FILM AND HISTORY 23
o{-the Shakespeare tourist trail - and the rivalry, implied plagiarism
and shared writing experiences with Christopher Marlowe nod towards
the knowins in the audience who may be concerned with debates
in Shakespearean scholarship about the authorship ofthe plays.
llut for the most part, the lilm is a historical romantic comecly. [,ike
rnany other historical lilms of this qpe, shared cultural knowledge
will enhance the audience experience but the film can, of course, be
trnderstood and appreciated without it. In this way, the filrn is using
history and our knowledge of tl-re past in a range ol'dillerent ways in
order to appeal to diflèrent audiences.
Case study:
As well as fiction films which use all the methods of conventional
<:inema to create a fictionalised historical past, the past also emer€Tes
on film in other guises. The twentieth century exists within newsreel
[ootage, amaterlr moving image collections, nels broadcasLs and
documentary. All of these different forms will have sought to
capture the past for clifferent reasons. A documentary filmmaker
may have fbllowecl a collection of railway workers, as in Harry Watt
irnd Basil Wright's Night Mail ( 1936) , or else captured the actions of
schoolchildren or celebriÿ-hungry exhibitionists, as in Ed,ucating Essex
(201 1) or Big Rrothn (2000-present). Frequently, such material seeks
to capture everyday life, real people or evenls and to present images
of lif'e':rs itwas'. Such an objective is, of course, problematic as the
very act of filming sornething ensures that it is no lonser real. Material
such as that captured in Dziga Vertov's Man atith a Moaie Cameta (1929)
indeecl clocuments real life and mundane events within the w«trking
day, but the footage has been carefully edited together; someone has
rnade choices about what to include and what to exclude. On a more
fundamental level, someone has also made the decision to turn the
camera on and begin filrning.Just because the material may have been
shot of real people and real events - such as the fàmous Mitchell and
Kenyon material of factory workers and fairgoe r-s - it does not nlean
it is straightforward and authentic. It must still be interrogated as a
crafted and created source.
As well as exploring material deliberately shot fbr documentary
purposes, it is important to consider how and why other moving image
24 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
material may have been capturt:rl. Nt'rvslt't'ls slrorvrr irr r irrt'rrr:rs wr.re
often used to hishliqht recent cvcnts urr<l itcrrrs irr tlr«.rrr.rvs, lul(l ir)
times of war or hardship, thc lont: ol srrclr rrrirlcrirrl rvill lrt'rk'lilrclntely
patriotic and positive. News fiorn tlrc lirrrl n,orrl<l lr;rvt' prrrvirk.<l
important (althoueh heaülv ccrrsorcrl) irrlirr rrr:rtion t() tll()s('l)ir('k
h<rme, while governntent-madc shorls srrt'lr ts llrilrtitt ( rut'lirlir lt (L940)
d()cuilrented the irnpact of the Blilz orr l,orr<lorr ;rrrrl rvt r<' rrs«.rI t<r
stiflèn the resolve of citizens ()n thc horrr<'fiorrt. Sirrrilrrr Ir.', irrr:rgcs of
cheering crowds seeins soldit:rs oll to figlrt irr l1)l.l olli'rcrl rr r'<'t'rtritinq
opportunity and a means of' qalvanisi ng ('rr I isl I rt('I I l.
Such collections of filmed mat.('riul nris('(llr('sli()rrs:rlrorrl lrr»w the
past and how 'real life' are beir-rg captrrr'('([ ;ln(l prtscr vcrl orr Iilrrr.
How will they be used in the firturc? Onr' ol llrc rrrost ( ()nrrn()n w:rys
in which irrchive or ttervsreel ftrot:rgc is rrs<'<[ is its irrt lrrsiorr irr llrtt:r
doctrmentaries or prograrnrnes. K.'n [.o:r< lr's ,\ltirit rtf './5 (20 1i]) rrses
a grcat deal of archive fi)otagc of post-w:lr llritirirr rrrr<l tlrc lilst rlays of
the NHS and coûrbines it with rcccnlll,r'orr<lrrt lt'«l irrtcr vicw rrurtcrial,
voiceoveq captions and point<rf:vicw rlrr-r'lrliorr. \i.t tlrt' origirrirl archive
firotage was not shot to be includcd in tlris plrlti< rrlirr «lo< trrrrt'rrt:rry.
Loach hirs selected it and fashioncd it lo t rr':rl«' lris orvrr lilrrr rrrr<l we
must be awarc of this reLrse. We nccd [() r'orrsi<tt'r il llr«' rrrovirre irnage
exists as part of a collection, if it is br'oarllv rrr,:ril;rlrlc orrlirrt'ol by
appointment only. Such fàc(ors will irlrvur,'s irrlirrrrr lrou, il lrlrs bcen used
and by whom.
Documetrtaries and newsrcr:ls prcs('ll( I:r< lrrirl irrrirut's ol llrt: past, but
fiequently sttch fcrotirse is use d orrt o1't <»rrtcx( ()r' ( ()ll)('ri t() l'('J)rcsent
s()met.hing qtrite different. For Cxanrpl<', u|îirrv lrlack-arrrl-wlritc irnages
of unilbrnred soldiers rnarching acrrrss tlrc rrrrrrltlv, slrt.ll-lolrr fielcls of
Flanders or Beleiurn have becornr: ttcrrr:r'it slrorl-lrarrrl li>r'the carnage
of trench warfare durins the First Wolkl War'. Sirnilarly, Iirotase of
fighter planes in the sky lrsainst a backrlrop ol'Irlling ltornbs - rvhether
it is newsreel footirge c»r shots fionr filrns lrs v:tricrl as'l'lnWay to the
Slars (1-9411) <tt Memphis Bcllc (l9l)O) - c:rrr lte usecl to susgesr the tsattle
of Britain. It is important to understa[rcl that t]re version of history
beinu presented in this 'factual' ftrrmat hzrs being deliberately crafted
for aucliences to understarrd. The lbotaee usecl in documentary
programrnes or fèature films will be presented in a particular way, t()
drerw attention to certain things.
As well as thinking about how such rnaterial can and has been used.
we need to consicler the context. Is this the only material of a particular
FILfu\ AND HISTORY 25
('v(.nt which exists? If not, then why is this the case? Has other rnaterial
lx't'n lost, or there only a sinele canlera to document the event?
rvas
ll little lirourge exists, thcn how have filrnmakers acc()unted fcrr this
ornission? Have they stagccl re-enzrctrnents in order to make the shots
nrore drarnatic, as was the case with the fbotasc showing n)en going
(,ve r the top in the propaganda documentary Battle ol tlrc Sont'me
(1916)? And how does this problernatise notions of 'authenticitv' or
'rt:ality'?
In the sarne way tlral. we InLrst delicately ancl nrethodically explortr
lir:tionalised zlccounts of the past, we rnust als<t be aware that fact.ual or
sr:mi-factual rnoving imase is not a straiqhtfirrward and unproblclnatic
s()urce either. It. must. also be carefully evaluated and its cot)l.ents,
('()ntext and purp()se thoroughly explored.
CONCLUSION
All films which deal with tl're past arc uselul lbr the hist.orian, but they
(':rnn()t simply be viewed as rc-enactmetrts of the past capturecl ort
cclluloid. They need to be understood within the broader concepts
of'production and recept.iotr irnd interroqated as rclevant yet flawecl
lristorical s()rrrces. 'Ihe fbllowing chapter will suggest how films can bc
lulalysed ancl how their diflèrent clcmcnts must be examincd in order
t() besl rrrrtlclstanrI llreir rrrearrirrgs.
NOTES
I Pierr-e Sorlin, 7he l,:i,Lm in History: Reskt§ng tln Pa.st (()xfbrd: Ilzrsil
tslackwell, 19t30) p. 20.
2 John Tosh, 77ze Prnsuit of History, 4th cdition (Harlow: Pcarson
Education, 200tr), p. 17.
3 .]arrrcs Olraprnan, PasL u,rul Prc.sent: Natioturl ldcntitl and thc British,
Hi.sk»ical liilm (London: I.B. Turris, 2005), pp. 713-l42.
4 Srrzirnne R. Pucci andJames Th<>mpson,./rznr: Austen and (h: Rcmuk.ing
the Pa.çt in Corüernÿorary Oulture (Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press, 2003).
5 Arrdrew Fligson, îilm ltngland: Oulturalfi linglish l':ilmrnaking siru:e thc
1990s (L.rlndon: I.R. huris,20ll) pp. i91-192.
6 lbid., p.208.
7 Clrerrülle, l"ilm, as Historl, p. 17.
26 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE FILM AND HISTORY 27

8 Tony Barta (ed.), Screen,ing tlu Pa,.st; FiLm arul the llepresentut,ion of History
(\{'estport, OT: Praegeq l99lt), p. 12. RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING
I Sorlin, 'l'he l,ibn in Hi.sk»y, p. 15.
l0 I-rrdrnilla .Jorrlzrnova, Hisk»'1 itt, Practire (l-onrlon: Hodcler Headlinc, Ilarta, Tony (ed.), Screening the Past: lilm and the Re.presen,tation ol lTislory
200{)). p. 97. (Westport, C'I: Praeger, l99B).
l1 Pierrc Sorlin, 'The lilrn in history' in Marnic [{ug}res-Warringtorr
Chapman, -[anes, lilrn and History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macrnillan,
(ed.), Historl on Fibn lùa.du (Abingrl<>n: Rotrtledge, 20{)9), pp. l 5-1 6.
201 3).
l2 Robert A. Rosenstone, 'Histoly iu irnaees,/history irr wt>rds' in Hughes-
Htrg;lres-Warrineton, Marnie, I'IisLory Goes to the Mouie.ç: Slud)ing Hi,\tory
Warrington (ed.), History on liilm lleadu, p.37.
on Film (Lonrlon: Routledge, 2007).
13 Ihid., p.31.
Landy, Marcia (ed.), 'l'he Hi.çtorical Fibn: Historl antl Memo'r1 in Media
14 Bzrrta (ed.), Screening the Past, p. 5.
(New Bmnswick, Nf : Rutsers University Press).
15 Huehes, 'The evaluation of film as evidence', p.49.
I6 Higson, Filrnlinglnnd, p. 192. Rosenstone, Robert A., Hi.story on Fil:mftïlm on Hist,ory (Harlow:
t7 Sorlin, l-lu Film in Hislorl, p.20. Pearson,20l2).
18 Il)id.- Smith, Paul (ed.), l:ihn antl the Historian ([,ondon: Carnbridge
l9 Peter Brrrke, Varieties of Cultural Hislc,rl (Cambriclge: Polity Press, 1997) ,
University Press, 1976).
p. 193. Sorlin, Pierre, T-hc lihn in l/istory: Rtstugtng lhe Pu,.çt (Basil Blackwell:
20 Ibid., p. lB. Oxlbrd, i9U0).
2t Cathy Whitlock, 'The grand estates and castlcs of period moves', Stubbs, .fonathan, Historiml l:ilm: A Critical Inlroduction (l,ondon:
Architectural Digest online, wwwarchitecturaldigest.cont/ad/set- Bloonrshrrry. 201 li).
design/2073 / period-movies-set-design-manors-castles-vanity-fair-jane-
eyre-article (accessed l5 October 2014).
().)
Aldous Huxley, 'fhe Datils of Loudun (London: Chatto & Windus, 1952) ,
p. 132.
23 Sue Harper, Picturfury lhe Past: l'he Rise and Fall of the British Oostume lrihn
(London: BFI Publishing, 199a), p. l.
24 Cate Blarrchett played Elizabeth I in the frlm F)lizabeth in lgg8, Glenda
.fackson played the role on television in Elizo,beth Rin 1971, Bette Davis
played the Queen twice, {irst in 'l'he Priua,tc Liues t1f'Elizabeth and F)ssex
in 1939 arrd again in '|he Vir§n Queenin 1955, while Flora Robson was
Elizabeth in l;ire oau Englandin7937.
2l) Natalie Zemon Davis, 'Any resemblancc to persons living or dead: film
and tl'rc challenge of authenticity'in Hughes-Warrington (ed.), Hisbry
on liilm fuadtr, p. 17.
26 Alex vcrn Tirnzelmann, "l'he Other Bolqn Cirl: Hollyoaks in fancy
rlress', ()'uardian, 7 Atgust 2008, www.guardian.co.tk/fr1m/2008/
aug/ 07 / I?INTCMP=SRCH (accessed I 5 October 20 I 4) .
70 USINC FIL/V\ AS A SOURCE

I I Jeffrey Richards, 'Filrn and TV: the rnoving imase' in Barber alrd
l)enniston-Bird (cds.), Hist.ory llqond Lhe lbxl, p. 76. à 5
12 Williarns, Oulture u,nd Socieg l7B0-1950, p.297.
13 Siegl'rierl Klacaucr, I,iorn Caligari tu Ï[itlu: A I'ydtoktgical Studl ol th.e
Oerman lilzz (Princeton, NJ and Ox1brd: Princeton University Press,

