Highway Practice in Nigeria With Emphasi

HIGHWAY PRACTICE IN NIGERIA WITH EMPHASIS ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION
BY
AKINWALE, AFOLARIN WANDE
MATRIC NO: 08CI07910
A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, COVENANT UNIVERSITY OTA

OGUN STATE, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
MAY 2013
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this research project titled: “Highway Practice in Nigeria with Emphasis on
Road Construction” is written by Akinwale, Afolarin Wande with the matriculation number
08CI07910 under my supervision.
Professor A.S. Adedimila Date
(Project Supervisor)
Professor J.B. Adeyeri Date
(Head of Department)
ii
DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated to my parents (Mr. & Mrs. Akinwale) for their support and
encouragement.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to give praises to Almighty God who has been my source of inspiration to
this research.
My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor Professor A.S. Adedimila for his guidance towards
the accomplishment of this research work.
I will also like to specially appreciate everyone who took time out in completing the
questionnaire and to my boss Alhaja Alelo who assisted in administering the questionnaire.
I am extremely grateful to all my colleagues and classmates who made my study in Covenant
University a worthwhile experience.
iv
ABSTRACT
Nigeria's performance in highway construction since the 1950's has been insignificant when
compared with countries like India or Brazil. Often times road Projects are often initiated
without a guarantee of funding, which can lead to construction delays and rising cost of
construction. It is only in a country like Nigeria that roads connecting new regions are often built
for political rather than economic reasons. Roads in Nigeria are faced with numbers of
challenges such as; faulty design, inadequate drainage system, potholes, washing away of
pavements, collapse of bridges and poor maintenance culture which has drastically reduced the
usefulness of these roads. Consequence upon this, the roads have been placed amongst one of the
poorest and yet the most expensive roads in the world, there is a belief in some quarters that it
cost more to build a kilometer road in the country than elsewhere. Some of the prominent factors
affecting construction cost of roads in Nigeria are; Cost of materials, Change in Project design,
High Cost of Machinery, Fraudulent practices and Kickbacks, Wrong Method of Estimation to
mention a few. A qualitative research approach was adopted to obtain vital information
concerning the major’s factors affecting construction cost of roads in Nigeria a total of seventy
respondents comprising of thirty-two civil engineers, sixteen consultants and twenty-two
contractors were randomly selected using stratified random sampling technique as type of
probability sampling in order to give everyone that falls into any of these identified target groups
equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. The result obtained from ranking
these factors were presented in form of tables. Absolute figure were presented and analyzed
where it is necessary to see their magnitude and direction in the table. This project concludes by
recommending methods and strategies which can be adopted by Contractors, Consultant and
Civil Engineers to reduce construction cost of roads in Nigeria.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
List of Plates xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of The Study 1
1.2 Statement of Problem 3
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study 3
1.4 Significance of the Study 3
1.5 Scope and Delimitations 4
1.6 Definition of Terms 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 History of Road Construction 7
2.3 Planning Road Construction 11
2.3.1 Classification of Roads 12
2.4 Preparation and Presentation Of Project Documents 15
2.4.1 Project Report 15
2.4.2 Estimates 15
2.4.3 Drawings 15
2.5 Key Role Players in Road Construction 16
2.5.1 Client 16
vi
2.5.2 Consultant 16
2.5.3 Contractor 17
2.6 Highway Economics and Finance 17
2.6.1 Highway Funding 17
2.7 Geometric Design of Road 19
2.7.1 Design Vehicles Selection 19
2.7.2 Design Speed 20
2.8 Drainage 22
2.8.1 Classification of Drainage Works 22
2.8.2 Conception and Drainage Criteria 23
2.8.3 Steps Considered When Making a Drainage Project 23
2.9 Materials used in Road Construction 24
2.9.1 Stone Aggregate 24
2.9.2 Bitumen 25
2.10 Road Construction Equipemnt 26
2.10.1 Site Clearing Equipment 27
2.10.2 Formation of Subgrade Equipement 27
2.10.3 Materials Spreading Equipment 27
2.10.4 Surfacing Equipment 27
2.10.5 Earth Compacting Machinery 28
2.11 Stages in Road Construction 33
2.11.1 Earthwork Operations 33
2.11.2 Pavement Construction 34
2.12 The Effects of Road Construction 36
2.12.1 Traffic Delays and Detours 36
2.12.2 Human Displacement 36
2.12.3 Economic Outcomes 36
2.12.4 Ecological Effects 36
2.13 The Adverse Impacts of Road Construction on the Environment 37
2.13.1 Direct Impacts 37
2.13.2 Indirect Impacts 37
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2.13.3 Cumulative Impacts 37
2.13.4 Unpredictable Impacts 38
2.14 Factors Affecting Constructon Cost Of Roads In Nigeria 38
2.14.1 Compensation 38
2.14.2 Relocating Utilities 38
2.14.3 Erratic Power Supply 39
2.14.4 Road Terrain 39
2.14.5 Borrowing for Infrastructural Project 39
2.14.6 Political Interference 39
2.15 Methods of Minimizing Road Construction Cost in Nigeria 41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 43

3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Study Area 43
3.3 Characteristics of Study Population 43
3.4 Sampling Design and Procedures 43
3.5 Data Collection Instrument 44
3.6 Administration of the data Collection Instrument 45
3.7 Method of Data Analysis 46
3.8 Limitations of the Study 46
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 47

4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Data Analysis and Presentatton 47
4.3 Presentation and Analysis of Data According to Research Questions 48
4.4 Discussion and Findings 54
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 56

