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Self-generated Neighbourhood Consolidation in Informal Settlements
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URBAN DESIGN International (2000) 5, 61±96
Q 2000 Stockton Press All rights reserved 1357-5317/00 $15.00
www.stockton-press.co.uk/udi
Self-generated Neighbourhoods: the role of urban form in

the consolidation of informal settlements
Bill Hillier1*, Margarita Greene2, and Jake Desyllas3
1
The Bartlett School of Graduate Studies (Torrington Place Site), University College London, Gower Street, London
WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
2
Pontificia Universidad CatoÂlica de Chile, El Comendador 1916, Santiago, Chile
3
Intelligent Space, 68 Great Eastern Street, London EC2A 3JT, United Kingdom
Rapid urbanisation in Santiago de Chile has led to a large number of informal settlements on the periphery
of the city which from an initial common origin, now exhibit very different degrees of social and physical
consolidation. Of particular interest to planners and architects is whether locational or spatial factors play a
role in determining the long term development of a settlement. This paper presents the findings of a joint
research project between University College London and Pontificia Universidad CatoÂlica de Chile on
peripheral settlements formalised through a Neighbourhood Upgrading Programme in Santiago. A sample
of 17 settlements was examined through a set of objective instruments for measuring housing,
neighbourhood and community consolidation; detailed surveys of pedestrian and vehicular patterns of
movement and land use patterns; and computer configurational models of the urban form. Key findings are
that spatial and locational factors, especially the layout of the settlement and its relation to its urban context,
have played a major role in the pathway of development of the settlements and the different degrees to
which they have become consolidated. The critical spatial factor is the degree to which the settlement is able
to develop èdge oriented commercial activity' through its outward facing edges, and through this to
participate in wider local economy. The prime determinant of the development of this type of economic
activity is the extent to which the streets on the settlement, especially the edges, are strategically integrated
within the surrounding area and therefore carry significant levels of vehicular movement. Where this edge-
oriented economic activity is strong there are further benefits to housing consolidation, community
development and crime levels.
Keywords: space syntax; informal settlements; movement economy; housing; community; neighbourhood;
consolidation
Introduction which started with similarly scarce resources in

the early nineteen seventies. However, some have
Rapid urbanisation in Santiago de Chile has led to become vibrant communities with strong social
a large number of informal settlements on the networks and considerable success in the con-
periphery of the city which from an initial solidation of stable basic housing by the invest-
common origin, now exhibit very different ment of their inhabitants, while others remain in
degrees of social and physical consolidation. `slum-like' conditions. Understanding the diver-
These are the settlements of the poorest section gent processes of consolidation was the subject
of society, often first generation urban migrants, of a three year joint research project undertaken
by University College London (UCL) and the
*Correspondence: Bill Hillier, Tel: + 44 (0) 20 7391 1739; fax: + Pontificia Universidad CatoÂlica de Chile (PUC)
44 (0) 20 7813 4363 E-mail: b.hillier@ucl.ac.uk from April 1995 to April 1998. The main findings
Self-generated Neighbourhoods
B. Hillier, M Greene and J Desyllas
62
of this study, funded by the European Union The research involved the analysis of the city
programme for collaborative projects between of Santiago and a detailed analytical and
universities and developing countries, are pre- contextual study of a sample of settlements
sented in this paper1. legalised through the NUP using a range of
data gathering, representation and modelling
The main hypothesis of the project was that the techniques. In this paper we start by describing
spatial configuration and location of the settle- the first tasks carried out during the develop-
ments, in particular the way in which the site is ment of the research project: the building of the
embedded in the surrounding network of streets configurational models of Santiago and the
and the spatial character of that network, are design of the instruments to measure consoli-
important variables in consolidation. The theore- dation on the settlements. In Section 2 we
tical background to this conjecture is the idea present the analysis of the macro-structure of
that spatial configuration can ultimately affect the city, and in Section 3 the settlements of the
complex social process (such as, perhaps, con- sample. In Section 4 we present the statistical
solidation) through the influence it has on the analysis of the data, and finally, a synthesis
pattern of movement in streets and the potential and discussion of the major findings is pre-
this has for generating economic activity. Much sented in Section 5.
research has already demonstrated that the
spatial configuration of streets plays an enor-
mously influential role in determining differ- 1. Configurational models and
ences in the concentration of movement (Hillier consolidation tools
1996; Penn et al. 1998). Because levels of move-
ment and space use seem to be critical at the Prior to the in-depth study and analysis of the
generative level of many social processes, like NUP settlements two main research tasks were
shopping and crime, it was thought that this carried out: the computer modelling of Santiago's
could play some role in accounting for the street network and the design of instruments to
divergent experiences of consolidation in these measure consolidation.
settlements.
1.1. The configurational models
The project focuses on informal settlements
that were legalised through the Chilean In order to isolate the spatial variable in the
`Neighbourhood Upgrading Programme' process of consolidation and to quantify the
(NUP), where the state regularises informal spatial differences between the sites, `space
settlements and provides each site with basic syntax' models of the spatial structure of the city
services (water, electricity and drainage) and a and settlements were built. The quantitative
small sanitary unit consisting of a bathroom measures of spatial characteristics of individual
and kitchen. The consolidation of housing is streets within the street network provided by the
left to the inhabitants. This line of action is a computer models made it possible to compare the
widespread solution to the legalisation of spatial characteristics with the consolidation
informal housing in developing countries and indices both at the macro and micro scales.
has shown to be cost effective. That is, it
produces a considerable improvement of sani- The Santiago axial model followed the usual
tary and housing conditions while requiring a principles of creating an axial map (Hillier and
relatively low governmental investment. The Hanson, 1984). The method represents the con-
fact that so much of the process of consolida- tinuous open space network by a matrix of the
tion is left to the inhabitants themselves fewest and longest possible lines of sight and
makes it critical to understand what initial movement that can be drawn along the streets
on site conditions assist or hinder their and public spaces of a system, without leaving
efforts. any street segment or space left out of the
network. Each street's network position relative
to all other streets is analysed using a computer
programme which considers each line as a node
1
For further information on the research project and detailed in a graph and calculates the depth (the fewest
analysis see Hillier et al., (1998). number of intervening lines) to every other line in
URBAN DESIGN International

63
the system2. This measure, called `global integra- provide the simpler routes through the grid. The
tion', determines how each line is ultimately importance of configuration lies in this effect on
linked to all others in the system. Figure 2-1(d) movement because of the vital influence of
presents the global integration of each line in the movement patterns in generating co-presence
entire Santiago system in a greyscale where black between people and therefore supporting social
indicates the most integrated, and light grey the exchange. For the process of settlement consolida-
most segregated lines3. tion, this may manifest itself in many ways: in
terms of the level of informal networks between
As well as calculating the integration of streets residents, the success of local retail, levels of crime
relative to the entire city, it is possible to calculate on streets and the willingness of residents to
more localised measures of integration by limiting invest in their housing and their community.
the calculation to a specific number of steps of
depth. Integration measures for the whole model In order to explore the characteristics of the sites
of Santiago were calculated at all depth radii up to without reference to the global position within
17. Figure 1-1 shows the `local' measure of Santiago, as well as the model of the Santiago
integration of each line calculated only within metropolitan area, a number of smaller models
three steps of depth. This is also known as were created of the sample settlements within
`radius-3 integration', whereas the global integra- their local areas. The most useful of these was the
tion measure is also known as `radius-n integra- 7-km area model, where a radius of 1.5 km was
tion' (all lines). Figures 1-2 shows the taken from the centre of the settlement, drawing a
`connectivity' measure, which refers to the num- circle with an area of 7 sq. km. of the settlement in
ber of direct connections of each street. its surrounding area4.
The importance of these configurational measures From these 7-km models a new measured was
is that they have been shown to correlate strongly derived which has been termed `local spatial
with pedestrian and vehicular movement in many advantage' or LSA. It is calculated by taking the
cities, including Santiago, without reference to mean radius-n integration value of each settle-
any other factors such as land use or population ment in the context of the 7-km local system, and
density. The configuration of the street grid itself dividing it into the mean integration value of the
has an impact on the street level distribution of whole 7-km system. The higher the value, the
movement rates because the streets passed more the settlement has a higher integration
through in any journey will tend to be those that relative to a uniform metric context. We may
2
think of this as expressing the degree to which a
The graph depth measure can be generalised as mean depth
settlement occupies a strategic position in its
and calculated for every line in the system. This is used to
calculate a comparable measure of ìntegration' for each line as contextual area ± hence `local spatial advantage'.
in the equation below:
2d2 1
RA
k22
1.2. The instruments to evaluate consolidation
Where RA is the `relative asymmetry' or integration of a line,
d-bar is the mean depth in graph terms to all other lines and k For the objective set out in this research project, it
is the number of lines in the system. A further adjustment is
was decided that the tools to measure consolida-
made to allow for scale differences between axial maps, as
shown in the equation below: tion should focus on measuring the investment and
efforts put in by the inhabitants in their habitat
RA
RRA
Dk
rather than in aspects where they have less control
Where RRA is the real relative asymmetry, D is the RA value
(e.g. the instruments privilege self build enlarge-
for the root of a diamond-shaped system. It should also be ments of the houses or the planting of trees in the
noted that the values produced by the computer programme open space, rather than the provision of hospitals
àxman' or òrange box' (as used in this study) are reciprocal or air contamination in the area). The two basic
values so that higher numbers are more integrated. questions that needed to be answered were:
3
The main model of Santiago involves more than 30,000 axial
lines. The base maps used for the creation of the axial analysis X which are the most relevant housing attributes
of Santiago correspond to the Instituto Nacional de Esta-
4
dõÂsticas (INE) archives, scale 1:5000 updated to 1993. Further It is worth noting that the geographical centrality of the
checking of the model was undertaken using Local Authorities settlement did not inevitably lead to it being the core of
maps, Plano GuõÂa del Gran Santiago, and on site surveys. integration.