14
200'1), P.6.
Rayrnond Williarns, 'Birse and superstructure in Marxist culturzrl
FO R/V\U LATI N C RESEARCH
tlrcory' in Raynroncl Williams, Problcms in Nlaterialis'm a,nd (lultnw
(I.ondon: Verso Eclitions and NLB, 19tt0), p. ,15. QU ESTIONS
l5 Arrdy Mcdhurst, A Nationul-loke: l'oltular Oorncdl and lin,gl,i.sh Oulturul
I d.ctt,t.it,ie.s (Abingrlon: Routleclgc, 2007).
16 McIz, l,il.tn Lunguage, p. 1.
17 Peter Rogers, quoted in Sally t{ibbin and Nina Hibbin, I\hat a Carry 1'his chapter will srrggest holv to identifu ancl fbrrnulate actrierrable
On: Of/tànl Carry On Mouie lJook. ([,ondon: Hamlyn, l9B8), p. 11. research questions. It. will offer advice rtn how to identify an approach
ltl .foharr Huzinga, 'The task ol'cultural history' in John fJ::'z.ilnua, Men which both engases with your own interests and acknowledges and clraws
anrL lduts: Ilisktry, lhe Middle Age.s o.nd. Renai.ssance, trans.fames S. Hohncs on work already undert.aken in the field. The research qrresti()n v()u
:rnd l{ans v:rn Marle (I-ond<>n: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1960), p. 615. design is closely related to the kind ol research you rvill be undertakins
l9 Williams, Cultun an.d Society l7ll0-1950, p. 310. and the approach that you will follow. There are a number of ways in
which you can begin to formulate your research question. One of the
best ways to beein is to consider what specifically interests 1,otr. Is it ir
RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING partictrlar theory zr series of films, one lilm in p:rrticular or an individual
director? Are you keen to explore stardom, costunre, mrrsic or sound
desiglr? Do yorr want to usc cxisting corrct'pliorrs ol genre or aulll()rship
(Boston, NtL{: N{c(}rarv-Hill, I 993). to f()cus on understtrdied or overlooked material? ln nrder to develop
Bazin, Andr'é, What Ls Oincnur?, essavs selccterl ancl trans Hueh Gray, 2 useful research questions, you need to plan your research zrnd think
vols (Berkeley, CA, ancl London: University of California Press, about how to carry it out. The following sections identiÿ the diffèrent
2005). parts of this process.
Borrlwcll, Davicl, Orz the History of libn ^Sfla (Cambriclge, MA, ancl
London: Harvard University Press, 1997).
Ellis, -|ack O., Hisk»1 ol l;iLn, (Boston, MA, and l,onrlon: Allyn and DEFINING YOUR INTEREST
Bacon,1995).
Cl'rairrge, P:rtrl,.|ancovich, Mark and Monteith, Sharon, l,i,lm Histories: What specilically do yon want to find out? Are yorr interestecl in the
ArL lntrod'ru:tion and Rtnder (Edinburuh: Edinburgh University prodrrction context and filmmaking process related to a specific filrn,
Prcss,2007). or the broader economic and financial deterrninants of a film inclustry
Seclgr,r.ick,.|ohn and Pokorn1,, Michael (ecls.), Az liconomic Hi.stlry of in a particular period? Do you \,vant to fincl out more ahorrt how and
1ùlrz (London: Routlcclge, 2005). why a film or a series of lilms wer-e nrade in a specific period, ()r are you
\Â/illiams, Rayrnoncl, Culture and Societ,y I 7 B0- 1 95 0 (Harmondsrvorth: keen to explore issues ofpopular taste, audience response or box-office
Pcnguin; (lhatto & Winclus, 1961). fieures in relation to a particrrlar decade or ueographical location? Do
you want to study the visual meanings of film, drawing on theories o{'
semiotics, linguistics or psychoanalysis to expkrre a neglected body of
work or to understand the way in which filrns contribute t() or opp()se the
 I
72 USINC FIL/V\ A5 A SOURCE
donrinant culture of a given periocl? Is it the technolow of filmmakinc
t.hat intert:s1s you? Do yorr want to exarnine the technical innovation of
specific perigds and the inrpact such innovation had on filmrnakine? Is
there :r parti6lrlirr technologir:al fèattrre such a§ 3D which you fèel needs
to be explol6d in relation to issues like the nrarketins and exhibiting of
fihns?
All ol (ht:se rnay be valid approachcs ancl topics, but it is important
to devise a research question which draws ()n your interests, is broadly
achievirble, recoglises the potential pr6ltlems within a giyen topic ar-rd
builds on, develops or ch:rllenses work alrcacly trndertaken by other
lescarchcr.s. \Â4rile it is crtrcial to be inspired by vour rescarch t()pic,
you must remain objective. A study of Wcs Anclerson rnay be driven by
a gcnuinc love of his filrns, but if you are unable to study the fihns or
thc technitlrrcs of the clirector objectir,ely without resortins to glowirrc
enrlorsentt-,111s of the filmmakcr and his filmrnaking style, this perhaps
is not the rieht topic to choose. Your criteria for selectins your subject
should not simply be bccause you like them or enjoy watching thern;
there shorrkl be sonrething about thern which you fèel descrves lurther
rcsearch.
Wh:rtever your chosen topic yr»r now need to fincl out m()re about it.
Y<ru nuty haye been inspircd by rvatching an individual fihn or hearinu
about a p:rr.ticulilr historical period in a lecture. Perhaps you are
r,vondcrins about the cinerna-soilrq experience itself and how this can be
studicd usine- diflerent filrns; or perhaps vou are keen to examine how
a certain theorÿ of film analysis can be applicd in a diflêrent way. Maybe
yott would likc to explore a particular filrn gcnre in more detail, or t<t
discover rrl()re about cinerna in a different country in a particular erir.
READING AROUND THE SUBJECT
Once yott have ider-rtified your area ol interest you should begir) to read
around the sub.ject and see what work has already been undertaken
in your choscn area. T'here is always a slightly dillercnt way you can
approach a r,vell-established and well-covered subject, but it is usefirl t<r
be aware of r,vhat has already been written beforc you finalise your own
resear.ch guestion and determine y()ur t_»wn appr.oach.
For cxa11ple, if you are keen to focus on Alfit:d Hitchcock ancl
authorship, yotr nced to be aware of the rnassive amount of rnaterial
which has been written on this subject ancl think about how your
FORMULATINC RESEARCH QUESTIONS 73
research could offer sornething new. Are yotr basing your work on a new
collection o{ matcrial which has. just beconle availirble? Are you rnzrkine :t
bold argument for collaborative auth()rship within sonre of Hitchcock's
early films and the irnportance o{'key pers«rnnel in achievine the visual
style or lighting concept? Or are you seekine to draw new concltrsions
fiorn a close analysis of key films? Y<rur research questi()n should draw
on what already exists and use this material to determine the work yor.r
will undertake. If you decide upon an approach which deliberately
challenges or refutes preüorts scholarship then you need to have a soocl
reason fbr such an approach and a specific and precise methodology.
Reading around the subject can also indicate what has not beet't
done. It can help you to identiÿ where the !îaps are in the existinpç
research and where the openings ancl spaces are firr your owrt work.
Remember, there is always somettring usefirl to be gained by looking
again at origirral sources, even thou!îh they may h:rve been utilised by
other scholars. Researchers look firr diflèrent things in s()urces and it is
much better to explore the original sources (wherever possible) rather
than depending on the work (no matter how rigorous) of other people .
For example, a researcher may have looked at the personal papers of
Peter Rosers helcl at the BFI to explore the relative costs of rnaking the
Oarry On films in the 1960s and 1970s. You may be interested in looking
at the same records, but in order to discover something quite diff-erent
- for example, to establish how rnany women were ernployed on these
filrns and in what capacity. A researcher in the firttrre rnisht look at the
sarnt-- material to explore how the production team resp()nded to issues
raised by the British Board of l'ilm (lensors (IIBFC) and the content of
the Carry On films. It rnay also be the case that your work can clraw on
newly available resources, such as the Hamtner script archive which has
recently been dcpositcd at f)e Montfort University in Leicester, or the
newly catalogued archive papers of producer Michael Klinser held at
the University of the West of England in Bristol, or the emersence of
archival material Ii-om the boncl company Film l'inances. Such resottrces
may not have been available to earlier researchers and a collection of'
unstudied material will allow you t() contribute sornethins nerv to the
existing {ield of work.
Think about the dif{èrent topics rvhich your research will cover atrd
identify a series of kepvords which can help you in your online ancl
catalogue searches. Such an approach will also be a usefirl way to help
you find cmcial sources later in your research. 'T'hese and other research
suggestions will be covered in more detail in Chapter 7.
 l'
74 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
Ycrtr can also look to the work of others to help you identiÿ a r.rseful
approach. If, fbr example, the 1930s has been sttrdied in awaywhich
is heavily textual, rnaybe you can frnd a w:ry to approach the decade
diflèrerrtly, perl'raps f'oresr()unding the practices qf the fihn inclustry
or the irnpact of external orÉJarlisati()ns such as the BBFCI. If industrial
studies of particular decades dominate, then perhaps you could
consider why thc visual style and technological changes have been
less studied and propose an investisation of visual sÿe. If'the decade
has only been str.rdied in terms of its rnost critically popular films,
then perhaps a reappraisal of a ranse of ottrer fihns rnade in the same
period is requirecl; suctr films may not have been as popular but they
still ernerse fiom the same irrdustry arld perhaps can ofïèr a di{Tèrent
insieht into tlre period.
As well as identifying the ranse of theoretical approaches that have
been used to study the topic you are interested in, you should also
consider urlr1 these approaches have been used. Some decades, periods
and bodies of films have richer rnateriirl pertaining to thern than others.
You should be careful not to design an approach that depends heavily
on sources which do not exist. For example, devising a study of'audience
response to films rnade in the 1970s which clraws heavily on the Mass-
Observation material would ellectively mirror an approach undertaken
for earlier decade.s in British cinema. Hower.,er, while Mass-Obser-vation
data is incredibly rich for the 1930s and I940s, it does not exist ft)r
the 1970s and so an approach designed in this way woulcl be seriously
flawed. Sirnilarly, if you wanted to study the government's involvement
in the film industry in the 1990s, yotr would struggle to access official
paperwork for this period as it is not due to become available to the
public until the year 2020. Later chapters in this work will indicate what
rcsources exist and how these can be utilised, but it is useful to bcar
potential resources in mincl when deüsing a research question.
You should also consider zlày earlier scholars have set about their
research in the way that they have. Was their research infbrmed by a
new trend in fihn scholarship, such as semiotics or lèminist film theory?
Or does the research aim to readdress a parûcular body ofwork from a
diffèrent critical stanclpoint: lirr exanrple, to assess British heritage fllms
fiorn a transnational perspective, as Andrew Higson has done in his
latest work?r ls the research part of a wider study - does it coincide with
the release of new source rnaterial, the conclusion of a funded academic
project or sovernment papers recently m:rde available under the 3O-year
rule?2
FORMULATINC RESEARCH QUESTIONS 75
Once you have read around the t<-rpic and explored the written
work of other scholars, you shoulcl consider how you will use the visual
material which relates to your topic. The choices you make about the
way in which film material will be used can also help to determine what
methodologv you follow and what specific question you devisc.
HOW TO USE THE FILM MATERIAL
Film material can be used in a ranse of difl'erent ways depending on
what you want to explore and what yotrr approach may be. Are you pçoing
to be fbcusing on film and popular taste, film as a historical object, film
as evidence, film and audiences, film as art or film as cr.rlture?
Are you interested in using newsreel film to explore a particular
historical period? Would you want to use a series of films to explore
popular taste in the 1960s or 1980s? Perhaps you are keen to study filmic
issues of representation of gender, race or class, for example. Maybe
you want to exalnine how representations of particular issues, such as
disability, promiscuity or poverry are presented through Iilm in diffèrent
historical periods.
Will you be exploring fihn using close textual analysis, or fbcusing
on key scenes or thematic preoccupations within case study films? You
should consider if you will be tracine the same tropes and tlremes across
different film work. Is the fllnr itself the obiect of study or it is simply
one of a ranse of sources which will be analysed alongside literature,
music or tclevisiotr prograrttmes?
Are you looking to use film to help you understand a historical period
in more detail, fcrr example to study films of the early 1950s to better
undcrstand post-war attitudes to class, or to consider the films of the
1980s as a response to Thatcherism? Are you only interested in film which
had a theatrical release or are you also going to be studying amateur
filmmaking practices, avant-garde fihns, fiLnmaking co-operatives, Iilms
made fbr television and films made by organisations like the GPO or the
Ministry of Information? Your definition of 'film' could include newsreel
footage screened in cinemas, or later included in teleüsion documenta-
ries or broadcast news reports. All of this üsual material can be of great
interest to the researcher, but you need to thiuk carefully about what
questions you want t() ask of the material and how you will trse it.
As well as consideringhow yu will use the film material, you again
need to think about what approaches have been Iàvoured by other
 I
76 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
scholars. Often the kev films front specific decades have been heavily
examined. For example the 1970s in Britain has consistently bccn
strrdied through films like A Clockwork Orange ( l97l ) , Oet Cartu ( 197 I )
and theJames Bond frlms, as if these {èw texts ary entirelv representative
of filmrnaking in the period. Sirnilarly, in America in the late 1960s,
the films which are consistently analysed are high-quality independent
productitrns such as Bonn,ie a,nd, Cl1d,e (1967), Ea.s1 Ritler (1969) and T'he
Grad,uate (1967). This is n()t to say that these films are unimport.ant, but
rather that continued lbcus on a few serninal texts can often restrict
and limit understanding. As any historiah knows, interpretinu the
broadest possible range of sources is fàr more effective in shedding
light on a historical period than focusins on a single source. The study
of franchises and series such as Hamrner horror or the Pink Panther
comedies fbcus the attenti()n on the popular and successlul but can be
restrictive in understanding the perio«l as a whole.
Considering a period in terrns of what is po1>trlar can be a risky
approach, partly because determining what audiences watc.hed and
responded to can be hard to establish. Wrile it may be possible to
establish what was the rnost popular or most vicwed filrn in a speci{ic:
year, it does not firllow that everyone who saw this filrn, watched nothing
else in this particular year. Some cinema-goers may have chosen to see
both Tuilight ar,d hon Man \n 200t], while others nray have selected .Sr.x
ond the City over 'l'he Bay in the Striped \jamas. Sorne people may have
seen all of these lilms at the cirrema in this year, while others would
have been restricted by age categories and misht have seen Wall-lt
instead. The relative popularity of these filrns does not necessarily help
us understand precisely who went to see them, how they responded to
them and the age and sender composition of that individual viewing
audience. As Robert Allen and Dotrglas Gomery point otrt, the notion of
a fihn audience is simply'an abstraction generated by the reseirrcher',
and audiences are constantly beine 'constituted, dissolvecl and
reconstituted with each film-going experience'.3
As researchers, we must also be aware that in selecting films as objects
of study we run the risk of abstracting these objects from their wider
context. When determining a research question ancl identiÿng a range
of material to study, you must be aware of issues of selectiüty, subjectivity
and bias. Will you look at a range of films frorn the same genre? Or filrns
released in the same year? How will you determine which films you will
study and which you will not? D<l you have access to all the films you
need f'or your research? If you are stu<ÿing the 1930s, it may be easy
FORN\ULAIINC RESEARCH QUESTIONS 77
to get hold of the lavish Wilcox-Neagle productions and the fIitchcock
classics, but what about the musicals of George Formby, Gracie Fields
or.|essie Matthews? It may not be possible to track dowtr particular titles
which feature heavily in contemporal)eor$ accounls and lisrs of box-
office data.
Are you focusing on 'quality' productiorls or those deemed to be
culturally important or valuable by previous scholars? I{ave the filrns
you have chosen beerr accorded cult status in recent years, are they held
up by critics and sch<llars as high points of cinematic art or practice. or
has their quality or importance only been recosnised in recent years?
Or are you focusing on low-brow genres such as horror r>r sex comedy
and, if so, what clo you hope to gain fiorn your study of these genre-
specific films?
SELECTING YOUR FILM AND NON-FILM MATERIAL
Once you have deterrninecl how you will use your' films within your
research you will need to start compiling a list of additional sources
relevant to y()ur topic and approach. This would usually fall into two
categories - visual material ancl written s()urces - yet could also include
m:rterial which can be accessed online, as well zLs DVD extra features,
commentaries an(l documentary rnaterial. The types of material
available for research will be discussed in Chapters 7 and 8, but this
I
section is concerned with how yor.r deterrnine what will be most uselirl
f<rr y<»rr research.
II we consider the filnrs thernselves to be the key sources, then
researchers are in an enviable position in terrns of availability of
resources. Unlike meclieval manuscripls or rare books, mainstream
zrnd theatrically releasecl {ilms are readily available, arld accessine them
seldom requires a trip to a library «rr an archive. While you may find
that the filrns you want to studv are easily available, you should also
remember that issues of access and availability can determine and
influence research. Iiot' ex:rmple, getting hold of a copy of Blad,e Runner
( 1982) is pretÿ straightforward, but what specifically have you managecl
to access? Are you exarnininq the version that was released into cinemas,
the first D\rD edition, the version which is screened «rn television, or
the more recently released director's cut? !\4-rile these may appear to be
minor issues, it is crucial to rernember that contemporary audiences may
have seen a cliflèrent version ol the feature film, probably one without
78 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
extra f'eatxres and one which may have been cut fbr theatrical release.
This is particularly important when conductinEç detailecl textual anirlysis
and also when considering the audience response to a specific Iilm.
Generally, Arnerican, British and Euro-pean feature films are widely
available, ancl even if they are 'art house' or documentary they can
usually be trackecl down. Gaining access to copies of rarer lilms or
prosralnmes can be tricky, but advice on how to do this rvill be offered
in the later chapter on resources. When it comes to identiÿing your
objects of study, it is important to note that studying sorne periods is
delinitely easier than stuclying others. Many films fiorn the silent period
no lonser exist and what does exist has been heavily studied, perhaps in
order to c()mpensate fbr what is missing. As with any sources, you need
to consider what has been kept and whether the object which remains is
'typical' or completely irspical. Qrrestioning the resources which exist is
a cnrcial part of research; you must consider if a fihn has been retained
because of its status - for example, is it an early film frorn a famous
director, or is it the only surviüng fiagrnent of a much larger collection
which can only be understood as part of that collection? Perhaps an
indiüdual lilm is seen as the highlight of a European director's work
and so has been released on DVI), while other lesser works remain
undigitised and unavailable. Or what of the vast amount of movins
image content which does not fall into the commercial or fèature-fihn
bracket and so may be difficult to find? Amateur film collections offèr a
massive :rmount of scope for the researcher but accessing collections of
amateur footage can be time consuming and difficult. They may also be
preserved in a format which depencls on the researcher having access t()
the original materials within an archive. It is unlikely that they can be
removed and studied at length and the re may be issues of copyright and
access. All of these considerations will inforrn how you use the availablc
material and what kind of research question you devise.
DEVISING A RESEARCH QUESTION
The advice ollèred above may seem very seneral and so the lbllowing
case studies are examples of how you can begin definins your own
research question ancl what you need to do in order to begin work. This
approach can be applied to any question or topic and the principles
indicated below - such as identiÿing possible sources, reading around
a subject and acquiring as much readily information as possible before
FORMULATINC RESEARCH QUESTIONS 79
finalising a question - will benefit any piece of work in this area, from an
essay to a dissertation.
Case study:
The Lady Vanishes (Alfred Hitchcock, 1938)
Your initiai interest in a topic may stem from an interest in a single
filrrr, in this case; 'l'he Lady Va'nish,e.s (1938). So how can you devise a
research question or find a specific topic based upon this film?
Defining an initial interest
Firstly, consider why you find the lilm interesting. Perhaps you fbund
the narrative particularly absorbins or entertaining, or the characters
appealed to you. Are there elements of perlbrmance style or mise-en-
scene which you want to f<rcus on? Or are you interested in the specific
thematic preoccupations of British 'eccentricity' or European politics?
Maybe you are interested in {indine out more about the production of
the film, the response of audiences and why it emerged at a particular
historical moment.
Any of these issues would be valid ones for research and it is
irnportant to rernember that you do not need to have a finalised
question when yotr begin your research. It is better to have a clear lbcus
irnd yet be flexible enough in your approach to incorporate whatever
y()u may discover dtrring the research pr()cess. This way, your research
tindings can inforrn your final question, rather than you having to fit
your research into the limits of your previously defined question.
After considering this film in detail, perhaps you have decided tcr
t'xplore how the filrn presents the British characters and how these
rr:presentations resonated with British audiences. However, at this early
stage of research it is wise to be cautious and not to make assertions
which cannot be supported or set out to 'prove' something which
cannot be proven. It is far better fbr the research to be undertaken
with an open mintl. To this end a possible research question can be a
rrseful way to begin.
Possible research question: How did Hitchcock's The Lady Vanishes
(1938) explore and represent aspects of British national identity in the
1 930s?

80 USINC FIL/VI AS A SOURCE
You have identified your particular interest in the topic ancl now
need to start to read around the subject, to devise a methodology and
consider the approach that you will r.rse .
Approach: Film as a cultural object and as social history and close
textual analysis of key scenes.
Understanding why a film emerged at a specilic historical mornent is
crucial when using film as a source, and research whicl-r draws upon
a ranse of rnaterizrl allows the lilm scholar to understand both the
process of production ancl the response to the completed film. This
kind of research alst-r permits the scholar to make observations ancl
draw conclusions frorn the evidence, rather than making spurious and
unsubstantiated clairns about 'the audience' or the seneral popularity
of the film which cannot be established. Of course, the nature of the
research carried out relates closely to what you are trying to lind or.rt.
In this instance the research may cover a range,of difÏerent ideas and it
may be useful to think of the keywords which ôould be associated with
your topic and question.
Research areas to be explored/keywords: National identity, audience
response, 1930s, visual style, film as social and cultural comment,
stereotypes, Hitchcock.
Reading around the subject
Befirre focusins specifically on the filrn itself, it is good to cliscover
rnore about the period in questicrn. In this instance the pcriod being
considered is Britain in the 1930s. T<r gain :rn understandins of this
particular period and of the British frlm indtrstry, as well as seeing what
other films rvere being made in the period, a range of material should
be identilied such as:
Sources
Jeffrey Richards, The Age of the Dream Palace: Cinema and Society in
'1930s Britain.
Rachael Low, Film lt\aking in'1930s Britain.
Jeffrey Richards, The Unknown '1930s: An Alternative History of the
British Cinema 1 929-1 939.
John Sedgewick, Popular Filmgoing in '1930s Britain: A Choice of
Pleasures.
I
FOR/VIULATINC RESEARCH QUESTIONS 81
I
Robert James, Popular Culture and Working-Class Taste in Britain
I
1930-39: A Round of Cheap Diversions?
This material will provicle infbrmation on the film industry in the 1930s
ar-rd what other films were beins made as well as how the 1930s is being
explored by filrn scholars. It would be useful to know r'vhat films were
popular in 193f1 and how these other films clealt with issues of national
identity and presented the British character. This kincl of information
could be gathered fronr the pages of film industry publications such as
Kinema,l,ogra,ph Weehly and movie fan magazines such as Picturegw which
fèatures interüews with stars as well as reviews and features.
I
It is easy lirr modern audiences to üew The Ladl Vanishes as an
exploration of the director's concerns about the immine nt war in
Europe, yet it is fàr harder to find c()ncrete evidence that Hitchcock
was actively preoccupied with European politics and decided to use his
film project to explore British isolationism and the political alliances
fcrrming in Europe. Discussing the cultural importance of the film,
finding c()ntemporary reviews that reflcct on the content of the filrn
and the intentions of the directoq the perfbrmances of the stars, and
the reactions of audiences can all provide an understanding of how
the film was received upon its release in 193U. As with any film, the
possihilities {'or research int<l producticln ancl recepti()n are extensive,
and this question fits in well with an approach that explores filnr as a
cultural object and as part of social history. Sarah Street's Rritish Cinen,a
in Doutmen,ts ofïèrs a useful rnodel for this kincl of approach.a
lf the focus of the research is to understand the popularity of a film
and its possible thematic resonance with audiences, then responses
frorn contemporary audiences, box-office data and cinema ledgers
are essential sources. Is it possible to find out rnore information
abotrt where the film was shown? \4rhere did it l-rave its premiere,
how lone did it run? Was it distributed in Arnerica or throushout
t
Europe? Did the filrn encounter any problems with the British Board
I
of Film Censors and can these records be accessed? Did the film's
stars - Margaret l,ockwood ancl Michael Redsrave- give inten,iews at
the time of the film's release discussing the fihnrnaking process? Have
I
they subsequently published autobiosraphies where they talk about the
making of the film and workins with Hitchcock?
To understand why the film was made in 1937, further contextual
research coulcl be carriecl out, perhaps usine newspapers. maeazines
t
and radio programmes to explore how national identity was being
 82 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
conligured for consumption. As part of this research it would be
impoitant to establish what characteristics were being presented in this
historical period as being quintessentially 'British' and iI'any of these
qualities can be seen in the representation of the characters within
the film. Again, secondary material can be of use here, including
publications which deal specifically with the issue of national identity
iuch asJeffiey Richards' Iilnts and. British National ld'entity: Fïom l)ickens
to Dod's Arm1.
In acldition, it might be usefirl to look at more general material on the
1930s such asJuliet Gardiner's 'fhe Thirties: An Intimate History of Rritu'in'
Such background research could be developed by considering a ran€Te
ofnewspapers to see how events in Europe were being reported by the
general press. Are all the headlines about rvar and politics? What other
stories are making the front pages? Other contextual information should
also be considered; specifically, who was in government at the time and
what was the governrnent's attitude towards the film industry?
Another strancl of this research could be'to consider the importance
of the film's director. There are a number of usefül biographies of
Hitchcock which may cover his response to the lilm and how he
reflected on it at later stages in his career:
Sources
Mark Clancy, The 39 Steps (British Film Cuides).
Barry Keith Crant and Maurice Yacowar, Hitchcock's British Films'
Tom Ryall, Alfred Hitchcock and the British Cinema-
Andrew Sinclait Masterworks of the British Cinema: Brief Encounter,
Henry V, The Lady Vanishes.
François Truffaut, Hitchcock: A Definitive Study of Alfred Hitchcock'
Robin Wood, Hitchcock's Films Revisited.
Visual sources
As well as watching 'l-he I'ady Vanishes, it would also be helpful to
stucly other lilms made in the 1930s, particular those released at
the same tirne which may have had similarities to the film you are
studying. Other films rnacle by Hitchcock in the period should also be
viewed to look fbr similar thematic preoccupations, while for general
background other audioüsual material such as newsreel fbotage of
.r.rrÀ ir', the 1930s could provide a useful introduction to the period'
It is a good idea to try and find recorded interview with rnembers of
't.
FORMULATINC RESEARCH QUESTIONS 83
the cast or wittr the director. The BBC archive has an audio recordins
of a propçramme callcd Afred, Hitchcock in his Ozan Words, while the
television archives o1 BBC and ITN nray provide useful interview
footage with Margaret Lockwood and Michael Redgrave, and the
British Pathé newsreel archive could be searched fbr other information
relating t() the stars, the director and the film.
Case study:
trade unionism on the screen
This second case study focuses on how both factual film and feature
film can be used to explore an aspect of life in Britain - specifically,
trade unionism. Once again the first thing you need to do is to
determine your focus. Will you fbcus on the issue of trade unionism
and how this has been represented on screen over a period ofyears,
or are you focusing on a specilic period and the range of different
representâtions within that period?
Unlike the preüous case study, which focused on how to develop
a question based on a single lilm, this example draws on imagery
and ideas which can be found in a ranse of filmed material: news
reporls, feature films, newsreels and documentaries. So you will need
to consider how these individual representatiolls are senerated, in
what form and in what context. Specifically, are they newsreel images
with accompanying voiceover which was relayed into cinernas? Do
they form part of a collection of newsreels such as British Pathé or
Movietone, and does this help us to underutand why they were made?
Or are they television reports screened in later decades which are
making use of earlicr footapçe? Are they filmic representations and,
if so, where do they emerge from - what were the preoccupations of
the actors, the screenwriters, the directors, the producers? Are these
fictional representations based on real events? Are they intended to be
realistic or comical? Are they designed to appeal to or to challenge an
audience? Can we look at the representations evident on screen and
tentatively link them to broader social and political events? And what
sources exist which would allow us to do this?
Are you focusing on how these imagçes were received as well as
created? If so, it will need to be made clear that audiences understand
these images in difîèrent ways in different periods. Representations of
trade unionism in the 1970s and 1980s at the height of public standoffs
84 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
between the g«:vernment and trade nnion factions lvill be very diflèrent
to reportage of the G.er.reral Strike of 1926 or of trade union activity in
the 1950s or 1960s.
At this stase of the research, your quçnstion coulcl remain very broad
and could be, for example:
Proposed research question: Trade unionism on the screen: factual
and fictional depictions of trade union activity 1950-1980
This would provicle enoush space to research thoroughly and explorc
the broad issue of trade unionisrn on the screen and to c«rver filnts
adclressing trade union activity, as well as examinins newsreel footage
of trade union action such as the (l.eneral Strike and news coverage
«rf strike action in the 1980s. Such an approach would allow for an
initial comparisr>n between fictional ancl factual representation, but
could be narrowed down at a later stage of research. For exarnple, it
rnay be that you identiÿ a shorter period of tinre to explore in detail,
or even to isolate a few key years to c()mpare and c()ntrast different
representirtions fiom different years.
Approach: lssues of representation and the use of both factual
and fictional film as a means of understanding depictions of trade
unionism, film as culture, film as evidence, film as social history, visual
representation.
Research areas to be explored/keywords: National identity,
representation, factual film and bias, objectivity, newsreels, audience
response, film as social and cultural comment.
Reading araund the subiect
Once again this will depend on the particular fbcus of the work, but a
general introduction to the subject coulcl inch,rde reading rrp on trade
unionism in Blitain in the twentieth century. Useful work could include:
Sources:
John Mcllroy, Nina Fishman and Alan Campbell, The High Tide of
British Trade Unionism?: Trade Unions and lndustrial Politics,
1964-79.
Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism.
FORMULATINC RESEARCH QUESTIONS 85
Yor.r could even trace the discourse about trade union activity through
articles and editorials in clifl'erent newspapers t() explore a range of
attitudes. Reading such detailecl background accounts of the broad
topic will also help to indicate a way fbr yolr to narrow dorvn your focrrs.
For exarnple, it may be that after readinpç abotrt British trade unionism,
you want t<l ftrrther explore the clashes betwcen Thatcher and the
unir»ns - specifically the rniners in the 1980s and how this was explored
within a range of film mat.e rial. Ytru may have been intrigued about
references to Thatcherism and union activity in films such as Bntssed
off (1956) <>r Bitty Elliot (2000).
If this is the case, yotr will need to consicler both the period in which
the films irre set and the period in which they were rnade. Why did the
film industry in Britain not address union activity in the 1980s, but
rather waited r"rntil the fbllowing decade to clo so? Was this to do with
structures of flunding or the way in whiclr the inclustry was organised?
Work byJohn Hill and Robert Murphy which adclresses both the fihns
and the production context of'the British film industry in the 1990s
will provide a useful introdlrction to the preoccupations of the industry
in this period ancl valuablc infbrmation on how these two films were
lunded. Lester D. Friedman's Fires Wue Staüed: I)riti.çh Oinema and
'fhatcherism focuses on the impact of this political ideology on the film
industry in Britain and how filmmakers challenged or absorbed the
Thatcher legacy. As well as rnaterial which relates specifically to the
fihn industry you could also consider work which adclresses Thatcher
and the uni<rns such as David Marsh's 'fhe Nat Pol,itics of'British'Iiade
Unionism: Union l'ouer and the ThaLclter l-egac1.
Another strand of the preliminary research could be to conside r
how feature films tackle the issue of union activity through close
textual analysis and explorations of content and theme. Within these
films, are union activists and the cause which they stand for presented
sympathetically or are they played for laughs? \Arhat does this then
suggest about the topic of unionism in Britain at this time? Is it possible
to trace the roots of this kind of cornedy to similar films in British
cinema - f«rr example, the representations of the uniorr representatives
in I'm AlrightJath (1959) ancl Carry On at Ytur Conutnimce ( I971)? You
should als«r draw on work which focuses on the link between Êlrn ald
society, inclnding Anthony Aldgate andJcfliey Richards' Best of British,
which includes a chapter on I'm Alright.lack.
If you want to explore newsreel representatit)n you shotrlcl rnake
sure that you trnderstand how and why newsreel films were made and
 86 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE FORMULATINC RESEARCH QUESTIONS 87