5.1 Conclusion 56
5.2 Recommendations 56
viii
REFERENCES 58
APPENDICES
A: List of Construction Cost Factors of Roads in Nigeria 62
B: Typical Questionnaire for the Study 63
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Structure of Road Ownership 2
Table 2: First National Development Plan 1962-68 10
Table 3: Second National Development Plan, 1970-74 10
Table 4: Third National Development Plan, 1975 – 1980 10
Table 5: Minimum Standards for Sight Distances 20
Table 6: Design Vehicles Selection 21
Table 7: Design Speed 21
Table 8: Summary of Survey Results 40
Table 9: List of Factors Affecting Construction Cost of Road 44
Table 10: Questionnaire Administered and Responses 47
Table 11: Respondent Years of Experince 48
Table 12: Cost of Materials 48
Table 13: High Costs of Machinery 49
Table 14: Fraudulent Practices and Kickbacks 49
Table 15: Bureaucracy in Tendering Method 49
Table 16: Change in Government 50
Table 17: Duration of Contract Period 50
Table 18: Compensation 50
Table 19: Road Terrain 51
Table 20: Relocating Utilities 51
Table 21: Borrowing to Finance Projects 52
Table 22: Government Policies 52
Table 23: Change in Project Design 52
Table 24: Inflation 53
Table 25: Inadequate Planning 53
Table 26: Unstable Economy 53
Table 27: Wrong Method of Estimation 54
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Roadways Functional Classification Hierarchy 12
Figure 2: Pavement Components 35
xi
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Rural Arterial Road 13
Plate 3: Rural Collector Road 14
Plate 5: Local Rural Road 14
Plate 7: A Grid Roller 29
Plate 8: A Bulldozer 29
Plate 9: A Grader 30
Plate 10: Smooth Wheel Roller 30
Plate 11: A Concrete Mixer 31
Plate 12: A Scrapper 31
Plate 13: Concrete Paver 32
Plate 14: Bitumen Boiler 32
Plate 15: A Pneumatic Tyre Roller 33
xii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Road development in Nigeria dates back to 1925, when the road board was established by
the colonial administration, the board was charged with the responsibility of developing
of blueprint for the trunk road network connecting major administrative centres during
the colonial rule. By 1951, 1,782km out of the total of 44,414km of road built in Nigeria
was surfaced (Central Bank of Nigeria, 2003).
Road transport being the most commonly used mode of transportation in Nigeria,
accounts for more than 90% of the sub-sector and contributes to the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) (Igbokwe, 2009). The growth of economic activities in Nigeria brought
about the need for improvement in roads. Consequent upon this, quality of road
construction was improved as the length and network continued to increase (Federal
Ministry of Works and Housing, 2002).
As at 2009 the national road network in Nigeria was estimated to be 194,200km of which
34,120km (17.6%) are federal roads, 30,500km (15.7%) state roads and 129,580km
(66.7%) local and rural roads (Igbokwe, 2009). The Nigerian road system is classified
into four broad categories:
 The trunk ‘A’ roads: own, developed and maintained by the federal government.
 The trunk ‘F’ roads: formerly owned by state government but was later overtaken
by the federal government with a view to upgrading them to federal highway
standards.
 The trunk ‘B’ roads are owned and managed by the component states.
 The trunk ‘C’ roads: owned and managed by the local government. This makes it
the responsibility of the three tiers of government to plan, construct, and maintain
the network of roads under their jurisdiction.
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Table 1 shows estimate of road networks in Nigeria as at 2003 to be 193,200km shared amongst
the three tiers of government (CBN, 2003).
TABLE 1: STRUCTURE OF ROAD OWNERSHIP
FEDERAL STATE L.G. ROADS TOTAL PERCENT

ROAD ROAD
PAVED 26,500 10,400 36,900 19%

MAIN
ROADS
UNPAVED 5,600 20,100 25,700 13%

MAIN
ROADS
URBAN 21,900 21,900 11%

ROADS
MAIN 72,800 72,800 38%

RURAL
ROADS
VILLAGE 35,900 35,900 19%

ACCESS
ROADS
TOTAL 32,100 30,500 130,600 193,200 100%
PERCENT 17% 16% 67% 100%
Source: Central Bank of Nigeria (2003)
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1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The state of Nigerian roads has not ceased to astound shrewd observers. Consequence upon this,
the roads have been placed amongst the poorest and yet the most expensive roads in the world
(Iweze, 2011). There is a belief in certain quarters that it costs more to build a kilometer of road
in the country than elsewhere. Often times road projects are initiated without a guarantee of
funding, which can lead to construction delays and rising cost of construction. Politics has also
taken its tolls on road projects in Nigeria as roads connecting new regions are often built for
political rather than economic reasons. Roads in Nigeria are faced with numbers of challenges
such as; faulty design, inadequate drainage system, potholes, washing away of pavements,
collapse of bridges and poor maintenance culture which has drastically reduced the usefulness of
these roads (CBN, 2003). Consequently, producers find it more difficult and expensive to get
their product down to their consumers, the same goes for farm produce that needs to be
transported from rural areas to urban centres. The total loss per annum due to bad roads in
Nigeria is estimated to worth N133.8 billion (FMW&H, 2002).
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The aim of this study is to evaluate construction cost factors of road in Nigeria, it implications as
well as suggest methods and strategies that can be used to reduce the high cost. The specific
objectives of this study are as follows:
 To identify the construction cost factors of roads in Nigeria.

 To determine the agreement ranking factors for construction cost roads in Nigeria
amongst the contractors, consultants and civil engineers.
 To suggest ways of minimizing construction cost factors of roads in Nigeria.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
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An assessment of this study will enable Consultants, Contractors and Civil Engineers identify
construction cost factors usually encountered during road construction and attempt to suggest
methods and strategies that can help in minimizing the construction costs of roads in Nigeria.
1.5 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS
The scope of this research is limited to road projects in Oyo state of Nigeria because of ease of
access to information in Oyo state by the researcher. Targeted respondents for this research are
some of the major role players in road construction namely: Engineers, Consultants, and
Contractors.
1.6 DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following terms are defined for the purposes of clarity to enable users of this study
understand the context of their use.
Adhesion: The property by virtue of which a plastic substance or fluid sticks to the surface of a
solid body.
Aggregate: It is an inert material used to provide strength and stability to the road surface.
Alignment: The layout of the center line of the road on the ground.
Base course: The first layer of road structure laid over the soil formation or layer which lies
immediately under the wearing course.
Bearing test: Tests carried out to evaluate the supporting power of sub grade for the design of
pavements.
Bitumen: It is a viscous material having adhesive properties obtained either naturally or by

refinery processes and is soluble in carbon disulphide.
Binder course: An intermediate course of asphalt mix between the base course and the wearing
course.
Camber: The slope provided to the road surface in transverse direction.
4
Carriage way: The portion of the roadway designed and or constructed for vehicular traffic.
Design speed: The safe permissible speed on a given category of road.
Drainage: Removal and diversion of water from the road surface.
Earthwork: The preparation of the subgrade to the desired grade and camber
Flash point: The lowest temperature at which the vapour of a substance catches fire
momentarily in the form of a flash under specified conditions of a test.
Formation width: It is the sum of the widths of carriage way and shoulders on both sides
Foot path: In urban roads, a separate space provided for the use of the pedestrians either in the
middle or on edges of the road.
Geometric design: Is the design of road elements with which the road users is directly
connected.
Gradient: The rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal
length.
Horizontal alignment: Horizontal alignment comprises of speed, radius of circular curves,

