Simple Present – Present Progressive

Form
Simple Present Present Progressive
infinitive form of 'be' and verb + ing
(3rd person singular: infinitive + 's')  
I speak I am speaking
you speak you are speaking
he / she / it speaks he / she / it is speaking
we speak we are speaking
they speak they are speaking
Negative form:
subject + do not /does not + stem subject+ form of “be” + not + stem

I do not speak I am not speaking

Interrogative form:

Do/does + subject+ stem? Form of “be” + subject + stem +ing?

Do I speak? Am I speaking?

Use
In general or right now?
Do you want to express that something happens in general or that something is happening right now?
Simple Present Present Progressive
in general (regularly, often, never) right now
Colin plays football every Tuesday. Look! Colin is playing football now.
present actions happening one after also for several actions happening at the same
another time
First Colin plays football, then he watches Colin is playing football and Anne is watching.
TV.
General truth:
Water freezes at 0° C.

Signal words
 always  at the moment
 every ...  at this moment
 often  today
 normally  now
 usually  right now
 sometimes  Listen!
 seldom  Look!
 never
 first
 then
Note: The following verbs are usually only used in Simple Present:
be, have, hear, know, like, love, see, smell, think, want

Timetable / Schedule or arrangement?

Do you want to express that something is arranged for the near future? Or do you refer to a time set by a
timetable or schedule?
Simple Present Present Progressive
action set by a timetable or schedule arrangement for the near future
The film starts at 8 pm. I am going to the cinema tonight.
 Present Perfect
Form

The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past participle of a verb:

The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb:

Use

We use the present perfect tense:

 for something that started in the past and continues in the present:

They’ve been married for nearly fifty years.

She has lived in Liverpool all her life.

Note: We normally use the present perfect continuous for this:

She has been living in Liverpool all her life.

It’s been raining for hours.
  for something we have done several times in the past and continue to do:

I’ve played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.

He has written three books and he is working on another one.
I’ve been watching that programme every week.

We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past:

They’ve been staying with us since last week.

I have worked here since I left school.
I’ve been watching that programme every week since it started.
 when we are talking about our experience up to the present:

Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about experience up to the present:

My last birthday was the worst day I have ever had.

Note: and we use never for the negative form:

Have you ever met George?
Yes, but I’ve never met his wife.
 for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of speaking:

I can’t get in the house. I’ve lost my keys.

Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.
I’m tired out. I’ve been working all day.

 We use the present perfect of be when someone has gone to a place and returned:

A: Where have you been?

B: I’ve just been out to the supermarket.
 A: Have you ever been to San Francisco?
B: No, but I’ve been to Los Angeles.

But when someone has not returned we use have/has gone:

A: Where is Maria? I haven’t seen her for weeks.

B: She's gone to Paris for a week. She’ll be back tomorrow.

We often use the present perfect with time adverbials which refer to the recent past:

just; only just; recently;

Scientists have recently discovered a new breed of monkey.

We have just got back from our holidays.

or adverbials which include the present:

ever (in questions); so far; until now; up to now; yet (in questions and negatives)

Have you ever seen a ghost?

Where have you been up to now?
Have you finished your homework yet?
No, so far I’ve only done my history.

WARNING:

We do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past time which is finished:

I have seen that film yesterday.

We have just bought a new car last week.
When we were children we have been to California.

But we can use it to refer to a time which is not yet finished:

Have you seen Helen today?

We have bought a new car this week.

Simple Past – Past Progressive

Simple past:
VERB+ed] or irregular verbs
FORM
[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs
Examples:
 You called Debbie.
 Did you call Debbie?
 You did not call Debbie.

USE 1: Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past.
Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.
Examples:
 I saw a movie yesterday.
 I didn't see a play yesterday.
 Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
  Did you have dinner last night?

USE 2: A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th,
and so on.
Examples:
 I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
 Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 : Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action
often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.
Examples:
 I lived in Brazil for two years.
 We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
 A: How long did you wait for them?
B: We waited for one hour.
USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as
"used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often,
usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.
Examples:
 I studied French when I was a child.
 Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
 They never went to school, they always skipped class.

Past continuous (progressive):

Past continuous (progressive) generally refers to:

Actions in progress (often interrupted by events)

I was drinking my coffee at the time.