why they were exhibited in cinemas. Luke McKernan's Yestetdal's Nezas: 3 Allen and Gomery Film History, p. 156.
The British Cinema Nausreel Readrr.is a goocl introdttction and will hclp 4 Sarah Street, British, Cin,emu in l)ocumenls (f,ondon: Routledge, 2000)
identiÿ what collections of visual material will be most useful and how
this material can be analvsed.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

Visual sources

As well as the feature films alreacly mentioned, you should consider Allen, Robert C. and Gomery, Douglas, Fibn Historl: Theory and Practice

other forms of visual materizrl which can help to explore the issue of (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 1993).
trade unionism on the screen. Têlevision proÉïrammes fiom the BBC Chapman,.farnes, Glancy, Mark and Harper, Sue,'fhe Nau Film History:
and ITN archives about the miners' strike and preüous government Sources, Method,s, Atrtpruaches (NewVrrk ancl Basingstoke: Palgrave

resp()nses to trade union activity could off'er a useful ranse of material,
while newsreel footage could again ofler an insight into attitucles towards
strike activiqr ancl union activiqr in the early part of the twentieth centrrry.
Once you have identified what your interest is you could also track
down interview material with people such as Arthur Scargill, Margaret
Thatcher,James Callaghan and Harold Wilson, whowill have qiven
interviews to articulate their views on strikers and union activists.
CONCLUSION
Macrnillan, 2007).
Ô Dochartaigh, Niall, lnternet Research Skills: Htxo tr.t l)o ytur l,ilerature
Sean:h and l,ï'nd Research lnfonnation Online (I os Angeles: Saee,
2007).
Robsorr, Colin, Hou to [)o a Re,çearch I'roject: A G,uide_fctr Underyaduatc
Studm,ts (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007).
Walliman, Nicholas, Your Rcsearch Prrrject: A Step-1ry-Sl?.P Cuide .l'or thc
liirsL-Lime Rtsearcher (London: Sage, 2000).
Wheatley, Helen, Ik-aiaoingTblatision Historl: Critical Iss'ues in'lbkntision
Historiogrnphy (London: I.B. Tâuris, 2007).

The twc» case studies outlined above indicate how y()u can set about
devising a research question. Now that you have drawn up a question
or series o[ questions, read around the subject, identified yolrr sources
and devised an approach, you should consider the methodolow of your
research - how you are going to carry it out. Issues of methodology will
be cliscussed in the next chapter, but it is important fbr methoclology to
be closely allied to approach. As will be shown in the following chapter,
a methodology can be devised once the preliminary work is undertaken
and a clearer picture of your specific question begins to emerge.

NOTES

I Higsorr, FilN È.ttrlrttrrl.

2 As of 2013, the thirty-year rule is being progressively scaled down to
a twenty-year rule, with the process intcnded to be complete by 2022.
See www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/about/ 20-year-rule. h tm (accessed B
December 2014).

't_

h ol plirtt, while online archives misht
à I
RESOU RCES
The previous chapters have suqgested how you catr select a topic, define
a question and identiÿ an approach, methodology ancl theoretical
fiamework. Having decided upon a topic ancl an approach, y()u now
need to think in cletail abor.rt the kinds of sources you will be usins.
The next two chapters dcal rvith two distinct areas of your research; this
chapter highlights the tlpes ol sources which exist and how they can be
accessed while Chapter 8 identifies the specific research skills you will
nced to elîèctively use these resourccs.
This rnay seern to be a very detailed way of identifying a selection
of research material. However, it is intendccl to highlight the range «rf
s()urces wtrich exist fbr t.he study of filrn and the moving image and
how different approaches and topics will draw on difîèrent res()urces.
This chapter is a trsefirl place to begin when you want to start compiling
a list of sources. These sources may fall into a number of clifferent
categories: primary, seconclary, archival, s()verlln)ent. private papcrs,
company recr»rds, books,-journal articles, web archives, databases and
websites. In this chapter they are groupecl togcther under a series
of headings to help you think about the different sorts of materials
y()u may be trsing within your research. It is less about distinguishing
between primzrry and secondary sources, or digital and print resources,
or film.journals and industry rnagazines but instead is a broad survey
oI'the types of resources which exist. While the lbcus of this work has
predominantly been on British cinema, this chapter will also include
sources of inforrnatior-r which relate more generally to the movins
imase. While such a survey car-rn()t possibly hope to be comprehensive,
it will include as many types of resources as possible and also indicate
how different sources of nraterial can be incorporated into your
research.
Many of these sources will be key works, seminal publications or
popular collections, but even sur-veyine the broad sweep of material
available is not without its problerns. Books and journals may g() out
itriàt_k'
.3.§@&@@Ç6E9!r4Fr-5
RESOURCES 107
become unavailable. Paper or
rrrovirrg image archives rnay lose their firncling and close to the public,
wlrik' personal papers or gilted collections of material may be lost or
wrt lr([rawn. Even films go out of circulation, and getting hold of television
llt()glirrrlmes, non-broadcast recordings or progralnme rushes can be
r lrrrllcnging. While this rnay make research difficult, more material is
r orrrirrg to light and being made available all the time. As a researcher
you (:rn only use the resources that are available to you and in doing so
yorr will make choices about whal is irrrpot'tant fbr your research and
Irow you will use it. This chapter will highlight how to make best use of
tlrr rrraterials you have access to and how to manapîe this aspect of the
r cscl t'r:lt process.
lrr order to carry out efiective research you need to first identiÿ what
r.'s()llrces exist for the topic you have chosen. Are figçures available to
lrclp rletermine what was seen and when? Do cinema ledpçers or account
lxroks exist which document the various levels of success of the films
irr tlrrcstion? Can it be established h«rw much money each film took
,rrrrl when it was screened? Can rnovie magazines or fàn letters provide
rvirk'rrce of fllm popularity and audience response to particular stars?
ll;rr,<^ the personal papers of a film's star or director been deposited in a
l i l rr ir ry or archive and can they be accessed?
REFERENCE WORKS
lrr tlrt' early stages of yolrr research and as already indicated in the
rcr tions on 'defining your interest' and 'reading around a subject' in
I ,lr;rPtt:r 5, textbooks and relèrence works are a sood place to begin
l'ollt l OSearCh.
Wlrat you select to read will depend upon your fbcus, but renrember
tlrirt llre more you read, the more you will understand the topic. If your
lolrrs is cinema, then general guides on cinema may be usefüI, but
1x'r'lrirps a more helpfül way to think about a research question or topic
lr lo itlentiÿ a period or era. This may be a decade, or per-haps a fèw
yrilrs, ()r even a film genre or movement such as the French new wave
ut tt('w Holl),wood. Once you have identified youl period y1;g sfiould
nrr s()rne basic searches on yorlr university or college library catalogue
rrsirrg the decade and period and any key terms such as 'new wave' as
klyw« rrds.
,iârimnffimÇË{ÊffiÉq-e.lk- - -
i'
108 USINC FIL/Vl AS A SOURCE
Books
If your interest is in British cinerna, then the fbllowing works :rddress
the various decacles and are a good place to start. These secondary
resources will give you a broad understanding of British cinerna and
film in different decades, though, of course, they all havc a different
specific ft-rcus.
The early days of cinerna in Britain are eflective ly covered in Rachael
Low's exceptional seven-vohrme series (-FlisJory of llritislt Film) wl:'ich
traces the development of film in Britain up to 1939.r The 1930s are
also covered in work byJohn Sedgw,ick (Popuku Filmgoing) and-feffrev
Richar<ls (Age ql the Dream l'alace), while the lg40s are dealt with by
(llrarles Drazin (The linest lir.ar.s), Robert Murphy (Ittal,ism and l'inse[)
and Mark Glancy (IMen Hollyttood Loued Rritain,).2 The war years are
often covered separately, and usefirl work includes accourlts published
by Anthony Aldgate irnd.feftiey Richards (BriLai'n Con 'Ihkc ft), James
Chapmarr ('l'lu Britislr at War) and Robert Murphy (British Cinema and
thc Seconrl World War).1 British cinema in the 1950s is the focus of work
by Srre Harper and Mncent Porter (The Deckne of DeJ'erence), while Su
H<rlmes explores television and filrn (British 7'V and lil,m Cul,l,ule).1
Melanie Bell considers the relationship between women viewers ancl
1950s cinerna (l-cmini'nig in l.he l:rame), while Christine ()eraghty (British
Cinerna in the 1950s) focuses t>n gender and genre."
British film and cinerna in the 1960s is amply covered by Danny
Powell (Studying British Cinemrz) and by Robert Murphy (Sixties British
Cinemo), while jorrrnalist Alexand<:r Walker <l1Ièrs his take <ln the filrns
and indr.rstry in the decade (Holllttood l)ngland).6 A recent surge of
interest in the 1970s rneans that a nurnber of studies ol'this often-
overlooked decade now exist, notably eclited collections by Patrl
Newland (Don't Look Nozu) and Robert Shiril (Seuenfies British Cinema)
and strrclies by Sue Harper and.fustin Smith (Brltlsh lihn Culkuz), Sian
Barber ('l'he Brüish Film Industrl in the 1970s) and Paul Newland (Ilritish,
lilms ol ttu 1970s).7 lohn Flill's study of British society, the British filrn
industry arrd British films serves as a great introduction to the 1980s
t'
(British Oinema in the 1980s), while work from John Walker drau,s
tosether the films of the 1970s ancl 1980s (T'ht On,ce andFuture lilm)."
Robert Murphy's publication on the 1990s covers this m<lre recent
decade and explores recent British hits such as Tiainspotting (Itritish
Cinema of the 90s).tl
t'
In addition to studies that focus on particular decades, there are a lnrint you in the right direction I'or further research.
i'
RESOURCES 109
w
rrrrrrrlr<'r't>[ general sources which should not be overkrokerl. TlLe Bùtish
t ttt'»tt. l)ookby Robert Murphy is now in its third e<lition and should be
l,rrrrtl irr the bibliography on any topic rvhich addresses British cinema,
,rr slr<rrrld.ftrstine Ashby and Anclrew Hisson's British Cinerna: Past and
llrrr'rrl :urd Sarah Street's British Natinnal Cinema.t" Other volumes
rrrr llritish cinema include work byJirn Leach (British Film) and Arny
\,rrgcrrrrt (British Oinema).tt Even if the period addressed by a specific
rlor k is not of particular interest lbr your own chosen topic, the level
,rrrrl rkrtail of research rrrakc all these irnportant s()urces f<rr British
r rr('nr:r. Other reference works that mieht prove usefirl inclucle Brian
[\lr liru lane's 'l'he linqclopaedia of l]ritish lïlm, Sarah Street and Margaret
lfrrkirrsorr's CinemaanrlStatc:'[-lnltilrnLnd,ustryaruL(]oaernmenlandDenis
( irllrrrrl's British lïlm Cata,logrtc.t2
l'lrt:rt: is also material which addresses specific aspects of British
r rr('rrir. For exarnple, A.ndrew Spicer's work on masculinity (l1pical
Âlr'rr),.farnes Chapman on history (Past and Prusent), Leon Hunt on
lrrw-lrr'«rw (British Lmt (htlture), Peter Hutchings on horror cinema
I llrt»tmu' and Bqond), John Hill on the British new r{ave (Sex, Cla.ss and
llntli:;n), Claire Monk and Arny Sargeant on heritage (British Historical
t,trrt'tn,rt), Steve Chibnall ancl R<lbert Murphy on crirne cinerna (British
t ittttr' Oinerna) and Andrew Higson on national identity (lilm Engla,nd).1:l
r\lsrr rrseful coukl be Charles llilrr's account of Ealing Studios (Ealing
\tuilios), Sue Harper writing on women in the lilm industry (Mad, Bad
rtrtrl l)tngtruus to Knout), -lustin Smith on cult cinenra (Withnail and Us),
\trr;rrt lfanst-rrl on cinema exhibition (l,iorn Sil,en,t Screen to Multi-Scteen),
l,,rrrlic Ede on set design (Brili.sh lribn Design) and l)uncan Petrie on
r (' natogra phy ('l-he British Cinemalctgapher) .t
r r r r
a
'l lris range of secondary material on British cinema is rnerely a
rt.uting point. l,ookins at work ra,'hich addresses the decade <>r period
lr)u wirnt to fbcus on shorrld give you some idea of the rnaterial which
Ir,rs lrcen pul:lished and which you can rtse in your «lvrt research. Yort
rlr,rtrld also sttrdy ttre fbotnotes listecl in such work to identiÿ other
\our'( cs which may be crucial ftrr the stucly of the period in question. In
pirrtit:ular, you should take n()te t>f .iournal articles published recently
wlriclr address your topic of study. Many of these studies will include
r lscirrch on the social, cultur'al antl political backsrourrd and may draw
orr prrblications outside the field of film studies. Usins rnaterial which is
wr ittr:n frorn a political, historical or econornic perspective will provide
1,orr with an understirnding of the period as a whole and could help to
110 USINC FILM A5 A SOURCE
This list of key resources which has been briefly compiled here fbr'
British cinema can selve as a template frrr other topics. Similar lists
could easily be compilecl fbr any other national cinema or indeetl
for television. ldentifying lists of resources that relate to topics suclr
as alternative cinema, avant-garde film or newsreels may be mclre
cornplicated. As a starting point f'or these topics it is again useful to think
about periodisation and to read about the mainstrearn visual culture
of the period you are interested in. Although you may be interested
in alternative cinema, you should still research the period in order to
fully understand the context in which both mainstream Iilmmakins or
television production and other creative practice is taking place. lf you
are keen to explore artisLs' {ilm or avant-garde cinema then you will
need to consider how such artistic practice was organised, where it was
exhibited, how it was funded ancl who were the key players involved.
Often such practice was a direct response to the perceived failures of tht:
mainstream, and so understanding the mainstream and conventional
fllmmaking of the period is essential. If you are researching newsreels
then you will need to understand when and where the newsreels were
shown, why they were commissioned and who they were aimed at. In
order to do this, you will need to explore spaces of exhibition and
examine film programmes to see how cinemas fitted newsreels intcr
their programmine.
Whatever you are studying, runnins basic searches in library
catalogues will indicate the refèrence books available lirr the topic ancl
fi'om here you can start to cornpile a list of material to read as you beeirr
your research. Along with general texts arld book-length studies, yorr
should also be consulting the key journals in the field to identiÿ what
cur-rent research is being carried olrt and how this can be usefrü for your'
own research.
Journals
There are a ranse ofjournals for film that may be useful to you in your
work. As well as indiüdual .journal articles which may address your
research, you can also use the methodology and critical approaches
outlined in journal articles as the basis of your own research. Yorr
should make full use of any footnotes and ref'erences which accompanl
journal articles as they may make reference to work you have not yet
reacl. Journals will usually either be print or digital. Ytrur universiry or
RESOURCES 111
lrrrlrlit lilrrirry may hold print copies of certain.journals or may subscribe
tl .r scrvice which lets you access the material online. Much older
;rrrlrlicrrtiorrs such as film inclustry publication Kinematography Weekly
ll,ttt'r' OinemaTV Tbdaÿ or Picturegoer rnay be available on microfilm or
rrrrr rrrlit'he in your university or public library. If your library does not
Ir,r\'r' ir<'cess to a specific journal then you shor.rld check the holdings
irt \'()ul local public library and at the British Film Institute Library in
l,orrrkrrr, which holds a wide ranpçe of cinema and film.journals.
'l'lr«' kinds of
.journals you should consult clepend on rvhat you are
rlrcirrtlring. There are a nurnber of ways for you to find the right
lr,rrrrurls for your subject. Yor"r should first run some basic kelword
cr,,rrclrcs on the catalogue at your university library. This will give you
,r lx'tl«'r' idea of the kinds of publications it holds and how you can get
rr r rss t() thern. You coulcl also use the search ensine Google Scholar,
rrlriclr r:an be accessecl from the Google homepage. The search results
Irr (lrogle Scholar will be articles, reviews and critiques published in
rrr,r(l('nlic journals, ancl alongsicle the resulLs you will be able to see if
rorrr irrstitution holcls a copy of the article or if it can be accessed online.
lrirr:tlly, a number of internet sites compile usefirl lists of resources.
1,, ,r t'xample, Film Studies fbr l-ree inchrdes a list of accessible resources
rur(l ()[)en access .journals.rs Other useful sites include the Museum
ul tlrt' Moving Image website, which includes American, European
,rrrrl irrterrratiorral journals in its list of resources, and Cineaste, which
Itrts <'ritical and popular pr,rblications in the field of film and cinerna
rl t tr lics. l(;
l lrr: fbllor'ving academic journals are the kind of publications that
rrr;ry lrt: useful for film and rnoving image related work:
. Screen
o llritishlournal of Film and Telatision
c I {istorica,lJournal of Film, Radio and Tblcaision
. lùlm Quarterly
c lùlm Commen,l
o l,iltn and History
o (lritical Sludies itt Teleui.sion
. Sigh.t and Sou'nd
o Oineaste.
Às wt:ll as academic articles, these publications will also contain critical
rrvit'ws of films and reviews of recently published work within the