types, and length of transition curves, super elevations, and widening of pavement curves etc.
Lane width: The width of carriage way which comprises of vehicle width and minimum side
clearance provided for safety consideration.
Native asphalt: The asphalt which occurs in pure or nearly pure state in nature.
Pot holes: When the stone aggregates are lost from the base of a pavement, the holes formed are
called pot holes.
Prime coat: A bituminous wearing surface placed upon a previously untreated compacted
foundation layer.
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Road: It is path constructed to facilitate the movement of men and material from one place to
another place.
Shoulders: The space on both sides of the roadways provided to protect the road.
Sub base: A layer of broken stones placed over the subgrade to give structural stability to the
pavement
Tack coat: A single application of bituminous material on an existing surface to ensure proper
bond between the new and old surface.
Tar: It is a viscous liquid obtained from the destructive distillation of coal or wood in the
absence of air.
Traffic: All types of vehicles using road such as buses, trucks, carts, cycles etc. and pedestrians
together form traffic.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Road is a path constructed to facilitate the movement of men and materials from one place to
another (Gupta and Gupta, 2010). Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD, 2004) also defines a road as "a line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized
base other than rails or air strips open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor
vehicles running on their own wheels," which includes "bridges, tunnels, supporting structures,
junctions, crossings, interchanges, and toll roads, but not cycle paths. Roads are used by various
forms of transportation, such as trucks, automobiles, buses, motorcycles, and bicycles. Roads
allow trucks to move goods from points of production, such as fields and factories, directly to
markets and shopping centers. Private individuals rely on roads for safe and efficient automobile,
motorcycle, and bicycle travel. Fire departments, medical services, and other government
agencies depend on an organized system of roads to provide emergency services to the public in
times of need (Encarta, 2009).
2.2 HISTORY OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION
History has it that the first road ever built by humans’ dates back to 4000 BC and since then road
construction methods has undergone phenomenal changes (Goel, 2011). In ancient times, river
transport was much faster and easier than road transport, particularly considering the road
construction cost and variation in the transportation capacity. The Romans built stone paved
roads in North Africa and Europe to support their military operations. Later the Arabs built roads
7
that were covered with tar. The roads were constructed by preparing earthworks and lifting road
foundation at the center for the water drainage. The road construction techniques gradually
improved by the study of road traffic, stone thickness, road alignment, and the slope gradients.
The initial road construction materials were stones that were laid in a regular, compact design,
and covered with smaller stones to produce a solid layer. The building techniques were simple
but they were very effective as they reduced the travel time considerably and connected one
place to another by the land route. The Appian Way in Rome still exists and the interesting fact
about is that it was constructed 2300 years ago. If Roman roads are considered as beginning of
construction of roads, Telford Pavements are known as the second step of this process, followed
by the Macadam Pavements that ultimately lead to the Bitumen Roads. Today, the concrete roads
have added another dimension to stability and strength of the roadways (Goel, 2011).
Modern tarred roads were the result of the work of two Scottish engineers, Thomas Telford and
John Loudon Macadam. Telford designed the system of raising the foundation of the road in the
center to act as a drain for water. Thomas Telford (born 1757) improved the method of building
roads with broken stones by analyzing stone thickness, road traffic, road alignment and gradient
slopes. Eventually his design became the norm for all roads everywhere. John Loudon Macadam
(born 1756) designed roads using broken stones laid in symmetrical, tight patterns and covered
with small stones to create a hard surface. Macadam’s design, called "macadam roads," provided
the greatest advancement in road construction (Bellis, Article retrieved 28/4/2013).
ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
According to Anyanwu et al (1997) the history of Nigerian roads can be traced back to 1904
when Lord Luggard attempted the construction of a mule road linking Zaria and Zungeru both in
the Northern States of Nigeria. The road was later extended from Zaria to Sokoto, Katsina and
Maiduguri. However, the road linking Ibadan and Oyo constructed in 1906 is recorded to be the
first motorable road ever constructed in Nigeria. At independence in 1960, the Nigerian
landscape was dotted with a skeletal network of trunk roads as well as secondary and feeders
roads that exhibited the characteristics which reflected the purpose of their construction. They
were narrow and winding, being simply meant to facilitate the evacuation of agricultural produce
from the interior to the ports for exports in addition to serving as links between scattered human
settlements thus permitting ease of administration (Ighodaro, 2009).
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The total length of roads maintained by the government rose soon from 6,160 km (5,875 miles)
in to 9,453 km (5,875 miles). Anyanwu et al (1997). As at 1951, out of the total of 44,414 km of
road in Nigeria, 1,782 km were surfaced, however the roads lacks in design standard and were
single lane with sharp bends and poor drainage system. In 1951, total road length increased from
44,414 km to 114,768 km in 1980. While tarred road increased in length from 1782 km in 1951
to 28632 km in 1980, earth/gravel road increased from 4232 km in 1951 to 86136 km in 1980.
As at 2003 the estimate of networks of road in Nigeria was 200,000 km. (CBN, 2003).
INVESTMENTS IN ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
As regards investment, the various governments in Nigeria have given priority attention to road
development over the years.
During the first National Development Plan, 1962-68, (See Table 2) a total of N150.6 million
was allocated to road development. The votes for the road sub-sector ranged from 7% in the then
Western Region to 25% in the Northern Region and a national average of 11% for all projected
investments. In keeping with the objective of rational allocation of scarce resources, the federal
allocation of N70.8 million was meant to provide for a minimum, essential road development
programme which had been enveloped on the basis of a system of priority rating (Ighodaro,
2009).
In the first national development plan, emphasis was placed on the development of the:
 widening, straightening and surfacing of Trunk ‘A’ roads

 construction of new Niger bridge from Onitsha to Asaba and
 Construction of a second Mainland bridge in Lagos.
Under the second national development plan (See Table 3) the total projected investment was
N2, 050,738 million while total allocation to transport was N485.189 million. The focus of road
development under this plan was the rehabilitation of the roads that were adversely affected by
the civil war (Ighodaro, 2009).
Table 4 shows the third national development plan were the total public investment was N32,
855.016 million. The allocation to road transport was N5, 430.436 million while allocation to
9
roads as percentage of transport sector was 73.12%. Roads as a percentage of all public
investments were 16.25%. A total of N7.303.068 million was allocated to the transport sector out
of the total of N32, 855.016 million for total investment (Ighodaro, 2009).
TABLE 2: FIRST NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN 1962-68

Total Allocation to Road as (%) Actual Allocation as
Allocation road total expenditure (%) of
for all sector development(N allocation on roads (N expected
(N million) million) million) expenditure
on roads
East 152.0 17.7 11.64 11.0 62%
North 197.6 49.4 25.00 24.6 50%
West 180.6 12.7 7.03 15.4 12.1%
Federal 825.0 70.8 8.58 NA NA
Total 1,355.2 150.6 11.11 ___ ___
Source: First National Development Plan (1962-1968)
TABLE 3: SECOND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN, 1970-74