64
Figure 1-1. Local Integration of Santiago Axial Map.
to consider in the consolidation process of operative and defining the `levels of want' of the
NUP settlements? attributes composing the `housing package'. This
X which is the relative value or weight of each was done through the application of a Delphi
one of them in the overall process? survey to 52 experts in the field, followed by a set
of semi-structured interviews applied to five
The task was faced in five consecutive phases. The focus groups of the most significant housing
first two involved the identification, making situations among the poor sectors of Santiago.

65
Figure 1-2. Connectivity of Santiago Axial Map.
In the third and fourth phases the subjective identified before, and through the estimation of
valuation and prioritisation that the inhabitants discrete choice models with this data (Greene et al.,
make of the housing components or attributes 1995).
was estimated. This was done collecting data
through a customised stated preferences exercise The final phase was the construction of a set of
implemented in portable computers, which was indices customised for NUP inhabitants which
applied to the five different housing situations would allow relevant consolidation aspects to be

66
Figure 1-3. Housing Consolidation Index Structure.
recorded in continuous numerical variables. From value was assigned to each indicator, summing
the previous phases it was decided to decompose up to a total of 100. These values were corrected
consolidation into three basic aspects ± housing, more than once during the data collection and
neighbourhood and community ± which could be analysis5, searching for a maximum differentiation
measured separately. The three aspects when put between surveyed houses and the inclusion of a
together (weighing housing in 40% and the other maximum ± yet reasonable ± number of variables
two in 30% each), form a Global Consolidation that could be measured objectively on site work.
Index (GCI) through which each settlement can be In Figures. 1-3 to 1-5 the construction of the three
valued in a continuous variable. basic tools is presented indicating the successive
weights and maximum values for each indicator.
The three basic indexes ± Housing Consolidation
Index (HCI), Neighbourhood Consolidation Index Finally, the indicators were categorised according
(NCI), Community Consolidation Index (CCI) ± to the degree of satisfaction they provided.
were build through the disaggregation of each Normally, at least three levels were assigned: 0%
aspect into components and sub-components, 5
As part of this correction process, a pilot study was carried
assigning successive weights to each accordingly
out in ÀmpliacioÂn La Higuera' a NUP settlement located in La
to the results of the previous phases. By a simple Florida, Santiago, where both the tools and the instruments to
calculation of the successive weights a maximum collect data on site were tested.

67
Figure 1-4. Neighbourhood Consolidation Index Structure.
Figure 1-5. Community Consolidation Index Structure.
when the sub-component is unsatisfied and action has been carried out and the original
where no consolidation process has taken place, sanitary unit has deteriorated.
50% where a minimum level of satisfaction of the
sub-component has been accomplished, and 100% The following special characteristics of the indices
when it is fully satisfied. The medium range in should be pointed out:
each category ± calculated at 50% ± was defined
according to the minimum adequate level con- X The HCI is the most objective of the three
sidered by the experts in the Delphi study. indices as it deals mainly with physical
aspects (materiality and area) of the building.
The application of the tools allows each settle- X The CCI, because of its social nature, is a more
ment to be characterised by four continuous subjective index. It relies in subjective ques-
variables (HCI, NCH, CCI and GCI) with values tions such as feeling of insecurity in the
ranging from 0 to 100, where 100 would reflect a settlement, migration wish and perception of
fully consolidated house, 50 a minimum accep- social problems (drug addiction, alcoholism).
table level, and 0 one where no consolidation X The NCI is characterised for being practically

68
homogenous inside each settlement, as it deals distribution of tones through time shows how the
basically with level of services which are the enormous growth of the city (with rapid urbani-
same to all households (paving, commerce, sation this century) has dramatically affected the
etc.). Also this index, contrary to the two structure of accessibility in the street grid, shifting
previous ones, is expressing the actions of the core southwards, out of the historic centre.
external agents (government officials, NGOs)
and not of those carried out directly by the The Alameda axis that runs through the tradi-
inhabitants. It must be said though that tional downtown was the most integrated axis at
inhabitants have an indirect bearing in that the beginning of the century. Then the expansion
well-organised communities are known to up until the 1960s can be seen to have pulled
achieve higher rates of governmental or integration eastwards along the Providencia route
NGOs action. that leads into the richer suburbs of Oriente. The
most marked change occurred with the acceler-
ated sprawl between 1960 and 1995; the core of
2. Macro-structure of santiago integration (the black lines) has been pulled
southwards by the long radial lines leading to
Before assessing the level of consolidation at the the new poorer districts of southern Santiago. The
fine scale street and settlement level, an analysis most segregated part of the map in the east
of the macro-structure of Santiago was under- (Oriente) is notable as the location of the highest
taken. This was done, in order to understand the income residential areas.
context of the global spatial structure and the
broader economic and social structure of the city
2.2. Economic and social structure of santiago
within which the consolidation process of the
sample settlements has occurred6. The first stage of statistical analysis relating the
configurational model to consolidation indices
was undertaken at the scale of the 36 districts of
2.1. Historical development of the City's Santiago. The spatial boundaries of these districts
morphology are more or less arbitrary but the availability of
economic and social data at this level makes an
The first part of the macro-analysis of the city was analysis of their spatial characteristics worth-
to investigate the evolution of the city's morphol- while, to determine the extent to which the
ogy and the position of the settlements within it. economic and social performance of each district
The peripheral settlements are themselves part of can be related to the way in which it is embedded
the process of rapid urbanisation that has taken in the spatial structure of the city.
place in Chile in the second half of the twentieth
century as rural migrants came to the cities to find Economic and social variables were compared with
work, especially in the capital. Santiago's popula- the mean spatial variables of all lines within or
tion has grown from just under 1 million in 1940 partially within a district. The economic and social
to 4.7 millions in 1995. The expansion of the city to data at district level were gathered from govern-
accommodate this growth is noticed when ment sources (INE, 1992; CASEN, 1992) and linked
observing the historical ax-maps presented in directly with the model. However, for the key
Figure 2-1. variables income, housing and education, weighted
indices were made by combining a number of
This urban expansion has precipitated changes in relevant related variables. All major economic and
the configuration of the street network. These social indicators for Santiago, as shown in Figure 2-2,
were investigated using axial maps of the city at show an enormous and very clear spatial divide
equal 35 year periods of its expansion. Figure 2-1 between the richer area of Oriente and the rest of the
shows the axial map models of Santiago from city. The darker five districts clustered together in
1890 to the present, with the integration values the east of the income and education indicators,
displayed graphically in a greyscale. The measure illustrate the enormous divide between rich and
here is global integration, the relation of each line poor in Santiago. The obvious similarity between
to every other in the network. The changing income and education is also demonstrated in the
6
For further information on this stage of the research, see correlation between these two indexes (r-squared of
Desyllas et al (1998) .964).

69
2.3. The two cities However, when the street network of the Oriente
area is analysed as an independent spatial system
The strong economic and social divisions between
(Figure 2-4) a very clear match emerges between
Oriente and the rest of Santiago have proven
commercial land use and spatial integration. The
essential in understanding the role of spatial
integration core within Oriente, considered alone,
configuration in the economic and social structure
directly mirrors the commercial development
of the city. Space plays a different role for Oriente
axes of Providencia, Vitacura, Kennedy and
and for the rest of the city in all the economic and
Apoquindo. Thus the spatial model directly
social indices shown. This is particularly clear in
reflects the conjecture of `two cities': the rich
the case of income and poverty7. There is a
and poor areas of Santiago are virtually indepen-
positive relationship between income and spatial
dent of each other.
integration outside the Oriente area, as shown in
Figure 2-3(a), which demonstrates a messy but
significant relation between spatial accessibility 2.4. Time factors in consolidation
and economic well being at the district level (there
are some important outliers in the poorer dis- As might be expected in a case of rapid growth,
tricts). The negative relation of poverty to integra- the time factor seems to be very important in the
tion is stronger and much more significant, as can economic and social consolidation of each district.
be seen both by the r-squared and by the slope of Thus the older settlements of MaipuÂ, San Ber-
the regression line in Figure 2-3(b). nardo and Puente Alto, that were adjoined to
Santiago in the 1960s, perform much better on
The linking of the social data to configurational income indicators than one might expect from
measures showed that the economic and social their peripheral position. When the formerly
structure of the Oriente area does not relate to the independent settlements are removed from the
spatial structure of the city in the way that the rest correlations shown in Figure 2-3, the relation
of the city does. In the rest of the city, there is a improves to r-squared .196 for income and
positive relationship between integration and r-squared .402 for poverty.
income levels. There is also some relationship
between the concentration of commercial land use It seems fair to assume that the consolidation
and the pattern of integration in the model shown process in these older settlements is different from
for example on streets like Gran Avenida, which is that of the new peripheral districts that grew from
the most integrated one and a key shopping street. nothing. Therefore the measurement of economic
and social consolidation should aim at controlling
However, in Oriente these relations do not appear for how much time has been allowed and what the
to hold: income and education are both high initial conditions were. However, obtaining
regardless of the segregation of the area. The shift detailed and accurate data on this (such as the
of Central Business District functions eastwards mean age of building stock) is not straightforward
into Oriente, that has taken place in Santiago since at district level. For the sample settlements, this
1960, does not relate to the spatial model which is time factor was controlled by selecting settlements
pushing the pattern of integration southwards. of a similar age, that had received the same NUP
Oriente leads from the historical centre, which is input and by checking the amount of time that each
still well integrated, right up to the most surveyed inhabitant had lived on the settlement.
segregated area of the whole city (the residential
developments in the valleys of Lo Barnechea).
Unlike most European cities, this more segregated 3. The settlements
residential development has pulled commercial
land use out towards it, almost in the opposite The NUP has been implemented at a national
direction to the shift in spatial accessibility of the level in Chile since 1983, with financial support
city as a whole (southwards). This is a key aspect from the Interamerican Development Bank (IDB),
of the well known `divided city' characteristic of through four separate consecutive operations. The
Santiago so evident in terms of economic and first three are already completed and amount to
social data (CED, 1990). 716 projects involving 134,356 sanitary units,
while the fourth operation is currently under
7
Poverty here has been measured as percentage of the way and has been estimated to consider another
population below the Unsatisfied Basic Needs line (UBN). 13,000 individual units.