!
112 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
I
cliscipline. There are also a nr-rmber of .journals that are publishe<l
online zrnd are Iiee to access and fully searchable. These include: Ilrlglr/
I-ights, Senses of Cinema and, St:ope.
Il' you are interested in a particular aspect of filrn studies - f<rr'
t.' example, transnatir>nal cinerna, adaptation, early cinema or amateur
film - there may be a specialist journal which deals with the subject.
For instarrce, the online .journal Pa,rticipation.s covers audiences anrl
audience research, \/hile Vefiigo specialises in independent filrn.
video and docurnentary.ti Varietl is an essential source ftrr the study ol
Hollywood, while if your topic is related to a particular national cinema,
you should explore all the public:ltir>ns in English and in the original
language of that national cinema.rs Research in the library and onlint'
will yield a larse rarrge of resources and it is then up to you to select thc
most useful ones for your areas of sttrdy. Many of these.journals havr:
websites and it can be helplul to research the publications online t<r
determine which specific publications are rnost uselirl fcrr you.
Magazines
As well as the film and cinema.journals identified al:<tve, you coulrl
c<rnsider maqazines like l)mpirc, Pict,urugoer, Iïlrns nn,d, hil,min,g and lbt.al
,l?/rz. Although a very diffèrent kincl of resource from academic.iournals.
such publications can contain plenty of useful infbrmation in the
firrm of reviews, ne\4/s articles and interviews. In the heyday of cinema,
ptrblications like Picturegoer <tfLer a revealins insisht into the world ol
popular taste and are particularly useful for exploring idea of stars anrl
star<lom. By c()ntrast, l,ilms and Filming- which ran from 1954 to 1980
- has a very different tone and includcs critical revicws of middle-brorr'
cinema as well as poptrlar film releases. At the other end of the spectrurn
you have industry-focused publications sr.rch as Kinemalograph WeeA\, a
long-nrnnine industry publication which would nrorph into the mon'
audience-focuse<l Oinenm,TV 'lodq in the 1970s, irnd which irrcludcrl
details on films in production and more general commentary on filnr
i.l funding, government involvement anrl the work of the Cinematograplr
Films Council. The range of material offered by all of these publications.
as lÿell as their tone, manner of acldress, sq,le, objectives and viewpoint
can all be useful sources in cxploring cliscourses about film and cinema
in different historical periods. Acknowledging the diffèrent intenderl
audiences is important, but careful analysis of the implicit and explicir
i,
I
Çi{iFlÇffi
,æEE--
RESOURCES 113
rlr\( ()ulscs about popul:rr taste o11èr opportunities to interrogate ideas
,rlrorrt :rucliences, plcasure, taste artd popularity.
lirr lilrns released very recently, there rnay be a lack <>f critical
rr lrrrlarslrip, so lilm magazines such as Em.pire or Tbtal lilm can help
to lill a gap. The diflèring cultr.rral status and critical authority of any
prrlrlication should be carefirlly explored before usine it as a source, but
tlrl rrlticles, reviews ancl critical insishts as well as the way in which the
rrr,rtclial is c«rnfigured lirr audiences rnake magazines about film and
r rtr('nl:l an important and viable resource for the researcher.
N.'wspapers
Ncrvsp:rpers are also a uselirl resource for Iilm studies, arrd you can trace
rlll»irlr:s ab<lut screen violence and film funding, access film reviews and
lrrrrl interviews with directors and actors through the pa€ies of tabloid
,rrrrl lrroadsheet newspapers. Many of the Britistr broadsheets have
nrrlirrt' archives which date back a few vears, so goinu to the homepage
trl I'lte'l'imes, Ohsnuer, Tbkgraph or lrulependenl and accessing their recent
r nrrlcnt is fairly easy. However, some of these newspapers may reqrrire
rou l() [)ay a fee if you wish t<l explore their online archive material. More
r.xtcrrsive archives exist f<rr irrdiüdual newspapers. A useful resource
ir 'l'he Timcs digital archive, rvhich allows you free access to articles
lrrrlrlislrecl in'l'he'l'imes Êr<>m 1785 to 2006. Similarly, the Daily Mail
llistorical Archive 1896-2004 is also lirlly searchable. Both resources
,rrrrl rnany more like them, includinu recently digitised material from
lrrrl»lications srrch as the BBC masazine 7-he Listener and Picture Post,
r.rrr lrc accessed via subscription. Subscriptions to these resources are
rrrrr:rlly manap;ed try your university library. It rnay be that access to these
rcs()ur-ces is through a provider such as Cengage,.JSTOR, Project Muse
nr Lt'xisNexis, You should investisate what subscriptions your university
,rrxl local library hold and search their websites to see what electronic
r ('s( )rrrces are available to you. Your subject or fàculty librarian should be
,rlrlc t«r help you access these resources and answer any queries you may
lr.rvr'. They rniry also be able to apply for free trials for specific resources
Io lr«'lp you with your researclt.
tÜËiËt6riliir"ffi -
 114 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
PRIMARY SOURCES
The primary s()urces which can be used in frln.r related research arc
eclectic and varied. They range.tom the films thernselves to material
which dates from the procluction process, such as scripts, letters and
nlemos. As already shown in the chapter on formulating a researclr
question, gaining access to the visual material - films, televisiorr
fbotaee, amateur material - is the best way to begin your research
and to become familiar with the textual and aesthetic qualities of the
material.
Films and moving image
Gaining access to I'eature filnrs is relatively straiehtforward, particularly
if you are looking at films made in Hollywood or any of the other
major film industries within the last seventy years. Oopies of films orr
D\rD can be easily purchased fîom websites, while material which.âas
not yet been digitised can usually be sourced on second-hancl VHS
via websites like eBay or Amazon. However, you may face problems
gainine access to films which did not have a theatrical release, avant-
pçarde films shown as part of an exhibition or art show silent films
from the early days of cinema ()r rare movinq image content which has
not been digitisecl.
If you want to study this kind of material, you need to think aboul
how you can set hold of it. There is rro point constructins elaborate
research questions around avant-garde film from 1960s G'ermany if yotr
are unable to obtain copies of the films or to discover anything about
them. It is very difficult to condtrct cffcctivc research when the object ol
study is missing; you need to be aware of what is alailable and how yorr
can access it.
As you beein your research you should start compiling a list of tht'
üsual material you want to find. If it is rnainstream fèature-lilm materiirl
i a basic internet search should lead you to the resources you want. lfyou
cannot find material, it is worth doing the fbllowing:
:
o Ask your lecturer or teacher: If your lecturer has a particular'
interest in your topic then he or she may have a collection ol'
material they may be willing to share with you. If they do not h«rlrl
copies they may have a goocl iclea where you can find them.
t\,
="wW
RESOURCES 115
:,iri i
a (lheck the library: University libraries have collections of moving
irrrirl5e rnaterizrl and you rnay Iind fihn material which will help
yorrl leseat-ch.
t Scarch for it on YouTube: If you have a clear idea ofwhat it is you
;rx' kroking for and cann()t lind it elsewhere, then krok for it on
VrtrTube. lf the rnaterial is there, you shor.rld try and track it down
to its original source; much Iilm material is housed in o{ficial
collections and once you have identified these collections you will
lx' :tble to explore the material ttrey hold.
a Oompile key data: Find otrt as rnuch as possible about the visual
rrrlterial you are scarching for and compile key clata about it. 'lhis
way you will be able to searc:h for it by year, by c()ntributor, by title,
lry screening, exhibition <lr release date. It may be the case that
it is available online or within an archive but it has been poorly
( lrrated, If this is the case then simply searchins for it by title rnay
rrot locate it, but perhaps it can be f<rund through a more detailecl
st'itrch by clate or by production company.
llrl lolkrwing collections all holcl diflèrent kinds of moving image
rrr,rtrrirrl. This is n()t an exhaustive list, but rather gives you an idea of
rvlrlr c yort can begin looking ftrr caches of material. Again, all of these
iur lliv('s and collections have websites, so rcsearching them and finding
lrrt wlr:rt they have online is usually the best way to begin research:
a 'l'he British Film Institute holds an extensive collection of film
television material which can be viewecl at its Londol South
:rrr<l
I|:rnk site and at five other mediatheque sites in the UK: Derby,
Wrcxham, Newc:rst1e, Glasgow and Cambridge.
a 'fhe British Universities Film and Video Council possesses zrn ofÊ
;rir recorcling service and copies of television programmes, and
rrraterial screened on television can be clrdered from it. lt also hosts
ll l irnge of rnoving imase resources many of which can be obtained
lirr fiee provided your university holds the correct subscription.
llUscreen is an online free-view archive of'European teleüsion
rrraterial which currently holcls 40,000 items from broadcasters
lu<'ross Ettrope.
a 'fhe European Film Gateway is an online collection of film, irnages
ilnd texts from twenty-four {ilm archives across Europe.
a !'ilm Archives UK is an online site which brings together thirteen
<li[ïèrent regional archives holding broaclcast and amateur fbotage.
I
116 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
a The Imperial War Museums have a substantial collection ol
rnovins imase material, including propaganda films macle cluring
the First \Àkrrld Wirr.
o British Pathé online has 4n extensive collection of newsret'l
material and archive footase.
a Moüetone online database contains newsreels frorn 1929 to 1979.
o Huntley Films Archive holds over 45,000 films in iLs onlinc
database.
a The Moving Image Archive is a broad collection of films anrl
broadcast television material which can be accessed online.
As well as the films ttremselves, risual rnaterial such as documentarit:s
about the production of the filrn or television interviews with the dire ctor'
or cast mernber can also be useful resources. Some of this material carr
be accessed online or rnay be included as an extra fèature ol) the DVf) ol
a feature filrn. You should make sure that you incorporate yisual sourccs
into your list of resor.rrces and consider how best to use such material irr
your brozrcler research. //
In addition to r.isual sources, rnaterials which relate to the productiorr
of the film, its distribution, exhibition and reception, akrne with anr
records liom bodies related to the fihn industry can be very rrseful. Thesc
recorcls have been split into a number of different categories below.
Company records
(iornpanv reports, financial ledsers and end-oÊyear accollnts can tell
you a sreat dcal about the industrial processes at work in the filnr
industry. Tracking down this information can be challeneing, but th<'
materiirl you do find may proüde details about buclget, marketirrSr.
profit, loss, salaries and firndine choices. It is also fàscinatins to consider
the development of individual pr«rduction companies, to understan<l
why certain projects were shelved and why others were pursued. Then'
is an important clifference between the records of a company or iul
orsanisation and the personal papers kept by;rn individual. Cornpanr
records will include legal and financial documentation as well as
infrrrmation about personnel and pre- and post-production details. Thr'
key location for inlbrmation on the British film industry is the library at
the BFI in London.
RESOURCES 117
l.oculed on London's South Bank, the British Film lnstitute l,ibrary
lrrrkls rrratcrial relatine to film production companies. The BFI is art
trr cllcnt. resource for both movil'tg image material and for industrial
rlr orrls, critical reviews and private collections. Sorne of its material is
p.u I ()l'the BFI Speciai Collections and you will need to make a separate
rtplx)intrnent to access it. A search of the BFI general catalogue lbr
'r orrrpirnies' identified a wide range of rnaterial including:
. r'r'cords {iorn the l,ondon Film Company covering the years
r 913-1920;
. general production and distribution company rnaterial, inch.rding
lrrochures, marketing; and publicity docurnenls. This wide range
ol' material dates fiom the earliest days of cinema throush to
the 1930s and relates to companies inclucling ()aumont, Jur1,'s
lrnperial Pictures, Equity British films, Keystone and Hepworth;
o :rnnual reports from Univcrsal Pictures Company for the years
I 957-1958;
. ('()mpany records fiom the Incorporated Association of
Kinematograph Manufacturers Ltd from the 1940s and 1950s;
. ( ()mpany records from the British National Film League;
r ('xtensive production and distribtrtion material fi'om ABC
tt:levision in the l960s;
. general company information relatins to British Pathé, Anglo-
Amalsamated, Associated British and Ealing;
. r'ecords and correspondence fiom the British and f)orninions Fihn
( krrporation dated 1931-1934;
o lecords and end-of-year accounts lionr the National Film Finance
Oorporation (NFFC) firr the years 1949-1979.
r\s wt'll as records held by the BFI, individual company accounts may
lrr. t ontained within the personal archives of clirectors or producers.
Millrael Klinger's personal papers include the cornpany accounts of
lris Swiftdown company and are held at the University of the West of
I'lrrglitncl, while papers relating to Don Boycl's company Boyd's (lo can be
lorrrrd in his papers at the University of Exeter. Understirnding how the
irrrlrrstry worked in a given decade or period is crucial when condr.rctins
lilrrr-r'clated research. It is difficult to understand how films flop or
rrrr'« r'eclwithout understanding the economic and financial contexts of
lrrorltrction, clistribution and exhibition. Usine the material fbund in
r ollt'<:tions of company and industry accounts can add depth to yotrr
118 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
research and complernents appr()aches which seek to understancl filnr
as both a cultural and c-c<.rnomic procluct.
As well as rnaterial which relates to the inclustrial sicle of filmmaking,
studio papel-s can als<; includc rna,,lLerial which relates much mr»re
closely to the procluction of specific fihns. F'or example, the Hammer'
script archive has recently been deposited at De Montfort University irr
l,eicester and offers over 240 items in its collections for scholars keen to
discovcr m«rre about filrnmzrkins at the làmous hor-ror stuclio.
lndustry papers
In addition to accounts lbr indiviclual companies, financial recorcls
liorn funcling organisations like the National Film Finance Oorporation,
working papers of govelnnrellt colnmittees like the (linematograplr
l'ilms (louncil or cultural bodies like the British tr'ilrn Council carr
also reveirl how the industry operated. The accounts of these kinds ol
organisations may be located in the British Library or The National
Archives at Kew. lf they are sovernrnent rec()rds they will be subject to
the thirty-year rule, but if they are outside this timefiame they should
be accessible.re Both the British Library and The National Archives havt'
excellent search ensines attached to their websites. Uselirl resollrces
fiom these archives include letters and memos charting the development
of government policy on the filrn inclustry in Britain, the establishnrent
of co-production agreernents between Britain and other cotrntries anrl
the use of filrn by orgarrisations such as the British (louncil to presel)l
ideas of 'Britishness' abroarl. 'Ihe British Board of Film (llassificatiorr
now ofï'ers rcsearchers access to its internal document.s which relate t.«r
the classification of Iihn Ii'om thc carlicst clays of cinema to the present.
Paper files relating to material released in the last twenty years art.
restrictecl, but it has an excellent website lvith a large number of cast'
studies and a fully searchable database so you can establish the precisc
problems with recently releaserl filrns. Scenario reports and reüews firr
films fiom the 1930s to the 1950s czrn be found in the BBFC collectiorr
at the BFI.
Recorcls which relate to the exhibition of films in specific areas will
be stored in regional or city archives. For example, data that relate t()
the screening o{'films in 1970s Portsmouth are held in the city archives
lirr the early years of the decade and those pertaining to the end ol
the clecade are kept in the Hampshire county :rrchives in Winchester.
RESOURCES 119
li.rlkirrg down these kinds of records rnay be challenging and shorrld
lx' rrtr<lt:rtaken when yorr have a clezrr idea of rvhat you are looking fbr.
ll yorrr interest is in television, the records of the BIIC are held at
ll\ rvlitten records centre in Caversham in Berkshire, rvhile records
;x'rt:rirrine to the Independent Television Authority (l'fA) - which
lrr.r irrrrt: the Independent Broadcastine Arrth«)rity (IBA) and later the
Ilrlr'pcndent Television Clommission (ITC) - are held at the University
nl lkrrrrnemotrth.
I'rr sonal papers/ private col lections
li;rcking clown archival collections, personal papers, rare visual rnaterial
lr ( )lnpany accounts often requires painstaking research. At lirst slance
(
rrr(' llraterial may not seem to be related to film at all, but it depends
rrr y()rlr research topic and what you are tryine to find out. Begin with
tlrc n'sources which are easiest to find. Build up your knowledge of the
' tnpit irncl then start to expand the list of material you want to find. Be
rr'.rlistir: about what you carr achieve: if the key material lirr your topic
lr rr ilr) archive in [,os Angeles, how are you going to access it? Do you
Ir,rvc tirne to visit the archive and who would pay for yotr to s() there?
It is also important to be realistic about what you are expected to
rLr, \tlt will be required to undertake detailed research fbr yorrr final
t'r',tt tlissertation, MA thesis or PhD research and any other significant
rrrclrrch project, but such intensive research involvins visits to archives
,tttrl rrccessing rare collections will probably not be required 1'or a
rl.rrr<llrrd essay.
l\'r'sonal papers and private collections may contain everythine fiom
;rrrsorral correspondence, letters, memos, telegrams and newspaper
r lippirrgs to private notes, diaries and messases. There may be detail on
rrrrrclrlised projects, correspondence related t() castins in specific films,
rlur rrrnents detailing any problems experienced with the film unions or
rvitlr tlre taxman. Some personal papers contain a massive amount of
rrr,rtcrial; the papers of director.foseph Losey are extensive and include
lrirlx'r'w()rk which relates to aspects of his personal as well as professional
Itlr', while Derek Jarman's papers include his personal notebooks
Irr wlri<:h he sketcl.res his design ideas f<rr films and include detail on
I r)\lilrnes, characters, colour and locati<tns.
l,ixploring the personal papers of a director, producer, costume
rk'sigrrcr or editor can be very excitinu, but locating them can be
 12O USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
difficult. It rnay also be the case that the personal papers of a certairr
incliüdual do not exist in a library or archive. The papers rnay still be irr
the possessi<.rn of the fàrnily, or they rnay have been lost or destroyed. ll
the papers have been lbrmally gifted to an archive or an institution thcrr
they rnay well be open ltrr research arld may even trave been catalogued,
which can help make thern easier to exarnine. Ttre most likely placr.
fbr papers of prominent lilm industry individuals is either a universitl
library or an archive such as the BFI Special (lollections, the Irish Filnr
Institute in Dtrblin or the National Library of Wales in Aberystr,ryth.
T'he BFI Special Collections in London has a range of personal
papers, including those fiorn Petcr Rogers, John Schlesinger, .|oseph
Losey, Davicl Puttnarn and Michael Balcon. The extensive Stanlt:r'
Kubrick papers are held at the University of the Arts in London whilt'
the papers of Linds:ry Anderson are at the University of Stirline. The Bill
Douslas (lentre at the University of Exeter holcls papers belonsins to
Iilrnrnakers Gavrik l,osey and Don Boyd as well as those of Bill Douglas.
Some papers relatins to lilmmaker David Lean are at the Universitv
of Readins, and the Kenneth Branaeh collection is held at Queelr's
Univt'rsity in Bellast.
There are a number of very larsc archives in the United St:rtes whert.
the papers of important members of the lilm industry are preserved. OI
c()urse, you should consider whether you are able to visit these archives
befbre researching their holdings or planning a trip. One L»f the larserst
collections is the Marsaret Herrick Library, based in Calilbmia and nrrr
by the Acaclemy of Motion Picture, Arts and Sciences. This library has
over a thousand individual collections and includes the papers of Alfrcrl
Hit.chcock, actors Gresory Peck and lletherine flepburn, directors
(ieorge Stevens arrd Hal Ashby, and many rnore. The University ol
Wisconsin-Madison holds the papers of renowned Hollywood costunl('
desisner Edith Head, actor Kirk Douglas, television host Ed Sullivarr
and director John Ford. The Harry Ransom Center at the Universitl'
of Têxas in Austin houses the papers of actor Robert De Niro anrl
legendary showman Flo Ziegfield as well as collections relating t<r
plalm,rights Eugene O'Neill, Tennessee Williarns, Arthur Miller anrl
Harold Pinter. f'he UCI,A Film :rncl Television Archive in Califomirt
includes papers belonsins to.Jean Renoiq Cecil B. DeMille, Ida Lupino
and Mary Pickford. It also h:rs sisnificant industrial holdings, including
papers frorn Colurnbia Prc»duction studios.
Detailed online searchins can help you to locate these personal
papers. Even if such searches do n«rt lead you directly to the papers
r\r
RESOU RC ES 121
nr tlrc lrl.hive itself, you may pick up on ne\{spaper stories about the
l;rlrrirrg ol'an archive or the gilting of material by an actor or director's
lrrrnrl)' irr)d so folkrw the trail fiom there. The next chapter will ofïèr
,ulr'rr t lrrr<l suegestions on how to go abotrt planning a visit to an archive
,rr rvt'll lrs how to sift ttrrough the material you may find.
Attrltcnce data
llrr ov<'r'ing the experienccs of audiences is notoriously difficult as
inln( ('s rarely survive. Howeveq specific caches ol inltrrrnation do exist
,rlrl r;rrr proüde fascinating daftr on people 's resp()nses to films aswell as
tlrrr lcasons for going to the cinem:r. The Mass-Observation collectiotr
,rt tlrc LJniversity of Sussex is a fantastic collection of social research
ur.rtcr ill gathered over a period of years and relating to all aspects of
rlr r;rl. t'trltural and political life in Britain. This material can be used
ll cxlrlore how attitudes towards leisure, entertailunent and going
tl tlrt'<:inema changecl in diflèrent periods as well as more specific
Irrlor rrrirtion on fàvor.rrite lilrn stars and prefêrred filrns. This material
h r rrlx'ntly being digitised ancl so access to the resottrce is becoming
Itrrr lr t'asier. You can always :rsk your library to register fbr a Iïee trial in
llr(l('r t() gain access to the material.
It is lare frrr data to exist lirr individual cinemas, btlt research about
li('n('es and about cinetnas can turn up in strrprisins Places. Sometimes
'lur
lllrrr prrduction companies gatherecl their own data at test screenings
trr cxplore audience response t() one of their films ancl occasionirlly this
rl,rt,r srrrfàces in tl're archives of a cornpany or an indiüclual. The BBFC
Ir,rr lrct:rr conducting audience research since the earliest days of cinema.
;\,' wcll as historical data which can be found in some of it^s individual
Itlrrr lilt:s, data about recent audience research can also be found on its
wllrsitr'. ()ften such research has been carried out in collaboration with a
tr',rrrr <»l'researchers and they often detail the methodology they used as
rvlll lrs «rfferirlg some analysis and conclusions liom their findings.
l'lrt' BFI website also hosts historical and conterttporary statistics
irlrorrt Iilm-going and audiences, exhibition patterns and cinema
rrttru(lirncc. It has been collating weekly box-office reports since 2001
irrl irlso compiles exit survey data from auclicnces viewirrg a raltse of
lilrrrs. All of this data is available on the BF'I website and catt be a useful
w,r)' t() help you establish some basic facts and hard data about cinema-
goirrg and aucliences.
122 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
Digital resources
In addition to all the material covered above you shoulcl also krok at tlrt
vixt ranse of digital resources whicfu exist. I)atabases of clisitised material.
interviews conducted with inclustry insiders, audience data gathered f'or.rr
particular area or online responses to pzrrticular filrns rnay have been palr
of an earlier rescarch project. It rlay be that the findings of the reseirr<.lr
project are relevant to your own research and you can usually locatr.
these {indings online throtrgh careftrl searchins. The Bnradcastins.
Entertainment, Cinematograpl'r and Theatr«: Union (BECTU) archilr.
at the Univt-'rsiq, of llast Anglia is a collection of audio interviews witlr
members of the British lihn inclustry. In addition to directors anrl
producers, the interviews are also with editrtrs, continuity workers.
cxhibitors and technicians and they provide fàscinatine nuts-and-bolts
detail about the workings of the film indtrstry. Many of the interviews havt'
been transcribed ancl these written transcripts are accessible online vi;r
the BECTLT website. To access this rnaterial, y<.nr will need a site losin, brrr
this can be achievecl fairly easily by following instructions on çhe webpagt'.
The websites of the key industry orsanisations should also be explorerl
to cliscover what resources are available and what new initiatives ax'
being firnded. For exanrple, the BBC archive website includes themerl
collections of moving image and audio material on subjects as diverse as
Enid Blyton, the appeal of.James Bond, Dr Who, coal mining in Britairr
and a collection of radio interviews with Hollpvood stars, includinr
Bette Davis, Tony Curtis and Katherine Hepburn. All of the rrlaterirl
can be accessed freely from the website and has sreat potential ftrr usc
as sorlrce material.
In addition to hostins its own collections of rnovins image and sounrl
material, the British Universities and Vicleo Council website includes
details on proiects it is involved with. Recent projects include tht'
Clhannel 4 project at the University of Portsmouth, the publication of
600 films frr»n the Têchnicolor cinemasazine Roundabout (1962-1974)
in a collaboration with the BFI and the collation of news material liorrr
BB(l Northern Irelancl from the 1960s and 1970s in a database callerl
Chronicle and freely accessible to all ttrose in British rrniversities. Yorr
shoulcl check these websites regularly and subscribe to mailing lists s<r
that you ar-e aware of new developments, publications and collections.
As well as listings f'or films and upcornins events on the BFI lvebsitr:.
their related site, Screenonline, is an online encyclopedia of British filnr
and television, fèaturing hundreds of hours of film and television clips
,$ffi.
RESOURCES 123
Itlrrr tlr<' r'«rllections ol'the BFI National Archive as well as inforrnation
nrr llr itislr clirectors, actors and prt>ducers.
CONCLUSION
llnrv to rrse this range of materiirl effectivelywill be covered in the next
r lr.rptcl lrut it is irnportant to remember that everything included here
lr lu\t ir broad sweep of the traterial available. Many of the resources
Illrrtilit'cl here relate to British filrn and nrovirrg image nratclial.
lrlrvisiorr material will require a different range of sources, while a
lnpir cr»vcrins an aspect of Holllvood filrn or l'rench cinema will need
lrr rllrw upon other sources. -But the approach identificd here and the
rltllcrtrrt types of sorlrces iclentified shoukl help yorr begçin to compile
rnrrr list ofresources, regardless oftopic.
llowever, you should still be considering what resources will bcst
Irrllr you with your research and consicler how to use the rnaterial you
Itrrrl. 'l'lre following chapter will now address how you can best use theser
r'\( )l u ('cs and how to make sure that you get the most out of a visit [o an
ilr lriv(', how to create an online survey or conduct zr rescarch interview.
NOTES
I llrrchacl Low, 'l'he History of' Ilritish ltibn, T vols (London ancl New York:
I{outledge, 1997; originally published Allen & Unwin, l94B).
'.1 .f olrn Serlgwick, I'opular lilmgting in, 1930s Britain: A Choice of Pleasures
(llxeter: University ol'F,xeter Press, 2000);.fefTrey Richards, 'I'he Ag o.l
tlLc Dream Palace: Cinemo arul Sot:iety 1930-1 939 (London: Routledge and
Kcgan Paul, 1984); Chzrrles Drazin, T-he Fincst Years: Rritish Oinema of thc
1940s (L<tndon: I.B. Tauris, 2007); Robert Murphy, Ilealism and. 'l'in,sel:
Oinemtt and Socicty in Britain 1939-4ll,2nd eclition (London: Routledge,
1992); Mark H. Glancy, Whe'n Hollltoood Loucd lJritain: l-hc Hollyiuood
llritish Filrn, 1D9-45 (Manchester: Manchcster University Press, 1999).
ll Anthony Aldgate and Jelfrey Richards, Britain Can Thkc It: The Rritislt
Oinema, in the SeconrJ Workl War (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
I'ress, 1994);James Ohapman,'fhe British at War: Cinemo, Slate ond
l'ropaganda, 1939-45 (London: I.B Tauris, 1998); Robert Murphy,
llritish Cinema and the Setond World Wrzr (London: Cont.ir-mum, 2000).
.l Sue Harper and Vincent Porter, Ilritish Oin,ema of th,c 1950s: 'l'he Dcrline
ol l)elerence (Oxforrl: Oxford University Press, 2003); Su Holmes, -Brzrisà
r:.]rË*+i§sçs+4-.-:-
 124 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE RESOURCES 125
&@
7'V a'nd hilm Cult'ure ol the 1950s: OornirLg lo a 7'V Near You! (Ilristol: ll,rrlrt'r', Wotnen in BriLish Oinetna: Mad, Bad a'nd l)anserous b Knout
Intellect, 2005). (t,orrr[on: Continuuln, 2000);.fustin Smith, tr4riti.nrzil aruJ Us: OuLt l"ilms
5 Melanie P,ell, I,'emini'niLy in Lhe lùame: Wmen atul 1950s British Pop1ll(t) ,tttrl liilm (hilts in Britislt Oiru,rna, (l,ondon: I.B. Tauris, 2010); Ilanson,
Cinema (London: I.B. Tâuris, 2009); Christiner (ierarehtl', Briti.sh Cinent,t ltrtrtt .\ilcttL Screett to Mttlti-Srreen; Laurie N. Ede, Brilish lilm Design:
i'n the l-iftics: GenrLo; GetLre antthc'Nau LolrÀ'([-ondon: Routledge, 2000). .l llisttry (London: LIl. 'Iàuris, 2010); Duncan Petrie, l'he llritish
[i f)anny Powell, Studying lJritish Cinnna: T'he 1960s (New York: Autcrrr ( i trn | t r atogru,p ha' ( l,onclon: BFI Publishin g, I 996) .