Region Total project Total Allocation to Road Road
investments allocation to roads sub allocation as allocation as
(N million) transport (N sector (N (%) transport (%) of total
million) million) allocation investment
Federal 1,110,188 334,266 187,716 56.16 19.96
All States 940,550.6 150,932 144,872 95.98 13.05
Total 2,050,738 485,189 332,588 68.59 16.23
Source: Second National Development Plan, 1970-74
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TABLE 4: THIRD NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN, 1975 – 1980
Total public Allocation Allocation to Total Road as (%)
investment to transport road allocation to of all public
(N million) sector (N transport (N road as (%) investment
million) million) of transport
sector
Federal 26,169,115 6,274,342 4,355,960 69.43 16.65
All States 6,689,901 1,028,726 948,476 95.63 14.21
Total 32,855,016 7,303,068 5,430,336 73.12 16.25
Source: Third National Development Plan (1975 – 1980)
The fourth national development plan (1981-1985), shows that a sum of N7, 457.912 million was
allocated to road development out of a total of N10, 706.616 million allocated to transport sector
development. The other transport modes; rail, air and water shared 30%.
2.3 PLANNING ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Gupta and Gupta (2010) stated that the following basic objective forms the basis of planning in
road construction.
 A road network is plan to provide safe, efficient, economic, comfortable and speedy
movement of goods and people.
 A road system is plan to provide maximum utility and could be constructed with
available resources during the plan period under considerations.
 To plan for anticipated future development and social needs.
 To phase the road development programme based on it utility and availability of funds.
 To evolve a financial system and recommend changes in budget and tax procedure.
PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING ROAD CONSTRUCTION
According to Gupta and Gupta (2010) suggests that in order to achieve the above objectives of
highway planning following basic principles of planning should be kept in mind.
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 The proposed road should form an integral part of the national highway road network.
 The priority or the importance of the road should be determined on the basis of its utility
 The road should be open to all
 The road should form part of the development programme
 Maintenance of road should be given priority over new construction.
 Sufficient and assured funds should be made available for maintenance.
 Statutory provision for traffic regulation must be there for all roads.
2.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Classification is the process by which streets and highways are grouped into classes, or systems,
according to the character of traffic service that they are intended to provide. There are three
highway functional classifications namely: arterial, collector, and local roads. All streets and
highways are grouped into one of these classes, depending on the character of the traffic (i.e.,
local or long distance) and the degree of land access that they allow. These classifications are
described in Figure 1 (Federal Highway Authority, 2012).
Roads
Roads
Rural Urban
Arterials
Arterials Collectors
Collectors Local
Local Arterials
Arterials Collectors
Collectors Local
Local
Principal Minor Major Minor Principal Minor
Figure 1: Roadways Functional Classification Hierarchy
Source: Federal Highway Authority (2008)
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FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Arterials: Provides the highest level of service at the greatest speed for the longest uninterrupted
distance, with some degree of access control. Arterials can either be principal or minor both in
rural and urban roads. An example of rural and urban arterial roads is shown in plates 1 and 2
(FHWA, 2012).
Plate 1: Rural Arterial Road Plate 2: Urban Arterial Road
(Taconic State Parkway, NY) (Windsor, CT)
Source: FHWA (2012)
Collectors: Provides a less highly developed level of service at a lower speed for shorter
distances by collecting traffic from local roads and connecting them with arterials as shown in
plates 3 and 4 (FHWA, 2012). Subclasses of collector are:
 Major Collectors: Connect small towns to large towns not served by arterials, link entities
with nearby arterials, urban areas
 Minor Collectors: Serve remaining small towns, link local traffic generators with rural
areas
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Plate 3: Rural Collector Road Plate 4: Urban Collector Road
(Easton, CT) (Lambertville, NJ)
Source: FHWA (2012)
Local: Consists of all roads not defined as arterials or collectors; primarily provides access to
land with little or no through movement plates 5 and 6 shows an example of local and urban
local roads.
Plate 5: Local Rural Road Plate 6: Local Urban Road
(Montgomery Co., MD)
Source: FHWA (2012)
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2.4 PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF PROJECT DOCUMENTS
According Gupta and Gupta (2010) the project data collected during survey and investigation
and the proposal worked out on that basis should be presented in a proper form for the approval
of the appropriate authority. The whole project may be divided into the following three parts.
 Project report
 Estimates
 Drawings
2.4.1 Project Report
Gupta and Gupta (2010) said Project report is one of the most important parts of the project
document. The information that makes up the project report are:
 Preliminary report
 Road features
 Road design and specifications
 Drainage facilities including cross drainage structures
 Availability and quality of materials, labour and equipment.
 Rates
 Construction programme
 Miscellaneous information including design calculations.
2.4.2 Estimates
The project estimate gives a clear picture of financial commitment involved and must be
realistic. It consist of general abstract of cost which gives the idea of total cost with a break up
under major heads such as land acquisition, site clearance, earth work, sub base and bases.
2.4.3 Drawings
Drawings are necessary for enabling the construction engineer to execute the project. It
facilitates the presentation of detailed estimates and helps in inviting tenders kadyali and Lai
(2011). A road project involves the following types of drawing
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 Locality cum site plan: It is a combination of a key map and index map drawn on a
single sheet. The locality map should show location of road with respect to important
towns and industrial centres (Gupta and Gupta, 2010). The scale for this map may be
used as 1:250,000 which is one of the common scales used in survey of Nigerian maps.
 Site plan or Index plan: The map should show the project road and its immediate
neighbor-hood covering important physical features such as hills, rivers, tanks, railway
lines etc. Scales for it may be adopted as 1:50,000 (Gupta and Gupta, 2010).
 Land acquisition plan: The map should show details of land to be acquired and details
of properties boundaries and their survey numbers. A scale ranging from 1:2000 to
1:8000 may be used depending on the available maps of existing village on which land
acquisition plans is drawn (Gupta and Gupta, 2010).
 Plans and Longitudinal Sections: As far as possible plan and longitudinal section for
one kilometer length of road should be shown on a single drawing sheet. Plan should be
at the top and longitudinal section at the bottom. Common scale to be adopted is 1:2500
for the horizontal and 1:250 for the vertical (Gupta and Gupta, 2010).
2.5 KEY ROLE PLAYERS IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Construction of road is a long process that may take up to several years to be completed which
requires a lot of construction crews such as: Site engineers, Construction workers, Equipment
operators, Iron benders, Truck drivers, and urban planners who work directly on a road, while
suppliers and others contribute to the project from off site. The key role players in road
construction are:
2.5.1 CLIENT: The Client is regarded as most important member of the construction team.
The client initiates and finances the project. He makes sure that adequate financial provision is
made towards the successful completion of the road project. It is also the client duty to set cost
limits of the project at the briefing (Omole, 1986).
2.5.2 CONSULTANT: Consulting Engineers are responsible for producing field survey, design
and proposed detail drawings for the proposed road. Cost considerations are among the most
important and basic considerations that Consultants must deal with. It is essential to see that
16
projects are contained within the client’s budget and cost forecasts. Cost has the final control
over virtually every project. Accurate cost analysis and control is one of the necessary services
the client requires from the consultants (Omole, 1986).
2.5.3 CONTRACTOR: The Contractor organizes and allocates resources, equipment, labour
and materials in ensuring speedy delivery of the road project (Omole, 1986), while maximizing
profit for his company at maximum efficiency in terms of time, quality, and cost.
2.6 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS AND FINANCE
It is becoming more and more important that the proposed highway improvement or new
construction must be most economical. This is to say that benefits derived from the proposed
highway must be more than the cost incurred on it (Gupta and Gupta, 2010).
According to Adedimila (2013) it is of the essence that economic studies for highway must be
carried out for one or more the following reasons.
 To compare alternate location.
 To evaluate various features of highway design.
 To allocate responsibility for the cost of highway improvement among the various classes
of highway users.
 To determine priority of improvement among competing highway improvement.
 To compare the proposal for highway improvements with proposal for other public
projects.
2.6.1 HIGHWAY FUNDING
The three principal sources from which highway are finance in Nigeria includes the following.
Government Allocation
17
Due to competing needs, government allocation to the road network sub-sector over the years
which has been dwindling is now grossly inadequate. Because of the social service functions of
roads, government will continue to contribute to the funding (Draft National Transport Policy,
2010).
Road User Charges