70
Figure 2-1. Global Integration in Santiago Historically. (a) 1890. (b) 1925. (c) 1960. (d) 1995.

71
Figure 2-1. continued
The criteria to select the sample settlements comparison. The size of the sample regarding
considered the following three aspects: to households to be interviewed was calculated
concentrate in the first and oldest operation according to a methodology proposed by OrtuÂzar
(implemented from 1983 to 1988) in order to and Willumsen (1994) and the actual plot selection
allow for a maximum time for the residential was done through a random process.
consolidation process to take place; only projects
located in Santiago urban area were chosen; and the The gathering of data included site survey data
sample was restricted to those with over 100 and for all 3 485 plots on the 17 settlements, a
under 400 units, in order to allow for settlement structured questionnaire applied to 553 surveyed

72
Figure 2-2. Income and Education Index. (a) Income Index in 10 greyscale equal ranges (b) Education Index in 10
greyscale equal ranges.
Figure 2-3. Correlation of Integration with Income and Poverty (excluding Oriente). (a) Global Integration and Income
Index (b) Global Integration and Poverty Index.
households8 and an observation study on patterns Figure 3-1 shows the axial map of Santiago,
of pedestrian and vehicular movement in every highlighting the lines of the 17 settlements of the
street segment9 in the sample. sample. As can be seen, the length of axial lines in
the settlements varies considerably, as does the
8
Nevertheless, a further checking of the data found out that
number of lines that each is directly connected to.
some surveyed families had arrived to the settlement after the
implementation of the NUP. The final analysis excluded these
families, and was done on the 434 surveyed families that were 3.1. Consolidation in the settlements
original NUP beneficiaries.
9
A segment is considered to be the section of a street It is interesting to first review some basic statistics
between two intersections and how the settlements perform on what have

73
Figure 2-4. Global Integration of Oriente as an Independent System.
been traditional variables and physical indicators 3-2 shows that time does not vary significantly
related to housing consolidation. As shown in among the sample: the mean time that the
Table 3-1 settlements are homogenous in plot size families have been in the places is just over 20
(plot area) but vary greatly in size (number of years, and the mean owners age is around 50
units, area) and density (measured both as years. On the other hand, income varies more
inhabitants and plots per area). significantly, and one settlement acts as an
outlier with a higher mean income than the
Two of the most traditional variables related to rest. This case, Arturo Prat in PenÄaloleÂn, will be
housing consolidation are income and time (both referred to later as it seems to be the case where
as time of residence of the inhabitants in the its location in the city ± in the richer Oriente
settlement and as age of the owners); while the area ± has provided a special advantage to its
size of the house and the presence of second inhabitants.
floors have been considered important indicators
of consolidation (Greene et al., 1992; Greene and On the other hand Arturo Prat ± PenÄaloleÂn,
Ducci, 1997). On this project we found an together with Villa El Rodeo and El Almendro,
additional, and most important variable, related stand out for their high standards in terms of
to the process of consolidation: the presence of house area and density, while Yungay±Los
commercial activity. Colonos and Panamericana Norte are noteworthy
for the poor standards in this aspect. The second
As explained before, the sample selection criteria floor aspect was found more difficult to interpret
aimed at controlling the time of residence. Table as in the last years there has been governmental

74
Figure 3-1. Axial Map of Santiago de Chile with Lines of Settlements Highlighted.
support for this type of home improvement is the presence of commercial activity in the plots,
through the action of non-governmental organisa- especially in the construction of small informal
tions (NGOs). In fact, second floors are being built shops, kiosks or workshops. Villa El Pino has a
at a rapid rate. very high proportion in this respect: 13% of the
plots have commercial activity. This settlement is
As will be seen later, the aspect which was found located in an important cross-roads of the city and
to correlate most significantly with consolidation opposite a hospital which attracts a considerable

75
Table 3-1 Basic statistics of settlements

Settlement Local Authority Plots Plot Area (m2) Set Area1 (hect) Density (pers/ha) Density (plots/area)
1 RauÂl Mazzone Cerrillos 252 142.50 4.66 249.23 54.08

2 Panamericana Norte Conchali 117 157.50 1.87 351.94 62.57
3 Villa El Rodeo Huechuraba 283 116.00 5.52 260.14 51.27
4 Progreso Aurora La Cisterna 214 162.00 5.16 213.51 41.47
5 Cuatro Estrellas El Bosque 242 165.00 5.19 233.14 46.63
6 El Almendro El Bosque 324 180.50 11.13 109.16 29.11
7 Villa Ovalle La Granja 106 153.00 2.67 171.51 39.70
8 Yungay-Los Colonos Lo Prado 181 162.00 3.13 268.90 57.83
9 Caupolican-Las Torres Macul 326 136.00 6.35 222.47 51.34
10 Primero de Septiembre MaipuÂ 128 124.00 2.38 309.72 54.20
11 A. Prat-PenÄalolen PenÄaloleÂn 142 180.00 4.04 162.35 35.15
12 Manuel Acevedo Pudahuel 252 112.50 5.89 175.89 42.78
13 Santa Elvira Puente Alto 167 243.00 6.68 117.39 25.00
14 La VinÄita Renca 106 162.00 2.76 205.27 38.41
15 Arturo Prat-Renca Renca 212 120.00 5.61 167.59 37.79
16 Robinson Rojas Renca 312 162.00 6.16 266.38 50.65
17 Villa El Pino San Bernardo 122 153.00 2.93 176.02 41.64
Mean 205 154.76 4.83 215.33 215.33
Maximum 326 243.00 11.13 351.94 351.94

Minimum 106 112.50 1.87 109.16 109.16
Standard Deviation 78 30.98 2.24 65.02 65.02
1
The settlement area has been taken up to the internal kerb of the edge street, excluding open space bordering the site.
Table 3-2 Variables and indicators related to consolidation

Settlement Time in Couple Family Inc/Capita House House Second Commerce
Settlem Age Income2 ($/pers) Area Density Floor % %
(yrs) (yrs) ($) (m2) (m2/pers)
1 RauÂl Mazzone 22.91 49.98 191,913 45,966 49.74 11.14 9.92 4.76
2 Panamericana Norte 22.58 50.19 149,458 28,831 51.63 10.07 5.98 2.56
3 Villa El Rodeo 22.70 49.11 141,852 31,163 60.63 14.26 10.60 5.30
4 Progreso Aurora 23.15 49.67 127,593 27,307 48.26 10.44 12.15 5.14
5 Cuatro Estrellas 24.21 51.14 182,576 40,403 50.88 11.83 7.44 4.13
6 El Almendro 20.75 49.47 142,656 47,840 55.53 17.54 6.17 7.41
7 Villa Ovalle 25.20 51.72 163,560 41,149 49.96 12.69 20.75 9.43
8 Yungay-Los Colonos 19.55 46.08 148,250 38,147 45.45 12.5 14.92 5.52
9 Caupolican-Las Torres 23.53 48.17 165,167 42,673 49.97 13.93 14.72 6.44
10 Primero de Septiembre 19.95 52.83 190,738 36,571 52.57 11.58 7.03 3.13
11 Arturo Prat-PenÄalolen 23.90 54.07 253,190 64,916 51.81 17.08 14.79 4.93
12 Manuel Acevedo 21.22 52.81 115,337 31,805 51.89 16.03 7.54 2.78
13 Santa Elvira 23.43 49.35 140,326 32,948 49.48 11.7 0.60 7.19
14 La VinÄita 24.14 46.40 199,414 41,828 56.22 12.01 9.43 5.66
15 Arturo Prat-Renca 23.87 50.93 165,891 42,390 47.39 14.24 8.02 3.30
16 Robinson Rojas 22.89 51.22 149,963 32,549 49.04 10.46 16.99 5.77
17 Villa El Pino 23.36 50.41 200,227 48,530 50.5 14.22 6.56 13.93
Mean 22.84 50.15 164,878 39,502 51.45 13.08 10.36 5.57
Maximum 28 88 700,000 175,000 161 52 20.75 13.93

Minimum 15 24 0 0 16 2 0.60 2.56
Standard Deviation 3.89 10.10 99,075 25,632 21.20 7.95 4.97 2.77
2
At the moment of the survey 420 Chilean pesos 1 US$.
amount of pedestrian and vehicular movement, GCI. The last one summarises up the findings of
which as shall be seen, is directly related to the the partial indexes, giving a complete picture of
development of commercial activity. the process. As can be seen Villa Ovalle, Santa
Elvira, CaupolicaÂn±Las Torres, followed by
In Table 3-3 the mean of the consolidation indices Robinson Rojas and Progreso Aurora are the
per settlement is presented: HCI, CCI, NCI and better performing settlements; while Primero