While I was opening the letter, the phone rang.
After another or at the same time?
Do you want to express that the actions in the past happened one after another or at the same time?
Simple Past Past Progressive
One after another at the same time
She came home, switched on the computer and Simon was playing on the computer while his
checked her e-mails. brother was watching TV.
New action or already in progress?
If you want to express that a new action happened in the middle of another action, you need both tenses: Simple
Past the new action and Past Progressive for the action already in progress.
Simple Past
Past Progressive
new action
My mobile rang (when I was sitting in a meeting.)
 action already in progress
While I was sitting in a meeting, (my mobile suddenly rang.)

Signal words

Simple Past
Past Progressive

 First
 then

 when
 while
 as long as

Most common prefixes and suffixes:

Prefixes

Highest frequency
un - (not, opposite of)
re – (again)
in-, im-, ir-, il- (not)
dis- (not, opposite of)
en-, em- (cause to)
non- (not)
under- (too little)
in-, im- (in or into)
High frequency
over- (too much)
mis- (wrongly)
sub- (under)
pre- (before)
inter- (between)
Medium frequency
trans- (across)
super- (above)
semi- (half)
anti- (against)
mid- (middle)
Suffixes:
-s (plurals)
-ed (past tense)
-ing (present tense)
-ly (characteristic of0
-er, -or (person)
-ion, -tion (act, process)
-ible, - able (can be done)

-al, ial (having characteristics of)

-y (characterised by)
-ness (state of, condition of)
-ity, -ty (state of)
-ment (action or process)
-ic (having characteristics of)
-ous, -eous, -ious (possessing the qualities of
-en (made of)
-ive, -ative, -itive (adjective form of a noun)
-ful (full of)
-less (without)

The –ing form can be used like a noun, like an adjective or like a verb.

 '-ing' adjectives
'Being upgraded to first class is surprising.'
The findings of this report are confusing.'
'Working hard all day is tiring.'

 Example table:
 

--- -ed and -ing

adjectives
Feel : describe :
'-ed' '-ing'
annoyed annoying
bored boring
confused confusing
depressed depressing
excited exciting
frustrated frustrating
frightened frightening
satisfied satisfying
shocked shocking

The Passive Voice

Form
 The passive is formed by putting the auxiliary ‘to be’ into the same tense as the active verb and adding
the past participle of the active verb.
 Passive = to be + Past Participle
Is / Are / Was / were + Past Participle
 To obtain the past participle we add ‘ed’ to regular verbs.
 For the irregular verbs, a list is learnt by heart.
 Examples :
Active: The farmer sends the milk to the factory.
Passive: The milk is sent to the factory (by the farmer).
Active: The farmer sent the milk to the factory.
Passive: The milk was sent to the factory (by the farmer)
Active: People say think that Bell invented the telephone.
Passive 1: It is thought that Bell invented the telephone.
Passive 2: Bell is thought to have invented the telephone.

Verbs having 2 objects:

Active: He told me the truth.

obj 1 obj 2
Passive 1: I was told the truth.
Passive 2: The truth was told to me.

Giving advice
 If I were you, I would go to the dentist.
 Why don't you go to the dentist?
 You'd better brush your teeth regularly.
 You ought to/should avoid eating sweets.
 It might be a good idea to brush your teeth on a regular basis.
 I advise you to brush your teeth on a regular basis.
 Have you thought about seeing a dentist?
"Ought to" has nearly the same meaning as "should". The only difference is that "ought to " refers to a moral
or external obligation but should is more of an advice.
Example:
"You ought to stop smoking."
"You should stop smoking."
4. "You'd better" is the short form of "you had better"
Example:
"You'd better see a doctor!" = "You had better see the doctor"

Giving instructions
1. Use the imperative form
We use the imperative form to give orders, warnings and advice:
Be quiet!
Take care!
Listen to me carefully!
Because it can sound rude to give direct orders (especially if you are talking to an adult), we "soften" the
imperative form with "let's" or "please":
Let's go now.
Please listen to what I'm saying.
2. Use a modal verb to turn the order into a request
We use modals to change the mood of a sentence. For example, "You should help her" is more polite than
"Help her!"
Other modal verbs you can use to make requests are:
Could: Could you make me some tea?
Can: Can you come here please?
Will: Will you shut the door please?
Would: Would you wait here until the doctor is ready for you?
4. Use sequencing words
You can use sequencing words to make instructions clear.
Firstly, make sure the appliance is disconnected.
Secondly, open the back with a screwdriver.
Then, carefully pull out the two black cables….