Road user charges including fuel tax, vehicle registration tax, vehicle import taxes, driver
licenses, road tolls, and taxes on tyres, lubricants and consumable spare parts are gaining world-
wide acceptance as a source of revenue for augmenting government allocation for road
maintenance and construction. This is based on the argument that those who incur costs should
be responsible for paying for them. User taxes when properly designed could lead to a more
rational use of road capacity and even become a technique of capacity rationing through price
mechanism. Governments will henceforth emphasis user charges as a means of augmenting the
budgetary allocation for road maintenance and rehabilitation (Draft National Transport Policy,
2010).
Private Sector Investment

Innovative approaches to the management and financing of the road network are emerging
through private sector participants. Governments across the world are now working with the
private sector not only to provide service, but to build new roads and maintain existing ones.
A major way of involving the private sector in road construction and maintenance is through
road toll concession. Under this arrangement the private entrepreneur is giving the right to
construct, overhaul, maintain, and operate a road over an agreed length of time. The entrepreneur
recovers his money from toll charges (Draft National Transport Policy, 2010).
18
2.7 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD
Geometric design of roads is the most important aspect of road construction. The geometric
design of a road provides maximum efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety at
reasonable cost (Gupta and Gupta, 2010). Geometric design is the arrangement of the visible
elements of roads such as alignments, grades, sight distances, slopes etc. (FMW, 2006).
ALIGNMENTS
Horizontal Alignments: The primary control elements used to locate a highway in a horizontal
plane. Horizontal alignment defines the tangents and curvature of highway (FMW, 2006).
Vertical Alignment: The primary control elements used to locate a highway in a vertical plane. It
is define by the profile grade (FMW, 2006).
SIGHT DISTANCE
Two sight distances are considered in design: passing sight distance and stopping sight distance.
Stopping Sight Distance: Is the minimum sight distance required for a driver of a vehicle
travelling at a given speed to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the road becomes
visible, stopping sight distance is to be provided at all points on multilane and 2-lane roads. It is
also provided for all elements of interchanges and intersections at grade, including private road
connections (FMW, 2006).
Passing Sight Distance: Is the minimum sight distance that must be available to enable the
driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle, safety and comfortably, without interfering with the
speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design speed. Passing sight distance is considered
only on two lane road (FMW, 2006). Table 5 shows minimum standards for sight distances
related to design speed.
2.7.1 DESIGN VEHICLES SELECTION
19
The physical characteristics of vehicles and the proportions of various size vehicles using the
roads are positive control in geometric design. Design vehicle are selected to represent various
classes of vehicles operating on road (See Table 6). The vehicle type which should be used in the
design for normal operations shall represent at least 60% of the total flow. Design of
intersections, however including ramps and turnarounds shall allow for the largest vehicle
expected to negotiate the designated turns, especially where the pavement is kerbed (FMW,
2006).
2.7.2 DESIGN SPEED
Design speed is a speed selected to ensure efficient vehicle operation having regard to the
influence of the physical features of the road an example of design speed used in Nigeria is
shown in Table 7. Design speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of the road, when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the
road governs. Vertical and horizontal alignment, sight distance, and super elevation will vary
appreciably with design speed. Such features as pavement width, shoulder width, and side
clearance are usually not affected. The geometric standard should be established to obtain safe
stopping or passing sight distance and to secure the lowest gradient differential or longest
vertical curve possible within economic feasibility. (FMW, 2006)
TABLE 5: MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR SIGHT DISTANCES

Design Speed km/h Minimum Sight Distance
Stopping (metres) Passing (metres)
65 345
50
85 410
60
105 485
70
130 540
80
185 670
100
220 730
110
250 775
120
285 815
130
20
Source: Federal Ministry of Works (2006)
TABLE 6: DESIGN VEHICLES SELECTION

Design Dimension in Metres
Vehicle
Type Symbo Wheel Base Front Overhan Overall Overal Height
l g Rear Length l width
Passenger P 3.35 0.90 1.50 5.75 2.15
Car
Single unit SU 6.10 1.20 1.85 9.15 2.60 4.10
Truck (lorry)
Semi-Trailer WB-12 3.95+8.25=12.20 1.20 1.85 15.25 2.60 4.10
Combination
(intermediate
)
Semi-Trailer WB-12 6.10+9.15=15.25 0.90 0.60 16.75 2.60 4.10
Combination
(Large)
TABLE 7: DESIGN SPEED

Conditions Design speed (Km/h)
Type of highway terrain Minimum Desirable Speed
Limited Access All Terrain 100 120
Unlimited Access Level 100 120
Rolling 80 100
Hilly &
Mountainous 60 80
2.8 DRAINAGE
21
Drainage is an important part of road construction that cannot be over emphasis. Drainage is
defined as a process of removing and controlling the excess surface and subsurface soil water
within the right of way (Gupta and Gupta, 2010). Water is the main contributor to the wear and
damage of low-volume rural roads. The water can be in the form of groundwater, surface water
or rain and it can damage the road in several ways:
 By washing away the soil (Erosion and scouring)