76
Table 3-3 Consolidation indices per settlement In each case mean adult and vehicular movement
Settlement HCl CCl NCl GCl
rates were plotted segment by segment (see
Figures 3-5 and 3-8). Because vehicle rates are
1 RauÂl Mazzone 66.10 55.39 47.24 57.23 nearly twice as high as pedestrian rates, it is not
2 Panamericana Norte 50.77 56.46 53.97 53.44 possible to compare them with pedestrian rates
3 Villa El Rodeo 64.68 56.28 52.67 58.55
4 Progreso Aurora 66.22 63.24 59.30 63.25 even within individual settlements. Overall, mean
5 Cuatro Estrellas 64.37 46.65 63.61 58.83 adult pedestrian movement rates on the gates are
6 El Almendro 60.44 53.66 69.52 61.13 low (at 36 people per hour, or little more than one
7 Villa Ovalle 72.93 64.70 64.95 68.07
8 Yungay-Los Colonos 66.49 52.48 60.51 60.49 every two minutes), but twice the child rates (at
9 Caupolican-Las Torres 69.19 67.32 61.12 66.21 18 per hour), and a little over half the vehicular
10 Primero de Septiembre 69.20 54.29 32.36 53.67 movement rates (at 84 per hour). The overall
11 Arturo Prat-PenÄalolen 66.26 57.29 54.68 60.09
12 Manuel Acevedo 58.18 59.52 31.93 50.71 mean gate movement rate is then over two
13 Santa Elvira 71.66 63.46 63.55 66.76 movements per minute (148 per hour). This is a
14 La VinÄita 61.21 47.33 34.95 49.17 relatively low rate. These settlement are not in
15 Arturo Prat-Renca 58.84 42.85 52.79 52.23
16 Robinson Rojas 67.75 56.30 70.41 65.11 general alive with movement, although as shall be
17 Villa El Pino 68.94 55.61 54.97 60.75 seen, a few are.
Mean 64.74 56.01 55.04 59.21
The graphics demonstrate a number of key points:
Maximum 93.94 71.22 95.00 81.88
Minimum 23.91 28.15 11.50 33.64 movement rates are very different among
X
Standard Deviation 15.59 11.90 15.78 9.02
settlements;
3
Commerce was calculated considering the ratio of plots that X there is a strong tendency for vehicular
have either a shop, kiosk or workshop. movement to be highest at the edges (though
sometimes it is also strong within the settle-
de Septiembre, Panamericana Norte, Arturo
ment, as in Progreso Aurora), and for (the
Prat-Renca, Manuel Acevedo and La VinÄita are
lower rates of) pedestrian movement to be
the worst performing. Figure 3-2 presents this
more evenly diffused and to peak internally
graphically rank ordering the settlements from
(though again in some cases ± for example,
higher to lower level of global consolidation.
Villa El Pino ± the peak is at the edges);
X variations in vehicular movement are much
3.2. Movement patterns in the settlements greater than those for either adult of child
pedestrian movement.
Using the experience gained in a pilot survey
done in Progreso Aurora during the second year Figure 3-3(a) shows this graphically: the settle-
of the research project, a full programme of ments are plotted from left to right in order of
movement studies in and around all the settle- highest overall movement rates (that is, the sum
ments was carried out in April 199810. The study of pedestrian and vehicular movement). The plot
used the `movement gates' technique, where shows that while in the low-movement settle-
notional gates are defined covering all axial line ments, pedestrians tend to outnumber vehicles, in
segments. Observers count the number of passing the high-movement settlements vehicles outnum-
people and vehicles through each of these gates, ber pedestrians, sometimes by a large margin.
distinguishing between men, women, children
and various vehicle types. Six hourly periods Child movement rates follow a very similar
were defined (starting at 12:00, 13:00, 14:00, 16:00, pattern to adult movement rates (they correlate
17:00 and 18:00 hours) and two observations per at r-squared .874 when considering settlement
hour during five minutes each were made at a means and .571 when considering individual
total of 489 gates, covering 198 axial lines. lines). Figure 3-3(b) plots mean adult and child
movement rates on the same basis as the previous
The results of the movement studies were figure, showing that adult rates are constantly
mapped using the Geographical Information about twice the child level. This ensures that for
System (GIS) package `mapinfo' in equal grey- the most part there is a fairly constant natural
scales to allow for comparison across settlements. surveillance of children by moving adults. This is
10
For practical reasons, only movement on the site and its undoubtedly a benefit of the simple, street based
immediate surrounding streets was observed. design of the settlements, and contrasts strongly

77
Figure 3-2. Global Consolidation Index per Settlement.
Figure 3-3. (a±b) Comparison of levels of Movement in Settlements (settlements plotted from left to right in order of
highest overall movement).
from results in studies of housing estates in the UK Vespucio. It is the largest settlement in the sample,
which shows that complex internal layouts lead to with 326 plots. The settlement has two identifiable
adults and children using space in quite different parts -a southern and northern area- each border-
ways, so that natural surveillance of children ing an important road. Both areas are linked by an
through everyday movement is lost, with negative internal road that crosses the whole settlement in
social consequences for the estate (Hillier, 1996). a north-south direction. There is also an internal
ring towards the east, where small pockets of
undeveloped land have been left.
3.3. Database of individual settlements
Each settlement was described through graphical The bordering roads ± Avenida Las Torres and
representations, text and summary data-tables for Chacarillas ± to the south and west of the
the spatial and social data collected for the study. settlement, offer high movement rates which
As an example, in this paper, we present a high have been reflected in the development of
and a poor performing settlement regarding commercial activity. Across these roads, there
consolidation also characterised by a high and are established housing estates. The north border
low development of commercial activity. of the settlement also limits with housing estates,
but this time internally through the back of the
Settlement 9. CaupolicaÂn±Las Torres, Macul Caupo- plots, giving a more quiet and interior feeling to
licaÂn±Las Torres is located on the east side of the this area. Towards the east the empty plots allow
city, very close to Santiago's ring road AmeÂrico the back of a neighbouring food industry to be

78
perceived from the interior of the settlement. This southern ones in a more disadvantageous position.
seems to have a negative impact on the settle- The northern segments limit towards the east and
ment, especially noted are the empty plots which north with well established detached one storey
are used as garbage dumps by the inhabitants. housing, and towards the east with ErraÂzuriz, the
main connection with the city, with high rates of
There is a contrast between private and public movement (although across the street there are
trees and vegetation: front gardens show well warehouses). These sectors seem to have better
kept plants, shrubbery and trees, giving a consolidated houses and most of the shops.
green effect much superior to the one found
in the public open space of the streets and The southern sectors limit towards the south with
passages. Nevertheless, the settlement has a derelict space poorly controlled and badly
abundant community equipment: a community illuminated, used as a garbage dump and with
building, an illuminated sports ground, two informal sporadic dwellers, towards the east with
sports club buildings and a church, located the blank back walls of the cemetery and towards
deep inside the settlement. On the west border the west with informal dwellings developed in a
there is a green area, a children's playground small strip of land against another blank wall.
and a Lions Club building.
At the moment of the first surveys for this study,
Overall CaupolicaÂn±Las Torres rates highly on all internal roads of the settlement were unpaved,
consolidation, especially in HCI and CCI. It also but were later paved due to governmental action.
has one of the highest ratio of houses with second The unpaved roads, had a clear negative impact
floors (15%). In this respect, it must be noted that in the consolidation of the settlement. The
the Canadian government supported an NGO settlement has a community building (also used
programme for building mud second storeys in by the sports club), a child assistance centre, a
the houses. In the distribution of consolidation, green area with public seating and a kindergarten
there seems to be a positive influence of the two located in its geometrical centre. There is also a
active borders of the settlement: the best con- playground and a fenced and illuminated sports
solidated houses seem to locate near the west and ground located at the side of the cemetery, in the
south active edges, and the worst in the internal perimeter of the settlement.
east ring road of the settlement.
In terms of global consolidation Manuel Acevedo
Figure 3-4 shows some basic syntactic measures of is one of the worse settlements, but specially in its
the settlement axial maps calculated in different NCI which is the lowest of the sample. The
level models; Figure 3-5 shows land use and expressions of this low consolidation can be seen
movement patterns; and Figure 3-6 shows the in the public and semi-public (front gardens)
distribution of the consolidation indices in the space: most of the fencing is timber of poor
settlements. All maps were drawn in equal ranges building standards and maintenance; the houses
considering the 17 settlements, in order to make facade are opaque, no colour, nor additional semi
the maps comparable among one another. open spaces (verandas, covered patios).
Settlement 12. Manuel Acevedo, Pudahuel As in the previous case, Figure 3-7 shows some basic
Manuel Acevedo is located on the west side of the syntactic measures; Figure 3-8 shows land use and
city quite near, but not adjacent to San Pablo, a movement patterns; and Figure 3-9 the distribution
main road in Santiago. It is characterised by a of the consolidation indexes in the settlement.
visual segregation from the surrounding area due
mainly to two factors: (i) it has almost no edge
streets bordering the settlement, but in general 4. Statistical analysis of settlement
limits through the back of the plots with the consolidation
neighbouring area, and (ii) the presence of a
cemetery in the east side, blocking its relation Prior to the testing of factors affecting the
with ErraÂzuriz, a relatively important local road. consolidation process it was necessary to examine
the relation between its different expressions: do
The settlement is crossed by two perpendicular the physical and social expressions of consolida-
roads creating four recognisable segments, the tion follow similar patterns of development?

79
Figure 3-4. (a±h) Syntactic Models of CaupolicaÂn-Las Torres.
The second stage involves an analysis of the of spatial configuration and of space and land use
relation between movement patterns and the variables on the various aspects of settlement
configurational models. The idea is to first test consolidation will be examined.
the conjecture that the spatial layout of the
settlements has an effect on their patterns of Finally, regression techniques will be used to
movement. answer a series of specific questions about the
patterns of influence between the variables. In this
The third stage will be a first order statistical way, a picture will be built of the process by
analysis to establish which variables are which spatial configuration, movement patterns
prima facie involved in each aspect of and land use factors have played a key role in
settlement consolidation: housing, community determining the pathways of consolidation of the
and neighbourhood. The impact of social factors, settlements.

80
Figure 3-5. (a±c) Land Use and Movement in CaupolicaÂn-Las Torres.
The statistical analysis was carried out at three! follow similar paths of development. If this was
levels of resolution: movement patterns and the case, it could be suggested that there is a
configurational variables were analysed at axial single ± if perhaps complex ± process affecting
line level n 198; consolidation and social vari- the basic three aspects of consolidation. On the
ables were analysed at individual families level other hand, if they show different paths of
n 434; and the mean values of all variables were development, it could be suggested that they
analysed at settlements level n 17: are the result of independent processes probably
involving different variables.
4.1. The indices among themselves
The relation between the indices was
The first enquiry was to ascertain whether housing, approached by correlating the variables that
community and neighbourhood consolidation differ at family level: HCI and CCI. When this

81
Figure 3-6. (a±d) Consolidation in CaupolicaÂn-Las Torres.
two partial indices -which could be described as X nevertheless, there is also enough evidence to
the physical and social expressions of the suggest that physical and social consolidation
consolidation phenomenon- were compared at of settlements goes `hand in hand': that is, that
the individual family level no correlation whatso- settlements that achieve good quality houses
ever was found (r-squared of 4:041E 2 6; also tend to achieve good and healthy com-
p :9675); nevertheless, significant correlations munities, and vice versa.
were found when the means of the indices per
settlement were compared (see Figure 4-1). This
first exercise gave us certain important clues to The correlation shown in Figure 4-1(a) also shows
understand the elusive consolidation process of two important outlying settlements ± Panamer-
peripheral settlements. They could be sum- icana Norte and Manuel Acevedo ± with high
marised as follows: community development in relation with their
poor quality houses. In fact, when excluding these
X there is evidence to suggest that the physical two cases, as shown in Figure 4-1(b) the relation
consolidation of individual houses bears little between HCI and CCI rises considerably (from r-
or no relation with the social relations devel- squared of .204, p. 0686 to r-squared of .597, p.
oped by its inhabitants in their settlement; 0007). These cases are considered important clues

82
Figure 3-7. (a±h) Syntactic Models of Manuel Acevedo.
to reveal the process we aim at understanding, imum levels of movement11 at the most local
and are being currently studied independently. syntactic measures (radius-3 integration and
connectivity) of the most local model level (7-
km model level). Considering that we are
4.2. Movement patterns
dealing with a group of small settlements
As has been found in many other studies scattered around the edges of a very large city,
(Hillier, 1996; Penn et al., 1998; Read, 1997) the the r-squared obtained are quite remarkable,
pattern of movement on settlements relates 11
strongly to the configuration of the street grid. Maximum movement rates were calculated considering
the highest rate of total observations during the day in a gate of
As shown in Figure 4-2 the best correlations of the axial line. Therefore it is not reflecting the peak movement
adult and vehicular movement rates with spatial at a given time period, but the highest movement observed in
variables were obtained when considering max- the line.