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

Comparison is one of the ways of relating ideas and objects to each other. The comparison can either be one of
difference or one of similarity. Of course, comparison is frequently expressed by means of grammatical forms
such as the comparative and the superlative. However, there is also a large store of lexical items which express
similar meanings. For example:
- "to accelerate" means "to go faster",
- "the two samples are similar" means that they have been compared.
Functions & Grammar
COMPARISON
1. Irregular forms
• good / better / the best * bad / worse / the worst
• many / more / the most ^ few / fewer / the fewest
• much / more / the most * little / less/the least
• far / farther / the farthest • far/further/the furthest
I Note
- Farther is used to indicate greater distance.
- Further often means "supplementary, additional".
>- / can go no farther.
>- Further details can be obtained at the information office.

2. Difference
I Comparative (superiority)

TO BECOME / MAKE SOMETHING (+) BIG

to increase • grow • expand • lengthen • widen •
enlarge • extend • spread
(+) HIGH (+) GOOD
to raise • lift • heighten to improve • boost • enhance

>- Blood transfusion is used by athletes to enhance performance.

I Comparative (inferiority)
TO BECOME / MAKE SOMETHING (-) BIG
to decrease • reduce •
lessen • shorten • lower
(-) GOOD
to worsen •
weaken • deteriorate
>• Little by little the patient's condition worsened.
UNIT 3 - COMPARISON 37
I Superlative meaning

(++) IMPORTANT
the chief • main • leading • foremost the top • peak • tip
>- The foremost concern of the government is unemployment.

3. Similar or equal things can be contrasted

SIMILARITY / DISSIMILARITY
it is like / unlike • similar to • the same as • equal to • in comparison • by contrast

COMPATIBILITY
to match • fit • suit • correspond
DUALITY
both • either/or •
neither/ nor
>• Before transfusion the blood groups must be matched.

4. As + as
twice large
3 times fast
nearly much/many
almost likely
>• Meteorite craters are roughly 20 times as large as the objects that caused them.
>• Electrons can travel almost as fast as light.

5. Other comparative patterns

>- The situation is getting worse and worse. (COMP + AND + COMP)
>- The richer people become, the less happy they are.
(COMP + s + v) + (COMP + s + v)
(++) HIGH

6. Word formation
Adjectives of comparison expressing similarity.
>- An earth-like atmosphere (similar to the Earth)
*- A bell-shaped curve (with the shape of)
7. Prefixes
Comparison can also be expressed by prefixes.
Over (more than required)
to overload a circuit • to overestimate the results - to overheat an engine • to overeat

Under (less than required)

the meat is undercooked - an underdeveloped country • underpaid workers • an understaffed research
project

Out (better or greater than)

to outdo the competitors • women outnumber men • the advantages outweigh the disadvantages

PURPOSE & PROCESS

1. Purpose
Purpose is concerned with questions of "why" or for "what reason" something is done.
Nouns
the purpose • function • use
Metal is increasingly used in architecture for structural purposes.
the aim • goal • target • objective
The main objective of hydrology is to study the physical and chemical processes of the water cycle.
Verbs
it is designed to / forG.Notes23 • is devised to / for •
is planned to / for • is aimed to / for • is responsible for
The new safety measures were designed to reduce the risks of contamination.
A cooling system was devised for the preservation of clinical specimens.
it functions (as) • operates (as) it provides • supplies
The haemoglobin provides the extra oxygen.
Other expressions
in order to / so as to • so that
N.B.
"In order to / so as to" have basically the same meaning as "to". They are merely stronger ways of expressing
the idea of purpose.

• "So that" is followed by a clause composed of subject + verb.

Platinum contacts should be used to prevent oxidisation.
Platinum contacts should be used in order to / so as to prevent oxidisation.
Platinum should be used so that oxidisation can be prevented.

2. Process
Process is concerned with questions of "how" or "in what way" something is done.
I Adverbial and prepositional phrases
by means of • through • thanks to • via
The brain was damaged through lack of oxygen.
therefore • thus • thereby
He switched off the computer, thereby losing all the data.
Verbs
to enable • make (it) possible (for) • allow • permit
It is the carbon compounds that are responsible for the chemical reactions that enable / make it possible for
the cell to grow.
Visibility was poor - the plane was not allowed / permitted to land.

N.B. - Meaning )
"To enable / to make possible" have the primary meaning of making something feasible or physically possible.
"To allow / to permit" have the primary meaning of making something possible by giving authorisation or
permission.
However, in modern English, the meaning of to allow / to permit is often extended to physical possibility.
The Erasmus grant enabled him to go on studying
made it possible for
allowed
permitted