Prcss, 2009); Robert Murphy, Sixties British Cinemn (l,onclon: BFI. | ', lr tt
Ir:/,/Iilrnstudiesforfiee.blogspot.co.uk.
2008) ; Alexande r Walke r, I lollluood Enlçland: The British lil'm lndustrt itt l lr rvrvw. rnovingimagesource.us/rcsearch,/guide,/type/23 and wlvr,v.
the 1960.s,Znd edition (l,onclon: Harrap, 1986). r ir r«'itstc.com/recontnrcndecl_links.
7 Ncwland (cd.) , Don't Look Nozu; Robert Shail (ecl.) , Se.uenties llriLish Cinenrtt I i lltrlJt:iltations:_Jou,nt.rilcfAudienceu,tt.d,Ptm:ept'ionStul,ies,tr^tw.particiPations.
(I-ondon: BFI l'ublishing,/Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); Sue Harper antl r n. g', Vrt igo, u,ww.closeupfi lmcen tre.com/vertigo-rnagazi n e.

-fnstin Srnith (eds.), llnll.s/z lilm Cult,urc in, the 1970s:'lhe Bourularies ol lll l?rirtl,http:/ /variety.corn.
Plca,sure (Edinburgh: Eclinburgh University Press, 2011); Sian Barber. l!l .\s ol'2013, the thirty-year rule is being- progressivelv scalecl down to a
'fhe Brit,ish Film Industry in the 1970s: Capital, (htlt,ure arul (heatiuilt rw('nty-year rulc, with the process intcnded to be completed by 2022.
(Basingstokc: Palgrave Macnrillan, 2013);Paul Newland, Ilritish lilns ttl Sr'<' www.nationalarchives. gov. uk/about/ 20-year-rule.h tln (accessed B
thc 1970.s (Mar-rchester: N,Ianchester Universitl, Press, 2013). l)r'r'crnber 2014).
B .)ohn Hill, BriLish Cinema in the 1980s: Issnes and 'l'hemes (()xford.
Clarenrlon Press, 1999);.fohn Walker, Once and luture I'iln: llriti..slt
Cinema in the Seuentie,s arul liighties (London: Methuen, 1985). RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING
9 l{obert Murphy, l}ritish Oiwma o.f the 90s (l.ondon: BFI, 2000).
-l'he
l0 Robert Murphy, I-he British Cinema Rook,Znd edition (London: Bl'l llr r r r rrws, Elaine el rzl. (eds. ) , Bntish Oinemu So'urce Rook: BFI Arthittc
Publishing, 2001);Justine Ashby and Andrew Higson (eds.), -Britisli Vialing Coÿies and l,ibrary hlaterials (London: BFI PublishinS4,
Cinerru4 Past und Present (Lont7<rn: Routledge, 2000); Sarah Stret't. I 995) .

British National Cine'ma (London: Routledge : 1997) . lirstcr,JanetarrdSheppard,Julia (cds.), llitishArchiues: A C'uidctoArch,itte
11 .firn Lezrch, British liln (OambridgJe: Carnbridge fJniversity Press. liesouru:es in t,he United Kingdom, (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002).
2004); Arny Sargeant, IJritish Cinema: A Critical Hi.storl ([,onclon: Bll
Publishing, 2005). WEBSITES
12 Briarr McFarlane ,'l'\rc llntldopa«lia llritish Film,3rd edition (l,ondorr
oJ
Methuen, 2008); Margaret l)ickinson and Sarah Street, Cinetrur a,trrl Itl,l( I'l'U: \^,'w\{.uea.ac.uk,/fllrn-tclevision-rnetlia/research/research
State: The lilm Industry u'nd the lhitish Coaernment 1927*19B4 (Lond<irr: -thern es,/british-film-an 11-tr.studies/bri tish-ci nema/ oral-history
BFI l']ublishing, l9B5) ; De nis Cl,iffbrd , llritish lrilm (kttalogue: l:iction l,'il,tr -project.
1895-1991, Vtlnme 1,3rd edition (London: Fitzroy Dearborn,200l). llli I Sr:reenonline: w'll.lv.screenonlinc.org.uk.
13 Anrlrew Spicer, Tlpical Men: Rtpre.sentations of Masculinity in the I'oÿulrn llII l,ibrary: lr,rvw.bfi.org.uk/cduc:rtion-research/bfi-reubenJibrary.
British Oulture (l,ondon: I.B. Tàuris, 2001); Chapman, Pu,st rtntl Prcsent. lh i t ish Pathé: www.britishpathe.com.
[,eon Htrnt, IJritish Lozu Culture: Front Sa,fari Suits to SexploitaLion (Londorr. Itt' l''VC: rwwv.brrFvc.ac.rrk.
Routledgçe, l99B); Pe ter Hutchings, Hammr and Bqond: 'l-ht llritish, Huu» llli( I Written Archives: www.bbc.co.uk/historyofïhebbc/contacts/wac.
Film (Manchester: Manchester Universiq, Press, 1993);-fohn Hill, "l'n. I l:rlry Ransorn (lenter: www.hrc.utexas.edu/collections/filrn.
(lhss and RealisnL: British Cinema 1956*1963 (London: BFI Publishing. l\4rr r'14aret Hcrrick I-ibrary: www.oscars.()rg,/librarl.
19t36); Claire Monk and Amy Sargcant (eds.), British Historical Cinem,, l\4 tss-Observation : www.nr:rssobs.org.uk/ index.httn.
l

(Lonclon: Routledge, 2002); Steve Chiball and Robert Murphy (eds.). '
l'lrr: National Archives: www.nationzrlarchives.gov.rtk.
Rritish (,rime Cinema (London: Routleclge, 1999); Higson , lihn Lngkmd. I t( ll.A Film ancl Têlevision Archive: www.cirrema.ucla.edu.
14 (lharles Barr, llaling Studios (Moflat: (lameron & Hollis, 1998); Srrt