83
Figure 3-8. (a±c) Land Use and Movement in Manuel Acevedo.
especially those with vehicular movement12. The Broken down into individual settlements, the
relations for vehicular movement are by far the mean r-squared for mean vehicular movement
strongest, although adult movement is still with log connectivity in the 7-km model is .556
highly significant p :0001: and .577 if La VinÄita is excluded (where the
settlement comprises only two long lines with
three cross connections, too small and weakly
12
The r-squared for vehicular movement against connectiv- differentiated a system to detect significant
ity was .544 and against radius-3 integration was .485; for adult differentiation in the movement pattern). It is a
movement it was .289 against connectivity and .296 against matter of some interest that the best vehicular
radius-3 integration. Movement rates considered logged movement correlation is with the connectivity of
maximum values, and integration values were calculated at
lines, not their radius-3 integration which has
the 7-km model level and also logged. In the case of adult
movement, four lines with less than five movements per hour proved the most powerful in previous studies
were excluded. (Penn et al., 1998). The conjecture is that this is the

84
Figure 3-9. (a±d) Consolidation in Manuel Acevedo.
Figure 4-1. (a±b) Correlation Between Mean HCI and Mean CCI per Settlement.
result of the importance of relatively few impor- of the best correlations13. In most cases the value
tant lines that connect together the `patchwork' for pedestrian movement is less good than for
pieces of orthogonal grid which characterises vehicular movement. There is a broad relation-
Santiago. Taking the settlements individually, ship between the two sets of correlations (r-
the mean r-squared for mean adult movement squared .356). It is significant that the worst five
with connectivity in the 7-km model is .351 and settlements regarding these correlations (at the
without La VinÄita it rises to .401. right edge of the figure) have conspicuous
13
Calculated as the sum of r-squared of vehicle movement
Figure 4-3 plots the r-squared values for vehicle and connectivity, plus the r-squared of adult movement and
and adult movement from left to right in the order local integration.

85
Figure 4-2. Correlations of Movement and Syntactic Measures.
Figure 4-3. Comparison of Correlation Coefficients Between Movement and Syntactic Values in Settlements
(settlements plotted from left to right in order of best correlations).
features of segregation: La VinÄita and Villa El multiplier effects. It is notable in the case of the
Rodeo are both at extreme edges of Santiago Santiago settlements that well-structured move-
bordering the mountains, Arturo Prat-Renca is ment, as indicated in high level of correlation
immediately above the river and completely cut between space structure and movement, seems
off to the south, Panamericana Norte is strongly to be associated with settlements with spatially
cut off on three sides by industrial development strong edges and good levels of associated
and Manual Acevedo, is cut off south and east in vehicular movement. The good relation seems
the direction of Santiago, and linked only a short to be one of adjacency: settlements with well
way into surrounding areas to the north and west. structured movement are directly adjacent, in
All of these poor levels of correlation seem in some cases on two sides, with strong spatial
some way or other to be associated with poor lines with high movement levels.
embedding of the settlement into its contextual
area, and this, in fact, is known from previous
studies to be one of the factors commonly 4.3. Variables involved in consolidation
associated with poorly structured pedestrian
The analysis was carried out simultaneously at
movement in urban areas (Hillier, 1996).
two levels: settlement's level, that is working with
the settlement's means, and family's level by
Overall, the configuration of space in and
working with all the remaining 413 cases14. For
around the settlements, and of Santiago in
the development of the EU funded project and the
general, clearly has a powerful role in structur-
work presented in this paper, special importance
ing movement. This of course is a key element
14
in the theory of the movement economy, where One settlement, Arturo Prat±PenÄaloleÂn, was removed from
the process of development is sparked by the the sample because of a number of factors which made it
exceptional (it has the highest income and oldest population in
effect of the differentiation of the urban grid on the sample, lowest proportion of dependants and highest
movement pattern, and the subsequent impact proportion who bought the house after the implementation of
that this has on land use patterns and further the NUP). For detailed explanation refer to Hillier et al (1998).

86
Table 4-1 Correlation matrix of indices and social variables (highlighting significant correlations p , :1)
HCl CCl NCl
Settlem Family Settlem Family Settle Family
Time in Settlement .169 2.046 .08 .051 .245 .073

Number Persons in Household 2.124 2.126 2.168 .004 2.28 2.076
Type of Family (mono, uni & gender) .535 .199 .201 2.048 .342 .07
Education of Head of Household 2.0004 .13 2.376 2.116 2.397 2.124
Education Level of Couple .134 .153 2.298 2.125 2.393 2.107
Education Level of Family .546 .191 .246 .006 2.023 2.005
Age of Head of Household .035 2.026 .118 .008 2.288 2.04
Mean Age of Couple .001 2.026 .079 .017 2.164 2.016
Rate of Dependants 2.37 2.09 2.196 2.04 2.114 2.046
Income .224 .314 2.418 2.101 2.244 2.055

ln(x) of Income .234 .304 2.417 2.092 2.187 2.022
Spending .212 .287 2.228 2.052 .014 2.015
ln(x) of Spending .2 .279 2.257 2.054 .026 .038
Saving Capacity .112 .186 2.469 2.108 2.376 2.096
ln(x) of Saving Capacity .093 .266 2.533 .002 2.274 .112
Income per Capita .198 .304 2.304 2.098 .083 .032
ln(x) of Income per Capita .218 .364 2.319 2.108 .07 .016
Rate of Income from Stable Work .556 .171 .193 .041 .705 .221
Longest Time Income in Family .218 .083 2.124 2.054 2.28 2.045
Ownership Goods (car, cable TV, video, phone) .172 .426 2.123 2.038 2.375 2.048
is given to the analysis at settlements level. This is positive correlations were found with type of
consistent with one of the first intuitions that family as well as income related variables. These
started out the project: that is, that although are reflecting the importance of economic
significant differences of consolidation can be resources (income, rate of income from work,
perceived from one house to another, the general spending, income stability) and social resources
feeling of good consolidation and vice versa is (educational level, type of family) in housing
much stronger from one settlement to another. investment at the family level.
Nevertheless, further work is under process,
where the data is being analysed at individual Nevertheless most of these variables do not show
family's level and where settlements are studied significant correlation with CCI nor with NCI,
independently. and ± even more important ± when they correlate
they show negative relations. In the case of CCI,
Social Factors this could reflect a survival strategy of weaker
The first task was to interrogate the data regard- families: those with lower levels of education and
ing to how far settlement consolidation, as shown income need to develop stronger community ties
in the three partial indices ± HCI, NCI and CCI ± to assist one another. However it may also reflect
is prima facie a social process independent of a difference in expectations about community
spatial and planning factors. If this is the case, between higher and lower income families: the
correlations between social factors such as age, better off may be more critical. In the case of NCI
time in the settlement, income, education, spend- it can be explained as governmental prioritisation
ing and saving patterns, and the consolidation towards poorer sectors: intervention in the provi-
variables would be expected to be found. sion of urban services (which NCI reflects) tends
to be higher in areas of more extreme poverty
A correlation matrix at settlements level was pointing.
produced for the three indices and a set of social
variables measuring aspects traditionally asso- This analysis showed that social variables seem to
ciated with consolidation (see Table 4-1 where be playing a significant role in the physical
significant correlations15 are highlighted). Only a development of the houses (HCI) at the level of
few significant relations were found at the level of individual families. However, there seems to be
the settlements. However at the level of the very little positive effect to consolidation variables
family, specially regarding HCI, significant and at the level of settlements. This suggests the
15
The level of significance was set at p , :1 all through this presence of additional important variables inter-
analysis. vening at the settlement level.

