3/22/2020 Three-dimensional losses and correlation in turbomachinery - Wikipedia

Three-dimensional losses and correlation

in turbomachinery
Three-dimension losses and correlation in turbomachinery refers to the measurement of flow-
fields in three dimensions, where measuring the loss of smoothness of flow, and resulting inefficiencies,
becomes difficult, unlike two-dimensional losses where mathematical complexity is substantially less.

Three-dimensionality takes into account large pressure gradients in every direction, design/curvature of
blades, shock waves, heat transfer, cavitation, and viscous effects, which generate secondary flow,
vortices, tip leakage vortices, and other effects that interrupt smooth flow and cause loss of efficiency.
Viscous effects in turbomachinery block flow by the formation of viscous layers around blade profiles,
which affects pressure rise and fall and reduces the effective area of a flow field. Interaction between
these effects increases rotor instability and decreases the efficiency of turbomachinery.

In calculating three-dimensional losses, every element affecting a flow path is taken into account—such
as axial spacing between vane and blade rows, end-wall curvature, radial distribution of pressure
gradient, hup/tip ratio, dihedral, lean, tip clearance, flare, aspect ratio, skew, sweep, platform cooling
holes, surface roughness, and off-take bleeds. Associated with blade profiles are parameters such as
camber distribution, stagger angle, blade spacing, blade camber, chord, surface roughness, leading- and
trailing-edge radii, and maximum thickness.

Two-dimensional losses are easily evaluated using Navier-Stokes equations, but three-dimensional
losses are difficult to evaluate; so, correlation is used, which is difficult with so many parameters. So,
correlation based on geometric similarity has been developed in many industries, in the form of charts,
graphs, data statistics, and performance data.

Contents
Types of losses
Three-dimensional profile losses
Three-dimensional shock losses
Secondary flow
Endwall losses in axial flow in turbomachinery
Tip-leakage flow losses
See also
References
Journals
External links

Types of losses

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Three-dimensional losses are generally classified as:

1. Three-dimensional profile losses

2. Three-dimensional shock losses
3. Secondary flow
4. Endwall losses in axial turbomachinery
5. Tip leakage flow losses
6. Blade boundary layer losses

Three-dimensional profile losses

The main points to consider are:

Profile losses that occur due to the curvature of blades, which

includes span-wise mixing of flow field, in addition to two-
dimensional mixing losses (which can be predicted using Navier-
Stokes equations).
Major losses in rotors that are caused by radial pressure
gradient from midspan to tip (flow ascending to tip).
Reduction in high losses between annulus wall and tip clearance
region, which includes the trailing edge of a blade profile. This is Effect on efficiency by blade profile
due to flow mixing and flow redistribution at the inner radius as losses
flow proceeds downstream.
Between the hub and annulus wall, losses are prominent due to
three-dimensionality.
In single-stage turbomachinery, large radial pressure gradient losses at exit of flow from rotor.
Platform cooling increases the endwall flow loss and coolant air increases profile loss.
Navier-Stokes identifies many of the losses when some assumptions are made, such as
unseparated flow. Here correlation is no longer justified.

Three-dimensional shock losses

The main points to consider are:

Shock losses continuously increase from the hub to tip of the

blade in both supersonic and transonic rotors.
Shock losses are accompanied by shock-boundary-layer
interaction losses, boundary-layer losses in profile secondary
flow, and tip clearance effects.
From the Mach number prospective, fluid inside rotor is in
supersonic phase except at initial hub entry.
The Mach number increases gradually from midspan to tip. At Shock losses due to accumulation
the tip, the effect is less than secondary flow, tip clearance of flow
effect, and annulus wall boundary-layer effect.
In a turbofan, shock losses increase overall efficiency by 2%
because of the absence of tip clearance effect and secondary flow being present.
Correlation depends on many parameters and is difficult to calculate.
Correlation based on geometric similarity is used.
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Secondary flow
The main points to consider are:

The rotation of a blade row causes non-uniformity in radial

velocity, stagnation pressure, stagnation enthalpy, and
stagnation temperature. Distribution in both tangential and radial
directions generates secondary flow.
Secondary flow generates two velocity components Vy, Vz,
hence introducing three-dimensionality in the flow field. Generation of secondary flow due
blade profile
The two components of velocity result in flow-turning at the
tailing end of the blade profile, which directly affects pressure
rise-and-fall in turbomachinery. Hence efficiency decreases.
Secondary flow generates vibration, noise, and flutter because of unsteady pressure field between
blades and rotor–stator interaction.
Secondary flow introduces vortex cavitation, which diminishes flow rate, decreases performance,
and damages the blade profile.
The temperature in turbomachinery is affected.
Correlation for secondary flow, given by Dunham (1970), is given by:

ζs = (0.0055 + 0.078(δ1/C)1/2)CL2 (cos3α2/cos3αm) (C/h) (C/S)2 ( 1/cos ά1)

where ζs = average secondary flow loss coefficient; α2, αm = flow angles; δ1/C = inlet boundary
layer; and C,S,h = blade geometry.

Endwall losses in axial flow in turbomachinery

The main points to consider are:

In a turbine, secondary flow forces the wall boundary layer

toward the suction side of the rotor, where mixing of blade and
wall boundary takes place, resulting in endwall losses.
The secondary flow carries core losses away from the wall and
blade boundary layer, through formation of vortices. So, peak
loss occurs away from endwall.
Endwall losses are high in stator (Francis turbine/Kaplan turbine)
and nozzle vane (Pelton turbine), and the loss distribution is Endwall losses due to vortex
different for turbine and compressor, due to flows being opposite
to each other.
Due to the presence of vortices, large flow-turning and secondary flow result to form a complex flow
field, and interaction between these effects increases endwall losses.
In total loss, endwall losses form the fraction of secondary losses given by Gregory-Smith, et al.,
1998. Hence secondary flow theory for small flow-turning fails.
Correlation for endwall losses in an axial-flow turbine is given by:

ζ = ζp + ζew
ζ = ζp[ 1 + ( 1 + ( 4ε / ( ρ2V2/ρ1V1 )1/2 ) ) ( S cos α2 - tTE )/h ]

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where ζ=total losses, ζp=blade profile losses, ζew=endwall losses.

The expression for endwall losses in an axial-flow compressor is given by:

η = ή ( 1 - ( δh* + δt*)/h ) / ( 1 - ( Fθh + Fθt ) / h )

where η=efficiency in absence of endwall boundary layer, where h refers to the hub and t refers to
the tip. The values of Fθ and δ* are derived from the graph or chart.

Tip-leakage flow losses

The main points to consider are:

The rotation of a rotor in turbomachinery induces a pressure

differences between opposite sides of the blade profile, resulting
in tip leakage.
In a turbomachinery rotor, a gap between the annulus wall and
the blade causes leakage, which also occurs in the gap between
the rotating hub and stator.
Direct loss through clearance volume, as no angular momentum
is transferred to fluid. So, no work is done. Tip leakage losses due to tip
Leakage, and its interaction with other losses in the flow field, is endwall
complex; and hence, at the tip, it has a more pronounced effect
than secondary flow.
Leakage-flow induced three-dimensionality, like the mixing of leakage flow with vortex formation,
entrainment process, diffusion and convection. This results in aerodynamics losses and inefficiency.
Tip leakage and clearance loss account for 20–40% of total losses.
The effects of cooling in turbines causes vibration, noise, flutter, and high blade stress.
Leakage flow causes low static pressure in the core area, increasing the risk of cavitation and blade
damage.
The leakage velocity is given as:

QL = 2 ( ( Pp - Ps ) / ρ )1/2

The leakage flow sheet due to velocity induced by the vortex is given in Rains, 1954:

a/τ = 0.14 ( d/τ ( CL )1/2 )0.85

Total loss in clearance volume is given by two equations-

ζL ~ ( CL2 * C * τ * cos2β1 ) / ( A * S * S * cos2βm )

ζW ~ ( δS* + δP* / S ) * ( 1 / A ) * ( ( CL )3/2) * ( τ / S )3/2Vm3 / ( V2 * V12 )

See also
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Axial compressor
Centrifugal
Centrifugal compressor
Centrifugal fan
Centrifugal pump
Francis turbine
Kaplan turbine
Mechanical fan
Secondary flow
Turbomachinery

References
Chapter 4,5,6 In Fluid dynamics and Heat Transfer by Budugur Lakshminarayana
Fluid dynamics and Heat Transfer by James George Knudsen, Donald La Verne Katz
Turbomachinery: Design and Theory (Marcell Dekker) by Rama S.R. Gorla
Handbook of Turbomachinery, 2nd Edition (Mechanical Engineering, No. 158) by Earl Logan, Jr;
Ramendra
Turbines Compressors and Fans by S M Yahya
Principles of Turbomachinery by R K Turton
Turbomachinery Flow Physics and Dynamic Performance by Meinhard Schobeiril
Torsional Vibration of Turbo-Machinery by Duncan Walker
Turbomachinery Performance Analysis by R. I. Lewis
Fluid Machinery: Performance, Analysis, and Design by Terry Wright
Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery by S L Dixon and C.A Hall
Turbo-Machinery Dynamics by A. S. Rangwala

Journals
K. F. C. Yiu; M. Zangeneh (2000). "Three-Dimensional Automatic Optimization Method for
Turbomachinery Blade Design". Journal of Propulsion and Power. 16 (6): 1174–1181.
doi:10.2514/2.5694 (https://doi.org/10.2514%2F2.5694).
Piotr Lampart. "Tip Leakage Flows in Turbines" (http://www.task.gda.pl/files/quart/TQ2006/02/TQ210
R-E.PDF) (PDF). Task Quarterly. 10: 139–175.
Horlock J H, Lakshminarayana B (1973). "Secondary Flows: Theory, Experiment, and Application in
Turbomachinery Aerodynamics". Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 5: 247–280.
doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.05.010173.001335 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.05.010173.001335).
D. R. Waigh; R. J. Kind (1998). "Improved Aerodynamic Characterization of Regular Three-
Dimensional Roughness". AIAA Journal. 36 (6): 1117–9. doi:10.2514/2.491 (https://doi.org/10.2514%
2F2.491).
J. D. Denton; W. N. Dawes (1998). "Computational fluid dynamics for turbomachinery design".
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering
Science. 213 (2): 107–124. doi:10.1243/0954406991522211 (https://doi.org/10.1243%2F095440699
1522211).

External links
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"Introduction to 3D Wings|Fluid Mechanics II Course|Aeronautical Engineering" (http://www.edforall.n

et/index.php/engineering-a-technology/aeronautical-engineering/80-fluid-mechanics-ii/1662-introducti
on-to-3d-wings). Edforall.net. 2009-04-04. Retrieved 2017-03-10.
"Fluid dynamics and Heat Transfer - Google Scholar" (https://scholar.google.co.in/scholar?q=Fluid+d
ynamics+and+Heat+Transfer&hl=en&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart&sa=X&ei=hWunUdKXJIuzrAe
4joH4Bg&ved=0CDcQgQMwAA). Scholar.google.co.in. 2007-12-14. Retrieved 2017-03-10.
"three dimensional losses and correlation in turbomachinery - Google Scholar" (https://scholar.googl
e.co.in/scholar?q=three+dimensional+losses+and+correlation+in+turbomachinery&btnG=&hl=en&as
_sdt=0%2C5&as_vis=1). Scholar.google.co.in. 1983-03-03. Retrieved 2017-03-10.

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