,,\

+ B
USINC SOU RCES
The previous chapter has identified the ranse of sources which can lx'
uselirl lirr the stucly of filnr. 'fhis chapter will ofler suggestions on hou
best to use these s()urces. As with any research, the way in which yorr
use the rnaterial you fincl will clepend a sreat deal on your topic antl
research qr"restion. For example, if you are keen to explore the aesthelir
qualities of filrn in different periods, you may not gçive mnch attentiorr
to lilm funcling. However, if you are explorinu the development of arr
inclisenous national film industry or considering why the fihns of tht'
new wave ernerged in France when they did, an understanding ôf {ilrl
finance and the econornics of the historical period will be relevant. Vrrr
should also ensure that adequate s()rlrces exist for your research. F-or
instance, if you are unclertaking a project on audience response anrl
want to explore conternporary and historical reactions to the sanl('
Iilm, then you need to be able to access historical audience data anrl
to analyse it effectively, and also find a way to elicit responses fiorrr
contemporary audiences watching the same filrn. To do this you rvill
need to devise a methoclology that cc»nbines data gathering and anal-vsi'
with a cornparative historical approach.
This chapter will indicate how diffèrent kinds of sources - textual.
visual, archival, financial, oral - can be used. Dilïerent skills are neeclt'rl
in order to usc diflèrent sources effectively. You might neecl to know, firr
ex:rmple, how to utilise the financial infirrmation contained in ledgers,
account books or end-oÊyear records, orhow to conduct effective me<li:r
discourse ar-ralysis on newspaper articles, làn letters or film reviews.
The chapter will also o11èr suggestions on how to go about conductinq
a research interview and what can be gained by using data-gathering
techniques such as questionnaires and fcrcus u«rups. Advice ort how 1,,
analyse a film has already been covered in earlier chapters, but sonrc
suugestions will be offèred to help you effectively explore and analysc
a ranse of rnovinq image material, from YouTübe clips to newsrcr'l
''..!(Wq1'-i-
USINC SOURCES 127
Irrnt;rgr', lïorn television rlrama to filrned interviews, fiom experimental
lllrrrr Io blockbuster fèatures.
USINC TEXTUAL MATERIAL
dr rlrowrr in the previous chapteq secondary material such as books and
llrrr rlrls irre an excellent startins point, while magazines, newspapcrs,
rrllrr iirl government papers and conrmissioned reports can provide
IilrIr )r'lilnt contextual detail fbr your research topic.
I lsirrg this second group of sources requires a particular approach.
ll tr rrot enough simply t.o look at a range of this rnaterial and use it t<r
rttl,l,(llt your owr icleas. As with all sources, you rvill need to consider
tlrrr uulterial in relation to its bias, nuance, subjectivity and authorship.
ll forr lrre examining rnat.erial fiorn a range of diffêrent newspapers or
rilrll{irlines, you need to recognise and acknowledge that the material
urrrtirirrcd within these publications will be aimed at diflèrent tarset
ttt u lit't tt:es.
l'ilrrr reviews are also published in plenty of mainstream
l )nt('nlporary publications, and the .iuxtaposition of reviews alonsside
tlrr' ;rrlir:les, letters and adverts can give you an insight into both popular
trrit(' rn(l the target audierrce of the particular publication, and of the
lr,rrtir rrlar Iilm. If the sarne filrn or pl-ogram[re is rcviewed in a ranee o{'
yrrlrliclrtions then you shoulcl compal'e the langtrage, tone and response
ll tlrt' r'eviewers. This kind of discorrrse analysis needs to be located
rvllrilr lr cultural or rnedia studies tradition irnd would need to take into
rtrrr)unt the political affiliation of the particular publication, current
lr'r'rrls which rnay be shaping the debate around a particular film or
lrrrrrr' :rrrd somethins about the reviewers themselves. If it is zr politician
rrr rtinll-a column Ibr a daily rrewspaper, then his or her observations on
lrlrrr rnay be very dillerent to that of a filrnrnaker being interviewed
'r
rrlrorrt lris or her latest release or a film critic reviewing a selection of the
tlrv('st releases into cinernas. Gender, age, class backeround, political
trllrlirrtion, status ancl personal opinion will all be influencins fact()rs
wlrrr lr will shape the review or critiqrrc.
r\s well as considerins the articles and reviews which deal with films,
1.rrrr slr«mld pay attention to how the publication as a whole has been
Irut (()gether. Are the filnrs reviewecl or cliscussed in keeping with the
Iurrc lrrrd style of the rest of the magazine or newspaper? Is the target
rrrrrlicrr<'e of the publication made clear; for example, is it firr teenagers
128 USINC FILfu\ AS A SOURCE
or young adults, fbr horror or fantasy film fans? What clo you know aborrt
the prrblicatior-r? Is it u'ell-estzrblished or newly arrived on the scent ,
What are its circulation figtrres ancl what can you cliscover about its airrrt
and objectives? Many prrblications:üso have rvebsites and these may lrr'
put togcther in a verv diflèrent way to standard print publications - Iirr
example, the adverts could be cliff'erent, suggestine a clil'ferent tzrrgt t Ilr rrrrrllle a methodology.
audience to the print edition.
Official reports on the fihn industrl,, culture o{' broaclcastins or
cinerna attendance produced by the government, pressrrre grollps ()r
industr-v r»rsanisations can providc you with key industry data. If tht
findings have been published - such as the Williarns (lomrnittee fin<linu\
on obscenity and film censorship - then yor"r shor.rlrl be able to access
them from your university library or fiom the BFI Library. If the reports
have been cornmissioned by an orsanisation, it is worth checking to s<'r'
if the findings hirve been published or.r its website. While these official
rep()rts and explorations may provide rich data, you should remembt'r
that they have been written and producecl fbr a prlrp()se. You need 1,,
think about who has comrnissioned the strrdy, what their particullu
interest is and what they are trying to find out. The way in which ther
have carried out the research should also be considered; is it Lonclorr
centric, does it clraw upon a very small sarnple, arc its finclings based orr
other rep()rts or studies?
VISUAL MATERIAL
Analysing a film has been covered in Chapter 3; this section will suggcst
some basic ways to approach and analyse dilïèrent types of visrrrrl
material - newsreel footaee, docunrentary n-raterial, television items.
YorlTube videos, amateur' ltrotage and online collections. 'Ihere is :r
range of different ways in which yolr can explore moving images, and thc
methodology that y()u adopt will recosnise the unique characteristics ol
your source material. In order to understand your visual material yorr
should find written material that explores that lirrm of the medium. For
exarrple, if your focus is YouTube or online videos then work by.]earr
Burgess and-|oshua Green will be helpful firryour research.r If your fbcrrs
is newsreels, then work by Ciara Chambers and Luke McKernan will bc'rr
good starting point.2 Ptrblishecl work wtrich analyses television materiirl
is extensive and what is useful for you will clepend upon precisely whlt
the television material is - television drama will be approached velr
USINC SOURCES 129
w
rlllll. rcrrt.ly to teleüsion documentary sci-fi or fântasy programmes or
rrr,rvr itcrns. Although the rnoving inrase material may be diffèrent fiorn
r lrl\'('ilti()nal feature films, you are still using this filmed rnaterial as a
rrnr( (' lrnd you shoulcl still ask of it some standard research questions
rrrrrl rrtilise the approach suggested to devise a research question and
( )rrcc you have read around the specific qualities of the visual
rrcrlirrrrr you can approach your sources and ask some basic questions:
rrlr,rt is it, who macle it, where can it be fbrrncl, who is it intcnded ftrr
rrrrrl wlry was it created? The answers to these straishtforward qr.restions
wtll lr«'lp you to establish how yottr sorlrce material can be understood.
l,ur cxarnple, a YouTirbe video posted online in 2011 will have a very
rllltclt'rrt intended audience to that of an amatetrr film of a birthday
lr.ill!'rn:rde in the 1940s ancl gifted as part of a private collecti()n to alr
'rt
r lrivt'. A television documentary on disability commissioned following
llrr'20 12 London Paralympics will have a diflèrent ptrrpose to a news
llrrrr on disability claimants and may be broadcirst at a diffèrent time.
,\r rvitlr all visual rnaterial, you must think about audience but also the
lrurlx)sc of the material - is it intended t() entertain, to educate, to
I
rr ovi«tt' information?
\irrr should also consider access, transmission and broadcast. If the
llr.rrr Iras been shown on television, wheu was it rnzrde and broadcast?
l{',rs it transmitted live or was it pre-recorded? \,Vhat does this suggest
irlx rrrt audience and who the item is intended fbr? If you are looking at
Irro:rrlcast material, are you studying zr television series and explorine
Ir,rw it.s visual style changes over the course of tirne? Or are you
lrrrsirlerins how the objectives of the programme shifted during the
r nrrrsr' of its broadcast mn? If the item is a newsreel, when was it shown
Irr lirrcrnas? What is being depicted, how are the news events of the clay
lx'irrg presented, what tone of voice is being used by the narrator or
Irr o;rrk:aster? With historical items like this you should also consider how
llrcy can be accessed. Are they stored in an online archive and available
Itlcly or via subscription? Should they be studied as a body of work
tirllrt'r'than as indiviclual items? Who were they made by and what was
tlrt' r'thos of the company who macle them?
lrr the modern era, a great deal o1'rnovit'tp; image material is user-
grrrcrirted c()ntent which can be macle quickly and then posted online
rrrrtl seen by millions. Such rnaterial usually bypasses conventional
rrrctlr«rds o{'production, distribution and exhibition, ancl its ease of
rrr |t'ss makes it f:rr simpler to engage instantly with it tl'ran with other,
 130 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
rn()re conventional filn'rs or proeramrnes. Yet with such a wealth ()l
material to choose fiom, how do yorl select items ftrr your researclri
Are you looking at online videos posted by the same person or thost'
with the sreatest rrumber of view-t' ()r are you considering a ranse ol
amateur firotage fi'om zr particular year or which has been collated as rr
specific collection? As a researcher you should think aborlt what makt's
up the body of w<lrk you will explore ancl how you will use it to anslv('l
your rescart'h qrrcsti()n.
'.i While conve ntional approaches to exploring settillg, lightilu.
;i
c()stume and mise-en-scene may be less than usefirl t'or analysirrg
nrany of these iterms, all of the visual iterns will have been deliberatclr
created and craftecl ancl shoulcl be analysed visually as wcll as expkrretl
culturally and hist.orically. Studies of filrn have developed over rnarrr
years, but analysis of rnodern sources such as podcasts and webcasts i:
still developing. Using such material as source nraterial oflèrs excitirrg
possibilities, but you need to approach it with care, ask relevant anrl
pertinent questions of the material ancl lrave clear ideas of how you will
use it and {irr what purpose.
I
ARCHIVAL MATERIAL
As indicated in the prcüous chapter, lhere are many different kinrls
of'archives, all holding different types of inforrnati«>n. You may lrc
accessing goverrrfirent material, personal papers or company recorrls.
The material rnay be ()pen access or restrir:ted, it rnay be catalogueci or
un-catalogued. Y<lu may be presented with boxes of inlbrmation whit lr
have been carefully cataloguecl and sorted by date, by filrn or by project.
or the boxes may be {irll of miscellarteorrs paper which you will need t,,
sift through. All archives are different, but befbre visiting an archive or
rnaking an appointment you should find out as much as you can fiorrr
their website. Ycru should also contact them before you visit to chet k
their procedures, opening hours and if there is anything you need to clo
in advance strch as providing evidence from your university about yorrr
research or prograrnme of study, or becomins a rnember of the archivc
or organisation ancl paying a membership fee.
Before you visit an archive you should undertake substantial researclr
on its catalogue, making a note of what you want to access and whiclr
specific material y()u want to look at. If your catalosue searches hav'
yielded a n)ass of infbrmation then you will need to think about \,vays l{,
USINC SOURCES 131
rllirrt'your search. Oan you lirnit the ranse of dates you are looking at;
r,lr y()rr look at televisior-r rather than l\ln and, television; is it possible
Io lrx'rrs on a particular fihn proiect or specific television prosramme
tirtlrcr.than trying to cover all the ()utput fiorn a particular individtral?
Ii rrr cirn always rnake fbllow-up visits to the archive but being focused on
yorrl irrrmediate research neecls will ensure that you get everything you
trlr'«l lirr the piece of work you are currently undertaking.
M:rrry archives have specific rules. Copl.ing material may not be
;x'rrrritted and srr you should be pleparecl to wrile exterrsivc rtotes.
l'.vmr il'copying is permitted, as is the case at 'l'he National Archives,
1rlrolor:opying is expensive and you should not expect to be able to copy
rvrrything. Other archives restrict the use of digit.al photography so
r upyirrg documents in this way Inay not be allowed. Vru rnay be allclwed
tr) us('a laptop to make notes but sorne archives request that you take
not('s in pencil rather than using pen. If you are l<xrking at very rare
trratcrial, you rnay be required t() wear special gloves proüded by the
rrr r lrivc and tr> use file supports on the table to protect the material. You
will rrsrrally need to provide sorrte basic inf'ormation on the topic of your
r'rclrlt'h. Most archives havt-- agreements which you are required t<-r sign
wlriclr state that you will not reproduce any of the material without their
;l'r rrrission and that you acknowledge their ownership and copyriuht of
llrr rrraterial.
( nlalogued material
ll tlrc rrraterial has been catalogued then you should only be looking at
rrrirtcrial which you have requested and which is particularly pertincnt to
ÿrrul r'(:search. Pcrsonal papers which have been catalogr-red will ustrally
lrt olg:rnised around diffèrent film projects or in chronologicirl order.
\i rrr slrould also be aware of boxes which are labelled as 'rniscellaneous
Irrrlx'r's' or 'c<lrrespondencc', as material contained within them
ttrrglrt irlso be relevant t() your research. If you are exploring a box
Inll ol rnaterial relatins to a particular film project, be aware of what
ÿru :rrc looking at. ls it material related to the production or post-
;rrrxlrrt:tion nf a film? Does it contairr scripts, prodtrction notes, financial
Irrlor rrrntion, mem()s and letters? 'Iake note of individual items which
ru r inl(:resting, but you shor"rld also look at the material as a whole. [)oes
tlrr correspondence suggest a tensiorr in the film production process'l
lhrls it doctrment arsuments between the producer and director over
 132 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
the marketing of the finished film? Does it reveal infbrmation about cast
behaviour or salaries? Clan we discern lvhere the filrn rvas being rna<L
and how much it was costing? Is there infbrrnation about distributiorr.
marketins and exhibition of the finished filrn?
If you are lookins at catalogued material from local or nation:ll
governrnent or industry organisations, then the presentation ol
the rnaterial mav be ver-y diflèrent. Personal papers can contain rr
lot of extraneolrs inf'ormation, whereas g()vernment and industrr
collections will not trstrally inchrde personal letters or memorabilia btrt
rather rvill conrprise only the formal and official document.ation anrl
correspondence.
Any nraterial which is used in vorrr own rescarch will need to bt
properly cited so you must. make sure that you have the document
infirrrnation and the inftrrmation which relates to the file in which it'nas
fbund. For cxample, if you are citing the notes from a meeting betweelr
members of the government ancl Mary Whitehouse in 1975, you will
need to reference it as fully as possible and according to the refèrenct'
systern you have been instnrcted to use. Archive material refèrenced irr
a footnote coulcl mn as fbllows: i
Comments by N\ary Whitehouse taken from meeting notes dated 5
February 1975 File HO 3OO/166.
'lhc in{ext cilation could be
(/v1ary Whitehouse, 5 tebruary 1975)
with the firll reference in the bibliography including detail on tht'
sper:ific Hornc ()ffit:c filc.
(lovernment files or material accesserd fiom any national archive lvill
always have a specific relèrence number or code. The above refèrence -
HO - indicates that the file related to work at the Home Office, while thr'
sequence nurnber makes it easy fbr arlyone reading your work to folk»r
Llp ()n vour references. Refèrencing will depend on the referencing
style favoured by your clepartment or institution and the different fcrrnrs
alone with the kind of infbrmatir)n you want to include will be covercrl
briefly in thc firllowing ch:rpter.
't
USINC SOURCES 133
w
I lrt r atalogued material
ll tlrc rtraterial you are exarnining has not been cataloguecl you will
Irrcrl lo work throush methodically. When working with material like
tlrrr it is alrvays helpful tt.» construct a nalrative of (hc events recorderl
tvtllrin lhe docurnents. For example, if you are tracirrs a film's progress
1111orrglr the BBF'C, thcn you need to be aware of any specific problcrns
ll ('n(()untered, any clelays experienced in the issuina o{'a ccrtificat.c
iur(l iury barterins thatwent on between the Bo:rrcl and thc production
l'nrl)iu)y or distritrutors. If the paper file is a mr-'ss it can br: helpfrrl
ln wolk through the material in chronolosiczrl order to est.ablish the
rrllr('nce of events taking place.
Working with rnaterial in this way requires patience; y()u may not br:
rtlrk' lo find precisely what you reqtrire as key evidence ma)/ be missing.
ll tlris is the case then you rnust make sure that y()u acc()Lrnt frrr these
nrrrissions and clo not simply isnore them. Evcn if thcre arc g:rps in the
r lriv(', what rernains will still be useful. If material is missing, why do yorr
'u
tlrink tl'ris is? Has the nt:rterial been poorly cur;rl.cd or storcd? FIas onlv
nllili:rl documentation been kept and everything else destroycd? Within
tlrr llllFC paper files, a receipt for an issuins certificate should alrv:rys be
lr.'s('nt., as shoukl formal reports frorn at least tw() BBF(I examiners. Alons
wltlr tlris olficial documentatior) there rni.ry also be letters of complzrint
Irorrr rnembers of the public, mcm()s, correspondence between the
lllrrrrrrakers and the Board, publicity materials f'or t.he film and sornetimes
;rtrss t:lippines. As the BBF() materi:rl is rrn-catalogued and the contenls
nI t lrc liles vary wiclely, it is never clear u,hat,vou rnay find. Some 1970s files
r rlnlirill data on audience research carried out f'or particular filrns, whilc
llltcts include personal corresponclence fiom film industry luminaries
rrrllr :s Lindsay Anderson,.foseph Losey and Ken Rtrssell.
ll the material has not been {ôrmally catalogued thern you shorrlcl
rrr;rkc strre that you cite your s()rlrces as comprehensivelv as possible. If,
lnt cxatnple, you are citins work liom a classificirtion fihn file then yorrr
lor)lrr()te could be:
Correspondence between Stephen Murphy (BBFC) and executives
at Tigon Pictures dated 8 August 1972, taken from BBFC file: Oh
( alcutta!
Aglrirr, the refèrencing system fàvoured lty yotrr departrnent would
rL'lct'rnine how your work is re{trence<I, but the in-text citation could be:
 1
134 USING FIL/V\ AS A SOURCE
(Stephen Murphy, I August 1972)
The main objective is to ensure that anyone following up on y()ur
research can find the same matsrial you explorecl. Citing your researclr
as firlly as possible is goocl practice and working with un-catakrgut:<l
rnaterial often requires a high level oI'detail.
Using archive material
As with any rnaterial, when you examine it, yr.ru should ask questions
about its pr()venance and note down as much infbrmation as vou call.
Ytru should record the author of any documents and their official titl«,
and role. You should try and identiÿ who the key players are withirr
the correspondence. If it is helpful to do so you could précis thr'
corresponclence ol'the report and copy down any relevant paragraphs
or comments verbatim to be used in your own research.
If you cannot seem to fincl what you are looking frrr within tht,
rnaterial, consider why this is. Are the files yoü are looking at the onlr
place where such infbrrnation cotrlcl be stored? If you are looking at tht
director's pcrsonal papers then think about the other personnel who
worked on the fihn who may have kept rnaterial fiom the productiorr,
What abotrt the proclucer-, members of the cast or the finallcier funding
the production? lf thinss are missins which should be present, thcrr
think about where the material could be. Oan you track down the otht'r
lrall ol intl;ollurtl colresporrtlerrt e witlrin irrdustly orgirrrisatir»ns ol irr
persorral papers? 'I'tre BBFC's defence of its classification of  Clocfutorl;
Oratrye (1971) r{as sent to a number of local councils in 1972, but no
copy rcmains in thc BBFC lilc. But a llle in The National Archives dot':
contain a copy oI. ttris lengthy and explosive letter as it was sent frorrr
one of [,eeds' city councilkrrs to the home secretary to protest aborrr
thc tsBl-C's tone in the letter. Working with archival rnaterial means
consiclering where the material mav have ended up and trackins ir
clown. This detective work c:rn yield exciting results but rnay also requir<.
:r sreat deal of hard work to locate anything of interest. You may har,<.
to make a number of trips to an archive before you find anything
significant. Ycru also cann()t assunle that archive rnaterial is goinpç to
ofïèr revelirtory findings nhich r,r,'ill directly benefit your research.
As a researchet you should think about how you will use the rnaterial
you fincl. You rnay discover cxcitilg snippets of inforrnation, scandal or
,\
USINC SOURCES 135
gorsip. Vru may be reading passages from olcl letters betrveen fiiends
tvlrlrt certain things u'ere written which coulcl be embar-r'assing if'
trr.rrlt' Prrblic. Being a researcher means conducting your research in
iln ('llrical manner; sometimes it is not the lact that. you have fotrnd
rnrrrclhing that matters but how you will use it. If it is part of your
r'rr';rrch - fcrr example, if it is a letter frorn l{itchcock discussing the
llrlrcirl of a number ol actresses he is considerine casting it Mttrn.ie
(llXi.l) - then it could be relcvant ancl worth reproducing. However,
ll tlrt'letter is a personal attack on a specific actress and her limitecl
rtr tirrg :rbilities, then you should consider what purposc it wotrld serve
Io rrst' such information. You can alwiys allude to such information or
tr,lncnce non-contentious parts of the correspondence, but including
nr,rl('ri:rl which is hurtfirl, explosive or damasirrs and which does not
rllrcctly relate to your research can be unethical. If you have signccl
rln ilgreement with the archive which owns the material then it may
tr.rlrict you liom publishing anything which rvould be damaging to the
Itrrlividual involved. As with all cases like this, it is a matter of' juclgement.
lrr acldition to these ethical considerations, y()u should also be aware
ll issrres of data protection. If you are keen to use material fèatrrred in
llltus from nrembers of the public - for exarnple, people who have
writt('n to their MP, respondents who have provided infbrmation as
lrrul ()f'a social survey, or those who wrote letters of complaint to local
rorrrr<ils - you should make sure that the people are not narnecl. It is
rtrorrgh to note, 'this fèmale resp<tndent suggested ...' or'a father of two
wr olt' ...' or even 'a viewer fiom Bath complained that ...'. Such phrases
rh, lr()1. weaken your work but ensure that the authors of the nraterial you
ril(' lrsing are protected. However, if the material is written by someone
lrolrling public office or a well-known fiuure, then naming them rnay
lx' irppropriate. For ex;rmple, the prinre ministeq MPs, church lcadcrs,
llrc lrcad of the (linematograph Film (louncil, academics carryine out
tr.sclrrch, film directors, producers or industry figures, the head of the
llltl( ) or the BFI can all be named. You should always consider whether
rr;rrrring the individtral is important for your research. If your argument
tllics upon the fact that it is someone specific writing about a particular
lilttt or issr.re then it is appropriate to name them. (irncerns about data
prolcction are less of an issue fbr undergraduate work but can becorne
prolrlematic when working at MA or PhD level and when your work is
lx'irrg published.
 136 USINC FIL/V\ AS A SOURCE USINC SOURCES 137
il