87
Table 4-2 Correlation matrix of indices and spatial variables (highlighting significant correlations p , :1)
HCl CCl NCl
Settlem Family Settlem Family Settlem Family
Integration rad-n Stgo .358 .152 .271 .091 .384 .389

ln(x) of rad-n Stgo .368 .146 .295 .095 .344 .351
Integration rad-9 Stgo .406 .173 .195 .050 .526 .516
ln(x) of rad-9 Stgo .436 .171 .223 .050 .532 .521
Integration rad-3 Stgo .046 .110 2.314 2.096 .247 .059
ln(x) of rad-3 Stgo .049 .079 2.295 2.111 .246 .075
Connectivity Stgo .078 .144 2.229 .002 .268 .039
ln(x) of Connect. Stgo .095 .104 2.204 2.062 .274 .009
7-km Integ.rad-n .341 .176 2.020 .022 .473 .441

ln(x) of 7-km rad-n .411 .171 .035 .019 .490 .496
7-km Integ.rad-9 .178 .022 .436
ln(x) of 7-km rad-9 .173 .019 .49
7-km Integ.rad3 .008 .085 2.314 2.096 .224 .015
ln(x) of 7km rad-3 .008 .060 2.298 2.107 .224 .046
7-km Connectivity .072 .128 2.200 2.020 .245 2.029
ln(x) of 7-km Conn .084 .086 2.176 2.067 .234 2.014
Synergy .564 .291 .354

LSA rad-n .147 .153 2.195 2.003 .460 .264
LSA rad-9 .208 .102 .424
LSA rad-3 2.046 2.133 .158
LSA connectivity .088 2.068 .241
Spatial factors role in the consolidation process (at least for

A similar exercise was carried out regarding the neighbourhood and housing) both at the settle-
prima facie correlations between selected spatial ment and the family level. What mechanism
variables and the consolidation indices (see Table could explain a relation between the spatial
4-2). It showed that the pattern of correlation is in structure and the consolidation process? Since
general positive with many more instances of we had previously found significant correlations
significant relations. from configurational variables to patterns of
movement, the evidence was pointing towards a
In particular, at the level of the settlement, it was role for space use and land use factors.
found that radius-9 integration (both at whole
city level and at the 7-km models) and LSA are Space and land use factors
significant with NCI; and that synergy (the Space and land use variables turned out to show
correlation between local and global spatial much stronger correlations with consolidation
integration for lines on each settlement) is indices than any other variables (see Table 4-3).
significant with HCI. For individual families, Three aspects in particular seem to be important:
the instances of significant correlations are even vehicular movement, delinquency and commer-
more frequent: HCI correlates positively and cial activity.
significantly with all levels of integration and
connectivity in both the city and 7-km models; Firstly, a strong positive correlation between
NCI correlates positively and strongly but only vehicular movement and all consolidation indices
with the more global integration measures; was found. Having previously found a strong
while CCI correlates positively with global relation between configuration and vehicular
measures of integration but negatively with movement, the further correlation with consolida-
local ones. This was indicating that while tion forms an important threefold relation that
housing and neighbourhood development were runs through the data: spatial structure influences
being affected positively by integration, regarding movement patterns which in turn influence
community development, the local and global consolidation.
integration were playing different roles.
Secondly, strong negative correlations were found
The analysis left us with the impression that between CCI and the experience of mugging and
spatial configuration was playing an important burglary both at the settlement and family levels,

88
Table 4-3 Correlation matrix of indices and land use variables1 (highlighting significant correlations p , :1)
HCl CCl NCl
Settlem Family Settlem Family Settlem Family
Mean Adult Movement 2.095 .018 .092 .034 .127 .003

ln(x) of Mean Ad Move 2.113 2.024 .143 .039 .100 .018
Mean Child Movement 2.100 2.028 2.009 2.005 2.018 2.060
ln(x) of Mean Ch Move 2.156 2.071 2.023 2.027 2.083 2.072
Mean Pedestrian Movement 2.099 .001 .054 .019 .073 2.022
ln(x) of Mean Ped Move 2.126 2.042 .087 .021 .029 2.022
Mean Vehicle Movement .497 .147 .469 .031 .451 .097
ln(x) of Mean Veh Move .428 .064 .512 .016 .452 .050
Mean All Movement .392 .140 .379 .033 .472 .089
ln(x) of Mean All Move .333 .049 .430 .004 .503 .036
Mean Veh Mov/Mean Ad Mov .431 .091 .343 2.089 .414 .063
Max Adult Movement 2.068 .021 .117 .026 2.020 .008

ln(x) of Max Ad Move 2.068 2.013 .152 .032 .016 .019
Max Child Movement 2.010 2.014 2.011 .015 2.061 2.034
ln(x) of Max Ch Move 2.067 2.050 2.013 2.012 2.131 2.034
Max Pedestrian Movement 2.003 .018 2.007
ln(x) of Max Ped Move 2.036 .018 2.003
Max Vehicle Movement .240 .149 .428 .028 .266 .097
ln(x) of Max Veh Move .381 .067 .543 .006 .433 .049
Max All Movement .139 .031 .095
ln(x) of Max All Move .049 2.0001 .045
Feels Insecure in Settlement 2.132 .064 2.357 2.257 2.242 2.101

Mugging 2.370 2.076 2.513 2.124 2.350 2.107
Burglary 2.300 .017 2.651 2.165 .026 .007
Drug Addiction .107 .050 2.203 2.136 2.117 2.067
Alcoholism .141 .058 2.274 2.175 2.044 2.048
Dummy: Shop, Workshop or Kiosk .163 2.042 .077

All Shops/Plots .552 .281 .392
Edge Shops/Plots .573 .467 .441
Edge Shops/Plots .539 .608 .400
EOCA .607 .480 .448
1 Correlation coefficients of CCl and insecurity feeling, mugging, burglary, drug addiction and alcoholism have been calculated
excluding the sub-component in each case.
as well as with security perception and perception houses with commercial activity located in the
of drug and alcohol addiction at the level of the border to the total number of shops in the
family (it must be noted that to avoid auto- settlement (edge shops/shops). The two first
correlation these regressions were calculated ratios are weighed by a factor of ten and added
excluding in each case the relevant sub-compo- with the third for the single EOCA index16.
nent from the compound CCI index). These are
the strongest relations found for CCI: reported Strong positive correlations of the indices were
levels of community networks appear to be highly found with the rate and degree to which
related to those of delinquency. commercial activity is oriented to the outside
edges of the settlement (particularly edgeshops/
The third important space use factor in consolida- plots, edgeshops/allshops) and with the com-
tion is the rate and distribution of commercial pound variable EOCA. Most strikingly, this single
activity (shops, kiosks and workshops built in the (although complex) variable of EOCA has the
inhabitants plots) in the settlements. In an attempt strongest correlations of all for two of the three
to capture this, an index of èdge oriented partial consolidation indices: HCI and CCI. The
commercial activity' or EOCA, was created. This exception is NCI whose strongest correlation is
takes three ratios: the ratio of houses with 16
The formula for this index is the following:
commercial activity to the total number of houses
(shops/plots); the ratio of such houses located on EOCA 10 shops=plots 10 edge shops=plots
outward facing edges to the total number of edge shops=shops
houses (edge shops/plots); and the ratio of

89
Figure 4-4. (a±c) Correlations Between Consolidation and Space/Land Use Variables.
with the spatial variable of radius-9 integration at independent or dependent role. This was done by
the city level. Figure 4-4 shows the three scatter- multiple and stepwise regression, for each of the
grams for these relations. consolidation indices, using all variables which
correlate with each or all of the consolidation
The graphics of the two cases presented in Section indices at the p , :1 level.
3 are helpful to visually compare this phenom-
enon. While CaupolicaÂn±Las Torres does not For HCI, a stepwise regression at the settlement
present the highest rate of commercial activity level against 13 selected variables, (see Table 4-
(it ranks fifth in the ratio shops per plots) a high 4(a)) confirms that EOCA is the sole surviving
percentage of its commerce is located on the edges variable. It must be taken therefore as the
of the settlement; Manuel Acevedo on the other strongest determinant of HCI (r-squared of .368).
hand shows a low rate of commercial activity and
little orientation of it towards the edge. However, a caveat must be added. Figure 4-5(a)
shows the regression of mugging against HCI for
all 16 settlements. It shows what appears to be a
4.4. The consolidation process
negative correlation, but with a single discon-
Although strong relations have been found forming case of Panamericana Norte. Burglary
between the indices and a number of configura- follows a similar pattern. If this settlement is
tional, social and space use factors, the mechan- removed, as in Figure 4-5(b), the r-squared value
ism where by the process of consolidation takes becomes .66, making it the strongest correlate of
place still requires further explanation. Since HCI. If the stepwise regression is re-run with this
other variables also correlate with the indices, it settlement eliminated, then mugging becomes the
was necessary to explore how far these play an stronger factor, and EOCA is replaced by the
Figure 4-5. (a±b) Correlation of HCI and Mugging.

90
Table 4-4 (a) All 16 settlements Table 4-5 Stepwise regression of CCI
r: r-squared Adj. r-sq.: Std. Error: r: r-sq: Adj. r-sq.: Std. Error:
.607 .368 .323 4.714 .898 .806 .758 3.319
Variables in equation Variables in equation

Parameter: Value: Std. Err.: Std. F to Parameter: Value: Std. Err.: Std. F to
Value: Remove: Value: Remove:
INTERCEPT 58.142 INTERCEPT 89.606

EQCA 4.979 1.743 .607 8.158 LSA 223.732 9.199 2.397 6.656
EdgeShops/Plots 18.169 3.995 .679 20.688
Burglary 2.328 .072 2.6 20.632
Variables not in equation
Parameter: Par. Corr: F to Enter:
LSA .231 .73 Parameter: Par. Corr: F to Enter:
VehicleMov 2.297 1.255
Edge/Shops .064 .053 VehicleMov. .375 1.798
Edge Shops/Plots 2.351 1.827 EdgeShops/Shops .21 .506
Shops/Plots .014 .003 Shops/Plots 2.27 .863
Income/capita 2.122 .196 EOCA 2.154 .267
AdultMov 2.317 1.449 Income/capita 2.138 .214
Rad-n Stgo. .045 .026 AdultMov 2.055 .033
Rad-9 Stgo. .115 .175 Rad-n .163 .301
Mugging 2.286 1.155 Rad-9 .109 .131
Burglary 2.364 1.982 Mugging 2.061 .042
Synergy .3 1.283 Synergy .16 .288
(b) Excluding Panamericana

Table 4-6 Stepwise regression of NCl
r: r-squared Adj. r-squared Std. Error:
r: r-squared: Adj. r-sq.: Std. Error:
.896 .804 .771 2.149
.526 .277 .225 10.893
Variables in equation
Parameter: Value: Std. Err.: Std. F to
Value: Remove: Variables in equation
Parameter: Value: Std. Err.: Std. Value: F to Remove:
INTERCEPT 69.49
Shops/Plots 6.104 2.062 .383 8.766 INTERCEPT 12.262
mugging 2.291 .05 2.757 34.207 Rad9 24.241 10.475 .526 5.355