 By making the road body less resistant to traffic (i.e. weakening load bearing capacity)
 By depositing soils (silting) which may obstruct the passage of water
 By washing away entire sections of the road or its structures.
2.8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINAGE WORKS
Drainage in road construction may be sub divided into the following three categories:
Sub surface Drainage: consist of collection and disposal of the ground water. Subsurface
drainage is also known as dewatering. It is the process of removal of water from a foundation pit
when it is situated below the ground water table or when it is surrounded by a cofferdam (Arora,
2008). Subsurface drainage does not only facilitate construction, but it also helps in improving
the properties of the soil. This helps in stabilization of the soils. Subsurface drainage also helps
in reducing the hydrostatic pressure acting on the structure (Arora, 2008).
Surface Drainage: is the method of collection and diversion of the surface run off (Arora,
2008). Surface drainage needs to be carefully planned by taking into account the land's
topography, the amount of rainfall received, and the type of soil. In some cases, shallow ditches
following the land contour may be enough, in others the ditches may need to be deeper or the
land may need to be graded or sloped to facilitate soil drainage. The ditches may follow a
random pattern or a parallel pattern. Other methods for effective surface drainage include land
grading and smoothing. Both of these involve using soil moving equipment like tractors,
scrapers, and land levelers to alter the land surface to make it easier for the surface water to run
off. The land is first graded to give it a proper slope and it is then smoothed to remove any
depressions or obstructions.
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Cross drainage works: Whenever a road crosses a river or streams, cross drainage works has to
be provided. Sometimes water from side drains also is diverted away from the road through cross
drains. On roads, usually culverts and bridges are used as cross water way of about 6 metres, and
then the cross drainage structure in known as a “Culvert” according to construction the culvert
may be of four types namely: Box culvert, Arch culvert, Slab culvert, and Pipe culvert (Gupta
and Gupta, 2010).
2.8.2 CONCEPTION AND DRAINAGE CRITERIA
Santinho (2007) explains that drainage system in road construction depends on these factors:
 Sensitivity of groundwater
 Importance of road
 Area (rural or populated)
 Amount of traffic
 Sensitivity of streams, rivers, lakes
2.8.3 STEPS CONSIDERED WHEN MAKING A DRAINAGE PROJECT
1st step
 Gather all the relevant information
 Road importance (traffic values)
 Geometric characteristics of the road (layout and profile)
 Drainage areas and existing drainage systems
 Geology
 Hydrologic and hydrogeological conditions on the surrounding area of the road;
 Identification of specific constrains (technical, social,
 Economical or environmental).
2nd Step
 Identify critical/sensible areas
 Vulnerable areas with particular conditionings, geological, environmental or ecological;
 Areas with a high frost formation probability
 Specific areas on the road, such as high and low level points
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Extreme gradient and cross fall situations
 Excavation/landfill transition areas.
3rd Step
 Systematize pattern-solutions to adopt in branches with similar characteristics and/or
conditionings.
4th Step
 Characterize the reference situation on water movements, using the existing methods,
tables, and software to perform necessary calculations.
5th Step
 Analyze the possible and adoptable solutions, based on standard drawings and pattern
dimensions used in each region or country.
6th Step
 Perform the hydraulic dimensioning calculations for the drainage organs. If the
estimate amount of water is small, exact hydraulic calculations are not needed.
7th Step
 Analyze the location of the discharge points, as well as the need to design retention
and/or treatment basins, which can be associated to separate drainage (Santinho, 2007).
2.9 MATERIALS USED IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
2.9.1 STONE AGGREGATE
Aggregate is one prime ingredients used in pavement of road construction and forms a major
portion of the pavement structure. Aggregate are used in cement concrete, and bituminous
concrete, as granular base course etc. of pavement construction. Hence the properties of
aggregate are of considerable importance to the highway engineer. Therefore the following
properties are desirable for aggregate used for pavement construction (Gupta and Gupta, 2010).
 Strength: The aggregate to be used for road should be sufficiently strong to withstand the
stresses due to traffic wheel loads.
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 Hardness: The aggregate used in in surface courses are subjected to constant abrasion due
to moving vehicles. The rubbing of stones also causes wear in the aggregate. The action
of mutual rubbing of stones in called “Attrition”
 Toughness: aggregate in pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel
loads.
 Durability: Aggregate used in pavement have to withstand the adverse action of whether
such as physical and chemical actions of rain and ground water and effects of atmosphere
 Shape of aggregate: For cement pavement more than 45% of flaky and elongated
particles should not be used.
 Adhesion with bitumen: Aggregate used in bituminous pavement should have more
affinity with bituminous materials than water else bituminous coating on aggregate will
be stripped off in the presence of water.
 Cementation: In W.B.M (Water bound macadam) construction the binding action of