,I

t;
FINANCIAL MATERIAL il . r)l'lx)ration or orsanisation's finarrcial records, or have they been
ttt,rirrt:d by an individual?
I

I
i
\i »r r should be carefirl about rnaking substantial clainrs base'd solely on
As previous chapters have inclicated, understandinEî the fin:rnci;rl
llrrirrrt i:rl records. The records may only be partially cornplete, and key
realities <lf cliflèrent fllm industriÇs ancl how and why dillèrent filnrs
t(.( I i(,r)s may be missins. If you have found financial data in the company
arc macle relies upon financial data. Ofien this data will have bet:rr
I
retained, perhaps by financiers, management coûrpanies, governlnclll ttr olrls or accounts, can this data be c«rrroborated by a dillerent source ,
ll,
il
or industry firnding bodies or by the produccr or director themselvcs' hu cxample from the director's owrt personal papers, or liorn the
t('r orrls of the NFFC or the BFI? Beware of trsing inf<rrmation lirund on
jr
'
When a<:ct:ssitrg records like tlris you need to have a clear idea of w'hrrt
Wikipcdia or the lnternet Movie Data Base (IMDB): the financial claims
I
you want to find ()ut and how the linancial material can help vou. Yirtt
:l I
rnust also be aware of its limitations.
rr;rrl«'on these websites can be difficult to verifÿ. Intt-'rvicws with the
rllr cctor or proclucer when a filrn has been completecl will ofïen cotrtain
Some flnancial dat:r can help to give you an insight, an overvielv ol
.:

lrruric financial infbrmation which will give you a rouuh idea of cost.s
an indication of film popularity, production costs or profit and loss,
Ittvolved, but in cases like this it can be a good idea t<; itrdicate whert:
but suclt itrftrnnation neecls t.<.1 be carefully contextualised. All fihrr
cornparties will ltave had linanci:rl records and accottnts but they rnar
llrc figures have corne liom when you present the inltrrmation. For
n«rt have beett retained. Sorne filnr production compauies were set lrl)
rxirrrrple, you could note, 'In an intervicw wttlt 'lbtal lilrn, the director
to fund specific films, or t() supl)ort the work of particular directors or trr:rllcd that the filnr's budget was ...'. f'his indicates that it is simply the
rlix'r'tor's recollection o{'thesc figures rather than hard financial data.
proclucers. They nray have been short lived and the records may lravt
Sonretirnes financial records include details of cast salaries - usually
srrbseqtrently disappcared. This is particularly true for the parts of tht
film indust.ry rvhich are very poorly clocumenteclf, such as low-budet'r ltrt'ol'the biggest c<-rsts in filmrnaking. These figures can be illurninating
films or pornographl,. ilrrrl can ofler insights into how the industry operates at a particular
linr(', as well as the indiviclual value of specific stars. S<lmetimes these
Whcr-r conti-ontecl with financial data you need lirst to considt'r
llgrrr'«:s can be srlrprisinu. For exanrple, the Carry On series of fihns was
what it is showing you. Oan you draw conclusions ab()ut the success ()r
lusr'<l around an ensemble cast with tànriliar faces, including Hattie
failure r>l a film fiom the datil pr'ovided? W'here have the data contt'
fi'om and why hirve they been retained? Is it a record of paynrents firrrrr f,lrlrrcs, Barbara WindsoE Sid James and Kennet.h Williarns. Yet the
grrorlrrction and salary infirrmation held in Peter Roscrs' papers at the
the Eacly levy fünd, rvl'rich indicates a level «rf success at the Britislr
box office, rlr it is all acc()tlllt of hclw nruch money was sPent ()lr lll,'l rr-veals that not all of the cast were paid equally ft»' their work orr
llrc lilrns and thatJames ancl Williarns were paid significantly more than
advertising or rnarketing the lilrn? Are the financial figures included irr
an encl<rÊyeirr report or account? Oopies of the National Film Finant t
lltt' r't:st of the cast on the later films. The files also indicale that tht:
lonrl)any had to take out specific health instrrance irr ()rder to crnploy
Corporation end-ofjcar accottnts are held at the BFI Library arrtl
reveal an overview of the rvork of' this organisatit>n in selecting projecls ll;rtticJacques ftrr the later filrns dtre to her declining health. These
rril)l)ets of financial inf'ormation c:rn be used to explore firrther the
to fund an(l t.hc level of success enioyerl. If you are looking at lists <»l
grrorlrrction context of the Oarry On series. Rosers' papers also indicate
l
popular Iilrns or the most successfirl filrns at the box office, considt'l
Irow rrruch was spent on each film; the nlajority of the filrns were funded
where the inftrrmation hirs cotne fi-orn:rnd what it relates to' Does it
I

relate only to cinernas in the l,ondt)Il area, or to an individual cinern;rr

Is it a globill picture or a rlational one? Does it relate to British filnrs
in Arncrica or is it all films released in the US in the periocl covered lrt
lit
the recorcls? If the records are historical then yotl need to take rrolt'
of flucttratiotrs and variations catrsed by inflation 2rnd Price increast:s.
rvhile it'they are contemP()rary and Posted online you should try an(l
verify thern with a rar-rse of othor sources. Are the acc()unts part- ()l
lry.l. Arthtrr Rank productions, until (àrr1 On. Iingktntl (1976) was
rL't'rrred too expensive and so Rogers and Thornas applied to thc NFF(I
*rrrl to EMI to firnd the film. The escalatir)s c()sts for each film and thc
lrrln'rsingly complex f'urrding arrangernents lbr the final instalrnents in
llrr st:ries indicate how film funding was changing, and how and rvhy
tlrt' irrdustry ultimately became reluctant to firnd ncw filtns in a otrce-
rprrlirr series.
;x

138 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
I)iscr»verins some relevant financial inf'ormation can be usefül but lr,'
careful not to rret too bogged down in the facts and figures. Unless yorr
are a trained accountant or financial analyst, the figures may be diffictrlt
to understand and vou should*perhaps think about the ways in whi<l'
thc infirrmation can be useful for your research rather than spendirrii
time trying to understancl the intricacies of film finance.
ORAL SOURCES: RECORDED INTERVIEWS
Recorded interviews with film industry fisures can provide you willr
great research material, but you must consider a range of things beftrr,
using it. Specifically, you necd to think about when the material rvrrs
recorded and whether the interview was desiened to publicise a ncu
project or recorded to celebratc sorneone's achievements. Where was ir
shown or broadcast? ls it pzrrt of a broader collection and, if so, how rvlt
this collection funded and is it attached to a particular project? Wlrirt
are the objectives of the project and how might this have influenced tlr,
interview itself,) flas the material been digitised,and can it be accesst,l
as sound files? If it remains on VHS tapes or câssettes, where can it lrc
accessed, and are there lacilities to view it or listen to it? Finally, if tlrr
raw material is not. available, are there interview transcripts which curr
be accessed?
Crucially, you must also take into account how much time has elapst'r
since the events being described and the inteniew itself-. Intervielt
can yield fascinating information, yet they cann()t be held to be a tnr.
accolrnt of past events, particularly if the events being discussed tool
place many years previously. Memory is fallible and people may rett ll
events accordins to their own particular perspective. This does not
make the material worthless - quite the contrary - but again, ideas ol
sub.iectivity, bias, opinion, memory and ptrrpose must all be discussed irr
relation to recorded interviews. If you are interested in using recordt'rl
interviews as part ofyour research then you should pay due attention l(,
methodologies concerned with oral and recorded histories.
As film is such a young discipline, it is always possible that the peopl
y()rr are researchins are still alive and may be willing to talk with vorr
about the filmmaking process and to offer vou their own memories ol
events.
,\,
,
USINC SOURCES 139
I rttrducting your own interviews
l,orrrlrrcting interviews with people in the film inclustry or th()se nou,
lelin'rl fiom the industry can give you some {antastic material. I\{ost
lx'r )lll(' can be reached via agents or companies and some will have their
ttTvrr wcbsites with ways to contact them. Or you can track down people
llrt orrgh shared contacts. The format of the interview - email, in person,
rvr.r tlrc phone -will determine what kind of responses you get. For
exlrrrple, if you email s()meone a list of qnesti«rns, it is easy for thern tcr
glvc you one-word responses or to avoid questi()ns which they do not
l{iurl t() answer. On the telcphone you have more opportunity to builcl
Ê rirl)l)()rt with someone and can ask them to develop their responses or
hrlkrw up interesting comments, but you will be unable to respond tcr
otrl,vistrirl sigçns or body language. (londucting an interview in person is
d l{r'(,rt opportunity, but you need to think about what you ask and how
prtr irsk it. If you ask the tvrong questi()ns or alienate yr»ur respondent
lltcrr y«ru may not gather anything of particular use; they rnay r.efuse
lrl;ruswer any more questions or take the discussion in a clifferent
tllt lclion.
All interviews are different but there are a few key things that you
tltorrlrl consider:
r Be prepared: Do your homework and make sure that you have
I
a sood understanding of the person you are interviewins, their
lxrdy of work and their career. \Arhen interviewing, you need to
rlemonstrate that you have a working knowledge of your topic. If
you ask obvious or naive questions, your interviewee may become
litrstratecl, bored or annoyed.
o Avoid asking personal questions or looking for ,off the record,
comments: It is unlikely they will want to answer qtrestions like this
irnd even if they do, you need to think about how it is relevant tcr
your research.
r Do ask if you can record the interview: If they give their consent
then agree rvith them that you will tlpe up the transcript of the
interview or check their responses with them befbre using it in
your research. Giving thern final approval on wh:rt they have said is
good research practice.
r When you compose your interview questions, think about rvhat
y()u want to fincl out and how to elicit this infbrmation. Be aware
that asking open questions can break the ice, but they can also
140 USINC FIL/V\ AS A SOURCE
elicit a great deal ()f unfocused or seneric intbrmation. You shorrltl
be prepared to use a combination of seneral and specific, op<'rr
and closed questions to sain infbrmation.
o It is usually best to begin with a discursive question and to explairr
your research interest: For example, you may want t() explore tlrr'
fihn indtrstry in the I990s and are asking director Danny Bollt
how difficult it was to get funding fc>r Shalbw (jratrs and wltrrt
rnotivated him to work with Film Four'.
o Be warÿ of your interüewee taking control of the interüew: Sorrr,
people are usecl to beinc interviewed and rnay only wish to talk
about specific aspects of their work.
. Be gracious and polite: f ,et your enthusiasm fbr your research att t
the topic come throuqh the inteniew but do not sush or be slrrr
struck.
. Be aware that your interüewee may not want to answer a question:
If this happens or if they are uncomfbrtable with a line ol
questioning, then you need to respect that and m()ve on.
o Be careful not to lead the interüew in a particular direction: Avoir
leading questions ancl try and let your interüewee offer their ou'rr
explanations and responses in their own words. lt'is rnuch bettt'r
for them to offer their opinions ancl üelvs rather than to simplr
confirm what you trave said.
. Be aware that your interüewee's memory of events may not match
other accounts: If you are enquirins about events which took plzrt r Irrr lrrrling any questions on your survey vou should think about the kincl
a while ago, your responclent's rnemories of the event may lrc
diffèrent from what is popularly believed to have happened. Evett t'
are always remembered from dillerent persPectives and may lrr
shaped by subsequent events. For example, if you are interviewir)!i
a director about a producer he worked with ten years arro and rvi t I
whom they have since Iàllen out, the mernories of the pr<rject th< r
worked on together will be intbrmed by their subsequent feelinll'
about each other.
o Be sensiüve to past events: Asking for details about why somcolr(
filed for bankruptcy or querying if the press criticism of a specili,
Iilm was particularly painful may be uncomfbrtable topics whit l,
your respondent may not want to discuss. If you have establish<'rl
a rapport with your interviewee then y<-lt rnay be able to franr,
such questions in a sensitive and inoffensive manner. For exarnplt'
'I imagine that criticism of the film was quite a shock. Were vou
surprised by the reactions to the film?' or 'What do you remenrb«
USINC SOURCES 141
irlrout the press resp()nse to the film's release, and could you tell
rrre a littlc bit about your own reactions?'
Qnline data gathering
ll y,,rr irre keen to sather soÛre audience data or to set up a web survey
Io lrclp you elicit responses to a particular filrn then you could either
lltrrl ;r way of collecting information fiom people in person or set up an
nillirrc questionnaire . Setting up a questionnaire, survey or discussion
tpucr'«rnline may generate rlore data than standing outside the cinerna
I wltlr ir clipboarcl but. there are a ranse of things that you need to
t lttsirler.
Arr online questionnaire or survey needs to bc presented in the
lrrt possible way and to tareet the most useful responclents. If you are
lnvcying teen attitudes towards cinema certiÊcation, Ibr exarnple the
rllll(,r'cnce between the l5 and the 18 certificates" think about whar
I Iltrrls of questions you need to ask. You will need basic demoeraphic
lltlnr rnation such as age and eendeq but you should also include
rlttr.slions which allow respondents to responcl quickly with their own
r;rirrions or perhaps include a series of options to enable them tcr
;ttovirlc their answers. Using a mixture of statement questions and
rlx.n lesponses coulcl provide you with some interesting data. Before
ul rlltu you watrt to eather. If you want to ask questions about auclience
ritl,('r'icnce then you need to oflèr zr range of options so people can
Ittrlillrte their preferr-ed response, but you may also want to inch.rde a
lulrnl()nt space so people can add their own thoughts. ycru should avoid
r ttrirrg <:ornpletely closed questions and you should make surc that your
rlllcslions are well phrased and easy to understand. Avoid repetition ancl
rftrttlrlt: nesatives and have someorle else look ()ver.your questions to
Itukt' srrre that they make sense befbre you activate the survey.
ll you are keen to begin this kincl of workyou should take note of
Iruw other researchers have undertaken their own clata collection..|ustin
§rrritlr's work on neh f'orunrs and cult films and Emma pett,s ar-ralysis of
rtttrli«'rrce responses to a special screening oî lJack to the Fu,tut.e (198b)
nllrr «lifferent models of how to carry out this kind of work ancl can
lrr,l;r yorr think carefully about your own rnethoclology ancl approach.:,
ll yorr decide t() set up your survey online you should also think about
r Irnw lo get people to answer the survey and wher.e it will be hosted.

142 USINC FILM AS A SOURCE
Survey site surveyntonkey allows you t() set Lrp a fiee questionnaire cll'l(
questions, and potential responclents can be sent zr link to the sun,r'r
You should consider whether yolr can include the link in an enrail scrrt
rolrnd to friends and ask them t{) pass it on. (lan you use any existirrri
mailing lists to reach a broader ranse of p()tential respondents? Ar,
there social networks or online fomms you can use to help you circullrt(
your sr"rrvey? If you are keen to survey a broader ranee of people ratlrlr
than.just your peer group, yotr will need to think of strategies to hcl1,
you clo this. Perhaps you can work with your local cinema and hancl orrt
postcards with the web adclress of the survey to cinema audiences? FIorr
l
yor"r decide to carry out this resezrrch will again depend on the researr lr
qucstion and what you want to explore.
ONLINE SOURCES
As already noted atrove in relation to web sources, you need to thirrl
carefully about using moving image material found online and halt' .r
clear understanding of how the material was made and who it is rnar l,
for. You shotücl also consider howyou will use tfle rnaterial to explor,
y()ur research question. The same considerations apply with onlirr,
written sources as with online visual sources, alld much of what lr:r.,
already been noted about convent.ional offline sources also appli,
to online material. F'or example, online critiques and reviews of filrrr.,
can be very useful, but it can be difficult to diffêrentiate critical, ust'lrrl
reüews fiom opinion pieces and personal blogs which have less vzrlrr,
as objective sorrrces. You rnay know very little about the person postirrl
or writins the review and they may be writing from a personal ratlr,
than a profèssional or critical viewpoint. Howeveq this does not m('iur
that their critique is worthless, but rather - as with all sources - r,,,rr
should acknowledge its inconsistencies and its bias and then explort' rr
in relation to a range of othcr sources. For instance, you could comp:r r
published reviews of a specific film with comments and responses post ( r
online to expl()re the dilÏèrence between fan attitudes and indtrsl rr
attitudes. Such an approach would allow you to explore the responses t,
the film but also to acknowledge the dilIèrent ways in which film can lr,
written about and how all this material can be used to explore audierr, ,
response.
Using web fbmms to investigate online attitudes to various filrrr
related issues, such as casting a popr.rlar fianchise or the endins ol .r
t
I
USINC SOURCES 143
l Itlhrgy, again oflèrs ereat possibilities. If you choose to utilise these
' lltrrls of sources, you n)ust remain objective and consicler how yeur
ll.'tlt()(l()locv will allow you to explore the nrateri:rl, ask pertinent
t;rrr.stions of the conlrnents and of those rnaking the comments and
tlrrsirlcr how all of this work will contribute to y()ur overall research
t;ur.stiorr. It is not enough sirnply to search for responses to the latest
llrrtrrr;rrr filrn and use the comments as quotes. you need to employ skills
ul rlis<'ourse analysis,.just as yor.r would whcn examinine newipaper or
Ittitglrzi ne material.
CONCLUSION
Wlrcrr you undertake your research you shoulcl alw:rys bear your
lrnr,:rlch question firrnly in rnind. you need to be aware of what
yuu iu'e trying to find otrt so that you do not become so entanglecl
llt yotrr sources - either wrifl_en or visual - that y<tu can no longer be
rllrjr'< tive and lose sigtrt of your airns. The further reading incl]cated
llr.I rw can help you to approach yorlr sources more specificàlly ancl the
tltt'llrodology and approach you will need to adopt to carry ()ut your
tercrrlch eflèctively.
.,
NOTES
.fcan Burgess and Joshr-ra Green, you'lirhe, Digital Media ancl Society
st'ries (Cambriclge: Polity Press, 2009).
,
l, (iiara Chanrbers, Ircktnd in thc Nattsreels (Dublin: Irish Acadernic press,
2012); t,rrke N{cKernan (cd.), ye.studq,s News: .l.tu British Oinema
Ntrusrecl Rrodtr (Lonckrn: BUF\IC Press, 2002).
Srnith, WiLhnail an,d Us; Emma pett "'Heyl Heyl I,ve seen this one,
r
I'vc seen this one. L's a classic!": nostalgia, repeat viewing and cult
I 1rt:rfbrmancc itt Buck t,o the Futule', pnrlici.patitns: .Journal of Au,dienr:e
unl Prception Stud.ies l0:l (May 2013), www.parricipations.orgl
,
Vrlurne%2010/IssteVo211 /ll%Z0pett%20l0.l.pclf (accessecl 1+
( )ctober 2014).
I www.surveyrnonkey.com.