Parameter: Par. Corr: F to Enter: Variables not in equation
Parameter: Par. Corr: F to Enter:
EdgSh/Plots .049 .027
Edge/Shops 2.162 .297 EdgeShops/Plots .23 .725
LSA .071 .055 Shops/Plots .13 .222
EOCA 2.076 .064 Edge/Shops .26 .943
Income/capita 2.013 .002 LSA .321 1.496
VehicleMov .047 .024 EOCA .229 .717
AdultMov 2.451 2.812 Income/capita 2.094 .115
Rad-n Stgo. 2.15 .254 VehicleMov .248 .854
Rad-9 Stgo. 2.182 .376 AdultMov .202 .551
Synergy 2.138 .214 Mugging 2.318 1.465
Burglary .372 1.761 Synergy .135 .24
Burglary 2.013 .002
simpler EdgeShops/Plots variable, and the r- residents are prepared to invest in the consoli-
squared value, considering both this variables, dation of the house.
leaps to .804 (see Table 4-4(b)). We must then
allow the possibility that the experience of crime If CCI is examined with the same variables, a
has a significant impact on the degree to which more complex story is found. In Table 4-5, three of

91
Table 4-7 Stepwise regression of GCl the spatial configuration variables are truly
r: r-squared: Adj. r-sq.: Std. Error:
independent. Movement, crime and EOCA activ-
ity are all likely to be dependent variables in some
.783 .613 .553 3.988 underlying process. What are the independent
variables of the process in which movement,
crime and EOCA are the outcomes?
Variables in equation
Parameter: Value: Std. Err.: Std. Value: F to Remove:
The pattern of movement has already been shown
INTERCEPT 57.545 to be strongly determined by aspects of spatial
EOCA 4.901 1.522 .574 10.368 configuration at a street by street level. To further
mugging 2.204 .089 2.409 5.271
explore the determinants of movement at settle-
ment level, a stepwise regression of mean
Variables not in equation vehicular movement per settlement was set out
Parameter: Par. Corr: F to Enter: with ten selected variables17: Two variables are
EdgeShops/Plots 2.021 .005
found to be critical: synergy (the correlation
Shops/Plots .082 .082 between local and global aspects of spatial layout)
EdgeShops/Shops 2.084 .084 and LSA, which between them give an r-squared
LSA 2.065 .051
Income/capita 2.193 .463
of .453. It is notable here that mean vehicular
VehicleMov .211 .561 movement is negatively correlated to vehicle
AdultMov 2.106 .137 ownership and to other income related variables,
Synergy .302 1.201
Burglary 2.07 .059
corroborating that it cannot then be an endo-
Rad-9 .333 1.494 genous variable in the settlement. Vehicular
Rad-n .243 .756 movement rates are determined by factors
describing its spatial positioning within the larger
surrounding structure of the city. This confirms
the 13 variables tested survive in the stepwise the importance of the measure of LSA.
equation: burglary and edgeshops/plots and
LSA. These three variables between then give a Next, the determinants of the key variable, EOCA,
multiple r-squared of .806. were analysed through a stepwise regression with
11 variables18. It was found that EOCA is over-
Regressing the same variables stepwise against whelmingly determined by vehicular movement,
NCI shows that two spatial variables survive: but with one other variable playing a significant
radius-n and radius-9 integration at the level of role: monthly spending (not income) within the
the whole city. However, these showed different settlement, showing that EOCA also correlates
signs. This must be considered a statistical endogenously to the settlement. These two vari-
artefact of using two variables with a high ables give a multiple r-squared of .907, indicating
covariance together in a multiple regression. that they give a more or less complete account of
When the regression is run omitting integration the process.
radius-9 (the weakest of the two), integration
radius-9 at the Santiago level is the only surviving On its own, however, the r-squared between
variable for NCI, giving an r-squared of .277 (see vehicular movement and EOCA is .894 by far
Table 4-6). the strongest relationship anywhere in the data
(see Figure 4-6). Even this is likely to be an
Finally, a stepwise regression for the compound underestimate, since the slight outlier, the fourth
index of global consolidation (GCI) was run. This
17
showed mugging and EOCA to be the two critical These correspond to: integration measures (radius-n,
radius-9 and radius-3 at the city model level), ln(x) of
variables, with a multiple r-squared from the two
connectivity also at the city level, synergy, LSA, vehicle
of .613 (see Table 4-7). ownership and income related variables (monthly, per capita
and stability of income).
Thus a relatively small group of variables are 18
The variables considered were: integration measures
directly implicated in the four consolidation (radius-n, radius-9 and radius-3 at city level model, and
integration radius-3 at 7-km level model), synergy, LSA,
indices: edge-oriented commercial activity,
vehicle mean movement and income related variables
crime, vehicular movement, and various aspects (monthly income and spending, income per capita, stability
of spatial configuration. Of these, however, only of income).

92
Figure 4-6. Correlation of Vehicular Movement and EOCA.
highest settlement in EOCA (CaupolicaÂn-Las X where a settlement has adjacent thoroughfares

Torres) does not take account of movement on with high vehicular movement, commercial
the ring road, AmeÂrico Vespucio, immediately activity is generated (EOCA);
adjacent to the settlement, which was not X this commercial activity generates a higher
observed because it is not quite tangent to the degree of housing consolidation,
settlement. If the movement rate in that part of X and increases internal security in the settle-
AmeÂrico Vespucio approximate other observed ment;
sections, the r-squared would rise to well above .9. X which in turn increases community consolida-
tion.
What about levels of crime? A stepwise regression
with six selected variables19 showed that mug- This, of course, is the movement economy
ging is most strongly affected by edgeshops/ process. The movement economy process is at
allshops (as opposed to the level of economic least one of the critical factors in the pathways of
activity in the settlement as a whole) but also by settlement development from similar origins to
income per head and stability of income. These different present states. Are there any other
three give a multiple r-squared of .674. Finally, factors involved? In the next section three factors
burglary, in a stepwise regression considering the will be further explored: income, pedestrian
same variables, gives a very similar answer: movement and the subjective evaluation by the
income per capita and the edgeshops/shops are inhabitants themselves.
affecting the process, giving among them a total r-
squared of .534. Other Intervening Processes
At an early stage of the analysis it was shown that
The Spatial Process social factors such as income were not critical to
A clear picture of a process by which spatial and the settlement consolidation process, while at the
location factors affect the pathways of develop- same time were critical to the pathways of
ment of the settlements is emerging. The order of individuals. What is the role of per capita and
events would seem to be: family income in the process we have described?
X local (and to a lesser extent global) spatial As was seen in the analysis of the local authority
layout factors create a pattern of movement, data, education level was a very strong predictor
particularly vehicular movement; of income. If income is stepwise regressed against
X settlements that are well embedded in their the main variables20 two (education level and
local context (high LSA and synergy), have LSA) are found to play an almost equal role
higher vehicular movement rates; and between them show strong correlations
20
The following variables were considered: LSA, education
19
The following variables were considered: income per level of the couple, mean vehicle movement and commercial
capita, stability of income, edgeshops/shops, LSA, EOCA activity variables (edge-shops/shops, edgeshops/plots,
and mean vehicle movement. shops/plots and EOCA).

93
(r-squared of .656 for family income, and r- one where LSA promotes the development of the
squared .711 for income per person). This edge led economy leading to higher movement
suggests that income in the settlement is affected rates in general; and the other where the lack of
both by the spatial factors which give rise to the LSA leads to the development of a kind of
edge led commercial activity and by factors pedestrian activity more strongly associated
which are entirely independent of it. Education with a drug and alcohol culture.
appears to be a genuinely independent social
variable in this context: a thorough search have Finally, regarding the subjective factors, it was
revealed no spatial or land use variable correlat- clear that the perception of crime and drug
ing with education levels. problems strongly affects the subjective view
taken of the settlement by residents, as reported
A simple way of demonstrating the effect of the through the questionnaires. The responses to
local economy on income is to test the statistical the relevant questions at the end of the ques-
difference in income levels for households with tionnaire covering all aspects of the individual's
commercial activities attached and those without. evaluation of the settlement were factor ana-
The annual average income for houses with lysed. This gave eight factors and showed that
shops, kiosks or workshops is 191 095 pesos, responses to questions about, for example,
and for those without is 162 981 a difference transportation, health facilities or schools and
which is significant at the .059 level. nurseries were quite specific to those aspects
and not inter-correlated. The strongest factor,
There also remains the puzzle of pedestrian however, combined responses about the settle-
movement. What role was it playing? This ment: the perceived quality of its location, its
enquiry brought to light some of the more community, and its neighbourhood. Stepwise
hazardous aspects of pedestrian movement in regression against other key variables showed
these settlements. At an early stage of our that this factor was very strongly determined by
movement studies, observers reported informally drugs problems, crime, shops/plots and by
that some of the highest levels of internal edge-shops/shops (in that order) with a multi-
pedestrian movement were found in settlements ple r-squared of .882.
with the highest levels of reported drug and
alcohol culture, as well as in those with strong In spite of this strong result, however, this
edge-led economies. This turns out to be sub- subjective variable does not correlate with the
stantiated by the numerical evidence. There are òbjective' assessments of CCI and NCI, but it
significant positive correlations between reported does, and quite strongly, with HCI. There are two
drug and alcohol culture (which are themselves ways of understanding this: it could be that
very strongly correlated: r-squared of .965) and families that have been unable to achieve a good
both adult and child pedestrian movement (also consolidation of their houses will be more critical
highly correlated), which is strongest when both of their settlement, including their perception of
are considered together. There is no correlation, drugs and crime; or ± a more interesting
however, either with vehicular movement or with proposition ± that the main consequence of a
the edge-economy variables. If we examine the negative perception of a settlement, itself mainly
relation between pedestrian movement and LSA as a result of perceived drugs and crime
(which was the prime determinant of the level of problems, will be an unwillingness to invest in
vehicular movement in the settlement), we find a the consolidation of the house.
U shaped relation, shown in Figure 4-7.
The second most important factor in the evalua-
In the left part of the U-shape are to be found tion of the settlements concerned the quality of
three of the four worst settlements on drug and the house, and was quite specific to questions
alcohol problems, while the best are to be found about the dwelling. First, it is notable that this
towards the bottom of the scatter where pedes- subjective evaluation correlates well with the
trian movement rates are lowest. Those on the more òbjective' HCI measure (r-squared of
right tend to be mid-range and coincide with .632). It also correlates with the `crime and
settlements with a high development of commer- drugs' variables, strongly if Panamericana Norte
cial activity. This suggests that higher pedestrian is removed, and with edge commercial activity.
movement can reflect LSA in two dissimilar ways: This again confirms the picture that edge