surface is imparted by the stone dust and water film.
TESTS FOR ROAD AGGREGATE
To evaluate the properties of aggregate to be used in road construction, following test may be
carried out
 Crushing test
 Abrasion test
 Impact test
 Soundness test
 Shape test
 Specific gravity and water absorption test
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 Bitumen adhesion test
2.9.2 BITUMEN
Bitumen is black or brown in color which may occur naturally or are obtained as end products of
from distillation of petroleum. Bituminous materials are mixture of hydrocarbon of hydrocarbon
of natural or hydrocarbon origin or a combination of both, found in gaseous, liquid, semi-solid or
solid form and completely soluble in carbon disulphide. When bitumen contains some materials
or inert materials, it is called asphalt. Asphalt is found as deposits in the form of natural asphalt
or rock asphalt (Gupta and Gupta, 2010).
CLASSIFICATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Bituminous materials used in road construction may be classified in the following categories.
 Bitumen
 Tar
TEST FOR BITUMEN
To judge the suitability of bitumen as binders the following test are recommended.
 Penetration test
 Ductility test
 Viscosity test
 Float test
 Specific gravity test
 Softening point test
26
 Flash and fire point test
 Solubility test
 Spot test
 Loss on heating test
 Water content test
2.10 ROAD CONSTRUCTION EQUIPEMNT
In the work Gupta and Gupta (2010) they said in road construction project different kinds of
machinery is required for different types of jobs. The sequence of job operations can be follows:
 Site clearing
 Formation of subgrade
 Spreading of materials
 Rolling or compaction
 Surfacing
2.10.1 SITE CLEARING EQUIPMENT
Machinery used in site clearance is as follows:
 Bulldozer
 Rooter or Ripper
 Tractor
 Scrapper
2.10.2 FORMATION OF SUBGRADE EQUIPEMENT
27
For this purpose the following earth moving equipment is used
 Dozer
 Grader
 Trucks
 Rollers
2.10.3 MATERIALS SPREADING EQUIPMENT
For this operation generally the following equipment is required
 Crushers
 Grader
 Trucks
 Aggregate distributors
2.10.4 SURFACING EQUIPMENT
Surfacing generally consists of the following types:
 Bituminous surfacing
 Concrete surfacing
Bituminous surfacing the following equipment is required:
 Bitumen boiler
 Bitumen sprayer
 Aggregate spreader
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 Bitumen mix spreading machine
 Grouting machine
 Rollers
 Asphalt paver
Concrete surfacing machine requires the following:
 Central batching and mixing plant
 Concrete mixers
 Concrete pavers
 Concrete sprayer
 Concrete vibrators
2.10.5 EARTH COMPACTING MACHINERY
For the compaction of road embankment following types of rollers can be used:
 Smooth wheel roller
 Sheep foot roller
 Grid roller
 Pneumatic rubber tyre roller
29
PLATES OF TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
Plate 7: A Grid Roller
Source: www.komatsu.mk/eng/Crawler_Dozers.HTML
Plate 8: A Bulldozer
Source: www.associatedequipment.co.za/Tractor.cfm
30
Plate 9: A Grader
Source: ww.indiamart.com/kesharroadequipments
Plate 10: Smooth Wheel Roller
Source: www.cn-changlin.com/3road_roller.html
31
Plate 11: A Concrete Mixer
Source: asmabellgroup.com
Plate 12: A Scrapper
Source: www.warsi.in/photogallery.html
32
Plate 13: Concrete Paver
Source: www.keaslersjunk.com
Plate 14: Bitumen Boiler
Source: www.weiro.de
33
Plate 15: A Pneumatic Tyre Roller
Source: royalcivil09vce.blogspot.com
2.11 STAGES IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
There are two major stages involved in road construction namely:
 Earthworks Operation
 Pavement Construction
2.11.1 EARTHWORK OPERATIONS
Earthwork operations involves the preparation the natural soils or imported materials to the
correct density, levels, gradients and crossfalls (Adedimila, 2013). The stages involved in
earthworks operation include the following:
Clearing
The area on which the road is going to be built on must be cleared of all vegetation, which
requires the removal of trees, shrubs, and bushes (Turnbull, 1989).
Mounting
The road takes shape as diggers, excavation plant machinery and bulldozers mount dirt and soil
over the area where the road will run. The surface is then leveled and smoothed by graders.
34
Culverts and drains, consisting of large concrete pipes, are laid to prevent the road from flooding
by leading away groundwater, sewage, or storm-water (Turnbull, 1989).
Scarifying
It involves removal of topsoil to a shallow depth, in cuttings and embankment alike (Adedimila,
2013).
Fine Grading
Require the services of construction workers to prepare the surface by leveling it according to
plans provided by structural engineers. Fine grading requires manual labour and digging as well
as grader. To make the grading last, it is stabilized with limestone or concrete (Turnbull, 1989).
Aggregate Base
After another grading of the surface, the aggregate base course is laid. Aggregate base is made of
crushed stone or gravel, and it is placed evenly on the road surface. If the road is in a town or
city, a curb for the pavement and the gutter will be constructed straight after the gravel is placed
on the surface. The road is then fine graded again (Turnbull, 1989).
2.11.2 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Pavement is a hard crust constructed over the natural soil for the purpose of providing a stable
and even surface for the vehicles. Pavement support and distributes wheel loads and provides
adequate wearing surface. Pavements are basically of two types namely: (1) Flexible pavement
and (2) Rigid pavement (Arora, 2008).
Flexible Pavement: A flexible pavement is built up in several layers, the natural soil beneath the
pavement is called the subgrade, sub-base is built over the sub-grade, and base is constructed
over the sub-base. And the top layer is known as the Surface or Wearing course which is
usually bitumen. Flexible pavement can resist only very small tensile stresses because of limited
rigidity (Arora, 2008).
35
Rigid Pavement: Rigid pavement is made up of cement concrete. Because the concrete is quite
strong, sub-base may not be required. Rigid pavements have high flexural strength and can resist
very high tensile stresses (Arora, 2008).
COMPONENTS OF PAVEMENT
Different components of pavement have the following characteristics and functions (See Figure
1).
Subgrade: Subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of the pavement the
subgrade should be strong enough take up the stress due to loads without shear failure or
excessive deformations. It is essential to evaluate the strength properties of the subgrade
required. As the loads are ultimately received by the subgrade, if it is weak, it will fail. The soil
is generally treated to increase its strength and to improve its properties (Arora, 2008).
Sub-base and Base Courses: These courses provide a medium to spread the wheel loads to the
subgrade. The courses usually consist of broken stones, bricks or aggregates. Boulder stones,
bricks on edges and stabilized soils are also used for sub-bases. However it is preferable to use
small size graded aggregates because large stones and bricks have a tendency to penetrate the
wet soil and cause undulation and unevenness in the pavement (Arora, 2008).
Surface Course: The purpose of the surface course, which is also known as the wearing course,
is to give a smooth riding surface and to resist pressure exerted by the wheels. The surface course
also provides a water-tight barrier against the infiltration of surface water (Arora, 2008).
Figure 2: Pavement Components
Source: www.pavementinteractive.org
36
2.12 THE EFFECTS OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Callahan (2012) stated that, there are many benefits and consequences that that are associated
with road construction. Basically the importance of road construction is to facilitate fast,
convenient transport and promote economic development. For commuters, however, the delays
and traffic jams experienced during construction can sometimes seem to negate the potential
benefits involved such as:
2.12.1 Traffic Delays and Detours
Generally, road construction is always embark upon with the intent of repairing and expanding
the road to accommodate greater traffic flow when finished, but all these advantages come with
price of temporary delays and congestion. During road construction, delays normally occur on a
busy road as available traffic lanes are either reduced or completely closed. Detours is used in a
reducing some of the resulting congestion, but may also leads diversion a high level of traffic
into residential streets and roadways that are not equipped to accommodate it such traffic
(Callahan, 2012 ).
2.12.2 Human Displacement
Reroute and new construction leads to displacement of residents when government declared
eminent domain on property owned by individual and businesses which brings about scattering
of the neighborhood's residents and breaking up of the community (Callahan, 2012).
2.12.3 Economic Outcomes
Road construction projects contribute to employment in a number of fields, both directly and
indirectly. Construction workers, site engineers and equipment operators all work directly on a
road construction site, while suppliers and others contribute to the project from off site. These
include steelworkers, iron benders, truck drivers, engineers, and urban planners. The indirect
economic outcomes of road construction are far-reaching (Callahan, 2012).
2.12.4 Ecological Effects
There are many environmental concerns surrounding new road construction. When earlier
uninhabited areas are developed and roads are constructed, indigenous species can suffer. Some
37
wildlife may have no natural fear of traffic, and injury or death due to poorly timed crossings can
diminish populations. Pollution from auto emissions can also harm plant and animal life.
Finished roads can fragment and isolate animal populations, and paved roads increase the
amount of impervious surface in watershed, which can alter water quantity and quality, stream
channel morphology and ground water levels (Callahan, 2012).
2.13 THE ADVERSE IMPACTS OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION ON THE