144 USIN6 FILM AS A SOURCE
RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING
Barber, Sarah and Peniston-Bird, Corinna (eds.), Ilslory Bqond tfu'
'l-ext:: A Student's Guide to AltN»oaching Alttrnatùtc.Sozrr:er (London:
Routledge, 2009).
Bloclr, Marc, 'l'he l:listorian\ Orali, trans. Peter Putnarn, preface
Peter Burke (Manchester: Manchester Universigv Press, 1992).
Clillham, Bill,'l'he fusearch Inlmint (London: Continr.rum, 2000).
Green, Anna and Troup, Kathlcen, l'hc Hou.çes oJ llistorl: A Crit.irttl
Read.er in 711)entitth-Cent'ury Hi,sk»y and Theorl (Mancht:ster:
Manchcster University Press, 1999).
.fordanova, l,udmilla, History in l)actit:e,2ntl erlition (Londorr: Hodder'
Arnold,2006).
Machin David and Mayr, Andre:r, Hozo to Do Critirul Discou.r.se Ana\sas:
A Multimodal InLrodudion (l,onclon: Sage, 2012).
Tosh, John, 'l'he Putsuit oJ Historl: Aim.s, Melhods urul Ncut Dired.iort.s
irL the Study of Modern I'listory, 4th edition, (Harlorv: Pearson
Lonsnran.2006).
WEBSITES
www.srlrvevmortker,. cotn.
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I
+ I
WRITINC UP YOUR FINDINCS
bv
Iïlrt'rr it conles to writing up y()ur research, there is no set forrnula to
Itrlp you get it right, but there are thinss that you can do to ellsure
lltirt your work is rvell presented, well structured ancl your arguments
I r,lr('rent and engaeins. Unlike in the sciences, where the writing-up oI'
Itrrrrral experiment.s and lab work happens after all research is complete,
lf,,r(.:rrch and writins in the arls ancl humanities can often be more fluid.
Fol cxample, it may be the case that vou are writing your essay and then
lllrcr»ver some important material which needs to be inclurled in your
lltrirl work. Or it may be that you conclude all your researclr, write a first
tllirli and then go through a series of revisions, cleveloping your ideas
tttrl arguments as you go. Perhaps you berin by researching one area
ltrrl then find tl'rat your research is takine you in a difTerent rlirection
rttrtl so will have to adjust your analysis and conclusions - and even your
lntrrrrluction and rnethodolow - accordingly. If you are writing a Ionger
;rlcct' of work like an MA or PhD thesis then you may be researching
ilrr(l writin€î up indiüdual chaprers befbre pulling it all together in the
lltt:rl rnonths of yorlr period of srudy.
( )l'cource, writing up any kind of work
requires time managelnent
Inrl planning, br.rt you also need to know what to include in your analysis
rltrrl lrow to presellt it. This chapter will offer adüce on how to write
il1, y()rlr research in an academic way., h<lw to structure your work, how
yotr should undertake and present your analysis, how to explain your
tlrtlx)dology and your review of literattrre and how to ref'erence. Each
ul tlrt: tbllowing sections will include detailed examples of how y()u can
l)tr.s('nt your work in the best way possible.
BEFORE YOU BEGIN
llclirre you begin the process of wriûng you should make a plan and
rlrtiril how you will present your research findings. Having a clear idea
 I

160 USING FILM AS A SOURCE

NOTES

1 Richard Pears zrrrd Grahanr Shields, Cite thetn lligh.t: 'l'he lissentitrl
Ilcf mru:ing Guide, 9th editiorr (§asingstoke: Palsravc Macmillan, 20 l i',) :

'Audiovisual citation: RUFVC guirlelines fbr referencing mol"ing imagt

and sound', British ljniversitics Film & Vicleo (iruncil. May 20llt. SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY
http:-/ /bufi,c.at:.uk,/pr<{ects-research,/avcitation (accessed l4 Octobcr
2014) AND RESOURCES i
I

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING BOOKS

Corrigan, TimothyJ., A Shrtrt Ouide b lù'riting About l,ibn (New York Aaron, Michelle, Spet:ta,torship: 'l'he pozun o.f Loohing Oz (t,ondon: Wallllower
and London: Pearson Loneman, 2007). Press,2007;.
(l,ocsik, Kirren an«l Barsarn, Richard, Witing Ahou.t Mozrler (New York: Aldgate, Anrhony and Richards, .t.he
.feffrey, Ilritain Oan lhke It: tlritish
Norton,2007). Cinema in the Scrorul World War (Ertinburgh: Eclinburgh
University
Pears, Richard and Shields, Graham, Cite them llight,: 'l'he lissentiaL Press,1994). i'
RcJ'rencing Guid,e, 9th ed i tion ( Ilasi nE;stoke : Pal grave Macrni an,
I I Aldgate, Anthony and Roberrson,James ()., Censonhip in.l-luatre
arul Cinema
20 I 3). (Edinburgh, f,dinburgh University press, 2005).
Rrrdestam, §ell, ancl Newton, Rae, Suruiuing yur l)issertalio'n.: A Allen, Robert C. and Gomery, Douglas, Film Hi.slory: .l.heory and prarlice
(ktmprehe.nsiae Ouùlc Lo ContenL and l)ocess,3rd eclition (London: (Boston, N{A: McGraw-Hill, f 993).
Sage,2007). Ashby,Justine and Higson, Andrerv (eds.), British Cinema, pust
and ],resent
Walliman, Nicholas, Your UndrgraduaLe Dissn'tntion: l'he lissential Guidl (London: Routledge, 2000).
.for Surr:ess (l.ondon: Sage, 2004). Barber, Sarah ancl penr-riston-Bird, Corinna M. (e<ts.), Hi.rLory Rqonrt the
Tbxt: A Studtnt'.s (]uitle kt Appntachitrg Altcrnatiae Sources (Abingdon:
Routledge, 2009).
Barber, Sian, Censoring the 1970s:'l'he RIlltC and the Decatle that.lhste
Fnrgot
(Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars publishing, 201 1
).
Barber, Si:an, 'fhe British Film lruhtstry in the t910s: Capitat, Culnre
and
Creatiaity (Basi n gstoke : pal grave Macm i llan, 20 I 3 ) .
Barker, Marrin (ed.), The Vi.d,eo Nasti,es: Iùeedom and Cen«tr.ship in t,he Media
(London: Pluto press, 1gB4).
Barç Charles, Ëaling Strulios (Moftàc Canreron & Hollis, lggg).
Barta, Tony (ed.), Sreming tlte past: Fil.m and the Relresentatirtn,
of llistorl
(Westport, CT: Praeger, lgg8).
Bazin, André, \\hat is Cinema?, essays selected and trans. Hugh
G.ray, 2 vols
(Berkeley, CA, and [,ondon: University of California p.ess,
ZOO5 ).
Bell, Melanie, l'emininig in the !,ntme: Women and 1950s llritish pol.tular
Cinuna
(London: I.B. Tâuris, 2009).

r*s
 Ij
162 SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY AND RESOURCES SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY AND RESOURCES 163

Bloch, Marc, 'lhe Historian's Oraft, trans. l'eter Putnam, preface by Pett'r Dickinson, Margaret and Street, Sarah, Oi,nemu and Sktte: .l-he
f,ilnt Ind,trstry
Burkc (Manchcstcr: Manchester University Press, 1992). arul the British ()oucrnment 1927_lggq (f,onclon: BFI publishing, gt35).
l
Bordwell, David, On the Historl rf lùhn Style (Cambriclge, MA, and [.ondorr: Drazin, Charles, 'l'he linest l'ea,rs: Rritish Cin,emn ol' the 1940.s (l_onclon:
I.B.
Harvard flliversiry Press, 1997)., Tâuris,2007).
Bordwell, David ancl Thompson, Kristin, I,'ilm Art: A'n lntroduction (Boston. Dyer, Richard, The Matter ol lmages: lissay; in Reprasen.talion (Lonclon:
MA, and London: McG,raw-Hi1l, 200,1). RorrtJedge, lgg3.).
Il<rrdwcll, David and 'fh<>mpson, Kristin, Iilm. Ilùrlor1: An Introducl.ion, 3:«l Erle, l,aurie N., llritish Filn Desigr: A Histrtry (London: I.B.
Tâuris, Z0l0).
edition (NewVrrk: McGraw-Hill Higher Ficlrrcation, 2010). Egan, Katc, Tiash or'lieasure? Censorshilt rtntl thc Ohrutsng
Meanirg 14 Lht Vùbo
llraucÿ Lco, (lohcn, Marshall and Nlast, (l'eralrl (eds.), /,)/z'|hoor1 arul Nastir.s ( Manch ester: Manch ester U niversity press,
2007) .
Oritiri,çm: In.trodu.ctory lleadings, 4th edition (New York and Oxford: Ellis,.fack C,., Hisk»1 o.f. l.ilm (B<.tst<rn, MA, and Lonclon:
Allyn ancl Bacon.
Oxforcl University Press, I992). 1 995).

Btrrgcss,Jean and Green,.foshua, Ytu'luha, Digital Media and Society scrics Flanagan, Martin, IJrùhtin and the Mozùcs: Nezu Ways
of Llntln_.standirtg Ho@toood
(Cambrdige : I'olity Press, 2009). Filnr (Basingstoke: l,algravc Macmillan, 2009).
Burke, Peter, Vatietics oJ'Oullural Hislorl (Carnbriclge: Politv Press, lg97). Foster, .|anet and Shepparcl,
Julia (ed,s.), tlritish Arclùues: A Guùle to An:ltiue
Brrrrons, Elaine r-f a/. (ecls.), 7'h? Brilù\h Cinuno Soun:e Book: Bl-l Archiur Rcsource.ç in the llnitcl Ktnglom (Basingsrokc: palgrave,
2002).
Viewing (hpils and Library Matcrials (London: BFI Publishing, 1995). Gerarghty, Christine, Brit.ish Cinenut, in tlu FiJties: Oeruler, ()enre
tmrl tlut ,Nart
Chambers, Oiara, IrelaruL i'n th.e Natsreels (Dublin: lrish Ac:rdemic Prcss, I-ook' (L,ondon: Routledge, 2000).
201 2). Gibbs, .John, Mi.se-tn-Scene: Fitm Sryte nrul Intultretalitrn (
[,onclon : Wallllorver
Chapman,.farnes,'l-he Rritish at Wrl: Cinemu, Sl,ate arul Px$aganda, 19)945 Press,200l).
(l.ondon: I.B Tauris, l99tt). GifIbrcl, Derris. Brrll.çà ttil»t Caluktgte: l,ict,ion tilm lg95_l 991,
Vtlunte l,3r<f
Chapman,.fames, Iltst and Prcsent: Na,tional ldentity and the Briti.sh Historiral edition (London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001).
lùlrz (London: I.B. Tauris,2005). Gillham, lJill,'I-ht, lùsean:h, JttttruietLt (Lor.rdon: Continurrm,
2000).
Chaprnarr, Jam es, [.:ilm and Hisktry (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) . Glancy, Mark H., When Ho@zuood Loued lJritain: .l.he
Hol\wootL lJriListr l,ïtm,
Chapnran, James, Glancy, Mark ancl Harper, Sue, Thrq Nat lùhn Histoty: 1 9)9-45 (Manchester: Manchester
Univcrsity press, l99g).
Sources, MeLhods, Approa,ches (Ncl,v York and Basinestoke: Paleravt' Gocsik, Karen ancl Barsam, Ricirarcl, Writin.g Aboul, Mouie,s
(New york:
Macmillan, 2007). Norton, 2007).
Chiball, Steve and Murphy, Robert (ects.), .IlnlrsÀ Crime Cinema (Lonclon: Grainge, Paul, Jancovich, Mark and Monteith, Sharon, lilm
l_Iistorie.ç: Art
Routledge, 1 999). Introd,ucLion and Read,er (Eclinburgh: Edinburgh Universiq, I,rcss,
ii (lolman, Felicity (cd.), lilm, 'l'heory and Phikt.srÿh^l: 'l'he Kq'I'hinhers (Durham, 2007).
NC: Acumen,2009). Green, Anna and Troup, Kathleen, ,l,he Llouses of Histurl: A (,ritù:al Ruul.cr
(l<rok, Pam, l-ashioning the Nation: Cosl.unte arul ldenlity in Brili,sh Cineml in Tluc,ntieth-Oentu.r1 Hislory arul .l.heor1 (Manchestcr: Manchester
(London: BFI Prrblishing. 1996). University Press, I ggg).
Cook, Pam aucl Bernink, Mieke, l-he Oin.ema Book,2r,d eclition (t,ondon: BFI Grenülle, l.A.S., [ilm as Hislory (l]irmingham: University of
IJirrnineham
Publishing, 1999). Press, lgTl).
Oorrigan, Tirnothy _1., A Short ()uide to Writing About liltn (New York anrl Hanson, Stuart, Prorz Silent Soeen, to Muhi-ljcreen: A Hist,orl
of-Oinenut Exhihil.ion
Londott: Pearson Lonernan, 2007). in lJritain since I Bc)6 (Manchester: Manchester University press,
2007).
Corrigan, Timothy and White, Pan'icia, l'he Film. lixpritnce: An Introrlurtion Harper, Sue, Picturing the pa.çl: 'l'he Rise anrt l,'utt ol ttrc British
Costumc liibn
(Boston: Be«lfirrcl/St Martin's, 2009). (London: IIFI publishing, l99a).
(lreeber, Glen, 'lbleui.sions: An IntroducLion, to litutlling'lble.uision (l,onclon: BFI Harper, Ste, Women in lJriti.sh Cinema: Mad, Ratl und l)angerous lo Krtou
I)ublishing, 2006). (f,ondon: Continuum, 2000).
 164 SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY AND RESOURCES SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY AND RESOURCES 165

Harpcr, Sue ancl Pt>rtet Vincent, British. Cinema of the 1950s:'l'hz l)ecline rl Lanrly, Marcia (ecl.), l'he Hisu»icalÛilm.: History and Memrtry
in Media. (New
Deflrence (Oxford: Oxf«rrd University Press 2003). Bnurswick, NJ: Rutgers University press, 2000).
Harper, Sue anrl Smith,.fustin (eds.), British ltilm Culture in the 1970,ç:'l'ltt I-eirch,Jirn, l],ritislt Fïlm (Oamhridgc: Oambriclgc, lJr.riversity press,
2004).
Ronndnrics of Pleasure (l)glinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 201I ). Lon, Rachael 7'he Mstorl ol tlntish tùtnt, 7 rols
1l,,r,-,clon and Ncw york:
Haskell, M<>lly, lirom Reoerence to Rnpe: 'fhe Tieatvwnt oJ Women in lhc Mouir:. R«lrdedge, I997; origirrally published Allcn & Unwin, lg4t3).
2nd edition (Chicago: Univcrsity of Chicago Press, 1987). Machin, l)avid and Mayr; Anclre:r, How kt Do Oritirtil Di.scott,rse Arut\si.s:
A
Hibbirr, Sally and Hibbin, Nina, l4/àal a Cany On: ([firial Carry On Mot'i, Mult,imodal, In trod.ur:tion ( Lrind<>n : Sage, 20 I 2 ) .
ÈlooÀ (London: Hamlyn 19BB). McFarlane, Brian, 'l'he lincyckpxtetlio tt' Britirh l,itm, Zrcl
cdirion (London:
Higsorr, Arrrlrerv, l,ilm Englanrl: Cultumlly |inglish l,ibnmahing Since lhc l990t Methuen,200U).
(1.,r:ndon: I.B. Tauris, 201 1). McKernirrr, Luke (ed.), ye,stndal,s Ncuts: .l.he llriti,,ttL Oinema
Nattsnel Re«,tler
Hill,John, Sex, Olass arul ll.ealism: llrilish Cinema 1956-1963 (London: BIil (London: BLIFVC press, 2002).
I'ublishing, l9ttti). Medlrurst, Arrdr,, A Notional.loke: ptÿu.kr Comzdy arul. t,)nalish (hilturat
ltkmtities
Flill,Jolrrr,Rritish Ciruma in the l9B0s: Issues anrL l-hemes (Oxlord: Clarenclorr (Ahinadon: Rorrr ledge. 2007).
Press,1999). Metz, (lhristian. Iiilnt I nn,{"trage: A Semiolit:s of 1he Oin,ema,trans.
Michael }wlor
Holmes, Srt, llrilish 7'V arul lilm Oulturc ol the 1950s: (nnùng to a.'lY Near Ytn! (Chicago: University of Chicrgo prcss, lggl; originally
putrlishecl
(llristol: Intellect, 2005). Oxford: Oxford tJnivcrsiry press, lg74).
I{rrghes-Warrinston, Marnie (ed.), HisLory on ltilm IùarJrr (Abingdon: Monaco,.]ames, Hout to llead a liln: T'h,eWorkl oJ Mouics, M«l,iu, arul ùIultimediu:
Routleclge, 2009). La.nguage, Ilist.ory, 7haor1, (New ytrrk ancl Oxforcl:
Oxforcl University
Hughes-\4rarrington, Marnie, [Iiskr"y Ooes to the Mouies: Studying Hisktry ott Press,2000).
-Éilrz (Abingdon: Routleclge,2007). I Monk, (llaire irnd Sarrseant, Arny (ecls.), ttritish llistt»,irttl
Cinem,a (Londorr:
Flrrnt, Leon, llritish l.ottt Culture: ]r'rom Salari Suits to Sexpktitution (Londorr: Routleclge, 2002).
Rotrtlcdge. 1998)- Mulvey, Lantra, Visual o,n.d Othet pleu^szras
(Ii:rsingstoke: Ma<:rnillan, lggg).
Hutclrirrgs, Peler, Hammtr and Bqmtd: l'he Brilish Honm hilm (Manchestcr: Murphy, RoLrert, antl'lin.çel: Oinernn aid ,\o,:i"ty in, llriraitt. tg_r()_4t.
Rea.li.çm
Manchester University Press, 1993) . 2rrd edition (l,ondon: R<xrtleclge, l9g2).
Huxlel', A.ldous, 'l'he Dnils rf Loud.u'n (London: Chatto & Winclus, 1952). Murphy, Robert, lJritish Cinema ol'the 90s (l.ondon: IIFI publishing,
2000).
Htrzing:r, .fohan, Men and ltlcas: Htsk»'y, tlte Miùlle Ages un.d Renuissurra'. Murplry, Robert, Rritish Oinemo arul lhe Se«,tttl Workl Wt, (l.olcl<.,n:
trans. James S. Holmes and Hilns van Marle (London: Eyre anrl Conrinrrrrnr, 2000.; .
::t!'i

Spottiswoode, 1960). Mrrrphy, Robert, 't'h,e t].riti.sh Cinzmn, Botù,

2nd eclition (London: llFI
'l'he Pkuv ol the Autlùtut'.
.f:rncovir:h, Mark, Faire, Lucy and Stubbings, Sarah, Prrlllishirrg. 200I7.
CulturulCeogralthies ol libn (knsum,ptbn (London: BFI Publishing, 2003) Mtrrphy, Robert, Sixt,ies British Oinemru (L«rndon: BFI ptrblishing,
200tj).
.|ordan<rva, Ludmilla, Hislory in Pra,rl,icc (Lonclon: Hoclder Headline, 2000). Newland, Paul (ed.), l)on't l,ook Nout: I]riti.sh Oinnnn itr, the tc)70s (Br.istol:
Kr:rcatrer; Sicgfriecl, Frotn Cakgui to Hillu: A Pslchokryical Stud) of thc Ocrmutt Intellecr. 20lft).
Filrz (Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press,2004). Newland, Paul, Ilritish lïlms ttl the 1970s (Ma.ncttesrer: Marrchester
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Krrhn, Annctte, Women'.s Pictures: l;brninism a,nd Cinema (Lonclon: Routleclgr' Press,20l3).
and Kesan Paul, 1982). Nichols, Bill, Mouies an,d Mctltods: An Anthobg, vols I and (Iler.keley,
2 OA,
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Routledge, l9fi8). Ô Dochartaigh, Niall, lnternet Rcsean:h Shilts: Ilozo to l)o your
l,iteratun, Searu:lt
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th.c Sifuer Screen to the Digital A.gr (London: BFI Publishing,/Palgravt' Orpen, Valerie, lïlnt Editing: T'he Art, o.f'the l)xprcssizla (Lonclon: Wallfkrwer
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{l}
 I
:
166 SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY AND RESOURCES SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY AND RESOURCES 167

!
Pcars, Riclrard and Shields, G.raharn, Cile thent Right: I'he lisscntial llela-encing kie, S hrgazi ng : Ho llyut ood Cinuna antl ttem.a b Spec htors h iNt ( Lon
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dor r :
( )u.ùle, 9tln edition (Basin gstoke: Pal grave Milcmillan, 201 3) . Routlccluc. I{)94).
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(Exeter: Llniversity of Exeter Press, 2000). Penguin, Chato & Winctus, l96l ).
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(London: Routledee, 2005). Nr.B, 1980).
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,l I'r'ess, 1976).
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Srnith (cd.),
ls80). l'ilru «nd llte Hi.tl,oria,n (Carnbriclge: Cirnrbridse Univcrsity press,
lg76),
Spicer, Andrew,'Iypianl Men: Rp.ÿrescnlutions of Masculinity in Lhe Ptÿuktr Rrilislr pp.49-71.
Culture (London: I.B. Tâuris, 200 1 ).
 SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY AND RESOURCES 169
168 SELECT BIBLIOCRAPHY AND RESOURCES

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