94
Figure 4-7. Correlation of LSA and Adult Movement.
commercial activity tends to affect perception of X and there is a higher level of community
the settlement positively, just as the `negative development;
economy' of drugs and crime affects it negatively. X these two giving a higher level of overall
consolidation in the settlement;
X the critical spatial property that sparks off the
process is `local spatial advantage' (LSA),
5. Synthesis and conclusions meaning the degree to which the settlement
is spatially integrated with respect to its local
5.1. Principal findings contextual area of 1.5 km radius and 7 sq. km
in area, regardless of the degree to which this
The main findings of the study are that:
is developed;
X this economic process influences and is
X spatial and locational factors, especially the affected by income levels within the settle-
layout of the settlement and its relation to its ment, but income cannot be considered the
urban context, have played a major role in the critical factor in settlement consolidation.
pathway of development of the settlements
and the different degrees to which they have
become consolidated;
X the critical spatial factor is the degree to which These are strong findings, and have clear policy
the settlement is able to develop èdge implications. The most important theoretical
oriented commercial activity' (EOCA) on its result is the association proposed between social
vehicular thoroughfares, and through this to development and local informal economic activity,
participate in a wider local economy; the relation this has to local vehicular movement,
X the prime determinant of the development of and the relation this has in turn to local spatial
this type of economic activity is the direct design. At a theoretical level, these results are in line
adjacency of outward facing settlement edges with other studies of the evolution of European
to streets and roads with significant local cities. In particular, the theory of the `movement
vehicular movement, and the accessibility of economy' argues that in the growth of cities, spatial
the internal layout of the settlement to the factors first influence movement patterns, and these
lines on which this occurs; then affect land use distributions (in that movement
X where this èdge oriented economic process' is sensitive land uses move towards certain lines and
strong, the overall level of self-generated locations). This then produces multiplier effects on
economic activity in the settlement increases. movement, which then attract a greater concentra-
tion and diversity of movement-dependent land
This then has a series of beneficial effects: uses. Over time, the whole process gives rise to the
characteristic pattern of European cities with their
X the experience of mugging and burglary (but intensive pockets of mixed use activity distributed
not necessarily of drugs and alcohol) in the within larger areas of less intense, mostly residential
settlement is reported to be lower; development. A comparable process seems to be
X there is greater consolidation of houses; under way in Santiago, and this must hold out

95
much promise for the future both of these settle- that it is really just one aspect of poverty: poorly
ments and for this type of government initiative. consolidated housing and social pathologies such
as crime and drugs arise through lack of money.
This study has shown that the considerable
5.2. Policy implications
differences in consolidation between a sample of
The evidence of this study has a number of policy 17 settlements cannot be explained by income
implications. At a general level, the most impor- alone but are far more dependent on the space use
tant are that: and land use characteristics of the settlement, and
that these in turn are heavily influenced by urban
X there is a critical link between small scale design.
informal economic activity and the social and
physical development of settlements; Previous research on the investment of inhabitants
X this is facilitated by spatial and urban design; in their housing has already shown that a crude
and economic determinism (i.e. assuming income as
X there is also likely to be a link between the overwhelming causal variable) cannot explain
positive development of this kind and crime the process of consolidation21. What this study has
rates (though this at present is not based on added to knowledge has been a better under-
officially reported crime). standing of the process by which some settlements
have achieved better functioning social ties and
At the more detailed level of the spatial location better standard of houses, communities and
and planning of future settlements, and the neighbourhoods. In this process spatial configura-
adaptation of existing ones, settlements should tion itself is the primary spark, setting in motion
be planned on the understanding that: influences that affect the physical and social well-
being of developing neighbourhoods.
X Vehicular movement plays a critical role in the
informal economy of such settlements through
supporting informal commerce and thus allow-
ing some income from surrounding areas to be References
drawn into the settlement. At least for lower
CASEN (1992) Encuesta Nacional de CaracterizacioÂn
income groups, no attempt should be made to SocioeconoÂmica. Ministerio de PlanificacioÂn, San-
isolate homes from movement thoroughfares. tiago.
For these groups movement is a resource. CED (1990) Santiago: Dos Ciudades. Centro de Estudios
X Mixed use, in particular informal shops, should del Desarrollo, Santiago.
be allowed and perhaps incentivised. Since the Desyllas, J., Greene, M. and Hillier, B. (1998) The Spatial
Configuration of a Rapidly Growing City. Implica-
peripheral settlements today will be the estab- tions on the Quality of Urban Life. Sikdar, P. (ed)
lished districts of the future, the informal shops Computers in Urban Planning and Urban Manage-
may presage the location of a consolidated ment. Vol 1, Narosa, New Delhi.
neighbourhood shopping streets. Greene, M., Ducci, M. E., Soler, F., JordaÂn, R., Gross, P.,
X The location and layout of the settlements Astorga, I., Arriagada, C., Pinto, A., Plaza, A. and
should aim at achieving a degree of spatial Rosso, P. (1992) Estudi de EvaluacioÂn Ex-Post de la
Primera Etapa Programa Lotes con Servicios: PreÂstamo
integration into its urban context to permit the BID 115/IC-Ch, Informe Final Subprograma C,
positive developmental process we have iden- SUBDERE, Ministerio del Interior, Santiago.
tified. Greene, M., Ducci, M. E. (1997) Informe Final Seguimiento
X Overall, planning should be seen as the nurtur- y EvaluacioÂn Programa Mejoramiento de Barrios y
ing of an organic process, requiring ever Lotes con Servicios: PreÂstamo BID/223IC-CH y BID
577/OC-CH, SUBDERE, Ministerio del Interior,
improving understanding of these processes Santiago.
and feedback from interventions. Therefore Greene, M., Iacobelli, A., Ortúzar, J. de D. (1995)
regular procedures to monitor development of Subjective valuation of social housing attributes.
new settlements and to identify problems and Proceedings Fourth International Conference on
possibilities as they grow, should be considered. 21
For example, Galster's detailed analysis of housing
reinvestment in two US cities showed that the quality of
5.3. Concluding remarks neighbourhood social ties is critical: Homeowners sense of
solidarity with their neighbour is as significant at determining
In the past, the common assumption about their efforts at home upkeep as are their income or age'.
consolidation on informal settlements has been (Galster, 1987)

96
Computers in Urban Planning and Urban INE, (1992) Censo de PoblacioÂn y Vivienda Instituto
Management, Melbourne. Nacional de EstadõÂstica, Santiago.
Galster, G. Homeowners and Neighbourhood Reinvestment. OrtuÂzar, J.de D. and Willumsen, L.G.Second Edition
(1987)Duke University Press. (1994) Modelling Transport. Chichester, John Wiley
Hillier, B. (1996) Space is the Machine. Cambridge, and Sons.
Cambridge University Press. Penn, A., Hillier, B., Bannister, D. and Xu, J. (1998)
Hillier, B., Greene, M., Desyllas, J., Valenzuela, C., Configuratinal modelling of urban movement net-
Dufaux, F., Major, M. D., Rosso, P., Serpell, P. and works. Environment and Planning B25(1) 59±84.
MartõÂnez, M. (1998) Self Generated Neighbourhood Read, S. (1997) Space Syntax and the Dutch City,
Consolidation in Informal Settlements. Final Report to Procedures Space Syntax First International Sym-
European Union, Contract C17*CT940033. posium, London.
Hillier, B. and Hanson, J. (1984) The Social Logic of Space.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
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Self-generated Neighbourhood Consolidation in Informal Settlements

Article · January 2000

Alfa -project ADU 2020 View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Self-generated Neighbourhoods: the role of urban form in

Bill Hillier1*, Margarita Greene2, and Jake Desyllas3

Introduction which started with similarly scarce resources in

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Figure 1-1. Local Integration of Santiago Axial Map.

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Figure 1-2. Connectivity of Santiago Axial Map.

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Figure 1-3. Housing Consolidation Index Structure.

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Figure 1-4. Neighbourhood Consolidation Index Structure.

Figure 1-5. Community Consolidation Index Structure.

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Figure 2-1. continued

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Figure 2-4. Global Integration of Oriente as an Independent System.

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Table 3-1 Basic statistics of settlements

1 RauÂl Mazzone Cerrillos 252 142.50 4.66 249.23 54.08

Mean 205 154.76 4.83 215.33 215.33

Maximum 326 243.00 11.13 351.94 351.94

Table 3-2 Variables and indicators related to consolidation

Mean 22.84 50.15 164,878 39,502 51.45 13.08 10.36 5.57

Maximum 28 88 700,000 175,000 161 52 20.75 13.93

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Figure 3-2. Global Consolidation Index per Settlement.

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Figure 3-4. (a±h) Syntactic Models of CaupolicaÂn-Las Torres.

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Figure 3-5. (a±c) Land Use and Movement in CaupolicaÂn-Las Torres.

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Figure 3-6. (a±d) Consolidation in CaupolicaÂn-Las Torres.

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Figure 3-7. (a±h) Syntactic Models of Manuel Acevedo.

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Figure 3-8. (a±c) Land Use and Movement in Manuel Acevedo.

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Figure 3-9. (a±d) Consolidation in Manuel Acevedo.

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Figure 4-2. Correlations of Movement and Syntactic Measures.

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Time in Settlement .169 2.046 .08 .051 .245 .073

Income .224 .314 2.418 2.101 2.244 2.055

URBAN DESIGN International

Integration rad-n Stgo .358 .152 .271 .091 .384 .389

7-km Integ.rad-n .341 .176 2.020 .022 .473 .441

Synergy .564 .291 .354

Spatial factors role in the consolidation process (at least for

URBAN DESIGN International

Mean Adult Movement 2.095 .018 .092 .034 .127 .003