ENVIRONMENT
According to Audian (2012) road constructions contribute to the economic growth and also boost
development within a society. Roads effectively move goods and people across considerable
distances and are fundamental to the transport sector. However, there are several adverse
impacts which road has on the environment, nevertheless, which must be considered during the
planning, construction and maintenance of roads. These environmental impacts of road
construction are categorized as direct, indirect, or cumulative.
2.13.1 Direct Impacts
Direct impacts involve the effects of the physical presence of the road. Road construction
requires direct utilization of land, possibly for environmental practices such as farming. Rivers
and streams are also diverted during road construction (Audian, 2012).
2.13.2 Indirect Impacts
Indirect or secondary impacts are more closely related to the construction process and often pose
a more serious risk to the environment. They include issues such as land erosion and pollution
from construction raw materials, which has knock-on effects on surface water quality. Another
indirect impact is deforestation when roads are cut into forest areas to support easy logging
transport and settler migration. Increased human activities in forests as a result of new roads also
lead to animal poaching (Audian, 2012).
2.13.3 Cumulative Impacts
Cumulative impacts involve a collective end result of direct and indirect impacts. For example,
road construction impacts, including river diversion, deforestation and water and noise pollution,
38
cause changes to wildlife habitats, which contribute to animal endangerment and even threaten
extinction. Deforestation also causes increased temperatures due to a lack of vegetative cover, as
well as a loss of plant species (Audian, 2012).
2.13.4 Unpredictable Impacts
There are a few unpredictable yet possible environmental impacts of road construction. Some of
these include roadside pollution by passing commuters, fires, and road fatalities due to car
accidents. All impacts need to be carefully assessed before a road is constructed in order to
minimize their effects on both the environment and human population (Audian, 2012).
2.14 FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTRUCTON COST OF ROADS IN NIGERIA
A review of literature reveals that there are several factors that affect construction cost of roads
in Nigeria. Hamzat (2012) in his own opinion suggest that compensation, relocating of utilities,
erratic power supply, road terrain and high cost of borrowing for infrastructural project are some
of the major factors that contribute to high cost of roads’ project in Nigeria Hamzat further
explain on these factors.
2.14.1 Compensation
Huge compensation are usually paid to property owners affected as a result of new roads being
constructed or existing ones expanded in built-up areas which add to the overall construction cost
of the road project bearing in mind that the figure might be greater upon the completion of the
road project (Hamzat, 2012).
2.14.2 Relocating utilities
Relocating utilities from roads’ right of way, especially in built up areas such as relocating of
utilities like PHCN cables and poles, water pipes and telecoms facilities at great cost sequel to
expanding and reconstructing of roads adds to the cost factors that makes roads’ project in
Nigeria costly (Hamzat, 2012).
39
2.14.3 Erratic power supply
The abysmally poor supply of electricity from the national grid is another factor that usually
added to the cost of road construction, especially when contractors needed to work at night, as
they would have to rely exclusively on diesel to power their generators (Hamzat, 2012).
2.14.4 Road terrain
Soil test in road construction of the essence as cost of replacing the top soil is another factor that
raises the cost construction of roads in Nigeria an example of this a road project done in Badia
and Bourdillion where the top soil had to be excavated to a depth of four metres because of the
terrain (Hamzat, 2012).
2.14.5 Borrowing for infrastructural project
It is a common practice in Nigeria where governments especially the state government borrow at
times to finance road project which contractors have to contend with, in addition to the fact that
the government cannot pay for such projects at once, but has to rely on revenues to trickle in.
which most time leads to project abandonment, construction delays and high cost of construction
(Hamzat, 2012).
2.14.6 Political Interference
Omole (1986) reveals that 80 percent of the contractors in Nigeria are indigenous companies.
The government agencies, in most cases are teleguided by the political heavy weight to award
contract to party stalwarts at very high prices.
The consultants estimates are disregarded in most cases when awarding contracts and where
possible manipulated. It is a general knowledge that governments and parastatals particularly
during the last political era give a very short time to consultants to prepare contract document for
tender purposes.
Omoregie and Radfort (2005) sampled the opinions of Contractors, Consultants and Clients and
they discovered 15 factors responsible for project delays and construction cost escalation in
Nigeria. Their survey revealed price fluctuation as the most severe cause of project cost
40
escalation which is attributed to the limitation in exchange rate which in turn affects construction
material prices and general price level.
Mansfield et al. (1994) also conducted a survey to investigate all the variable factors responsible
for project delays and cost overruns in Nigeria. In the author’s investigation, financing and
payment of complete works, Poor contract management, Subcontractors and nominated
suppliers, Shortages of materials top the list of the variable factors that affects project delays and
cost overrun as summaries in Table 8.
TABLE 8: SUMMARY OF SURVEY RESULTS

Variable Variables Severity Index %
Contractors Consultants Public
Code
Clients
1 Financing and payment of complete 100 92 88

works
2 Poor contract management 80 100 100
3 Subcontractors and nominated suppliers 80 62 55
4 Shortages of materials 74 76 77
5 Changes in site conditions 74 84 77
6 Weather 67 62 55
7 Design changes 66 68 66
8 Mistakes and Discrepancies in contract 60 46 55
document
9 Imported materials and plant items 54 84 88
10 Preparation and approval of drawings 54 46 55
11 None adherence to contract conditions 47 62 66
12 Mistakes during construction 40 53 22
13 Negotiations and obtaining of contracts 33 38 44
14 Labour and management relations 27 31 55
15 Inspection and testing of completed 13 15 33
41
portion of work
16 Construction methods 13 23 11
17 Price fluctuations 100 100 100
18 Inaccurate estimate 86 76 66
19 Delays 73 91 88
20 Additional work 60 77 77
21 Fraudulent practices and kickbacks 54 60 44
22 Shortening of contract periods 40 60 55
23 Insurance 13 15 22
Source: Mansfield et al. (1994)
2.15 METHODS OF MINIMIZING ROAD CONSTRUCTION COST IN NIGERIA
Damnjanovic, I., et al (2009) suggests that the following methods can be adopted in minimizing
high cost of road construction:
 Ensure efficient time management through proper resource planning, duration estimation
and schedule development and control.
 Evaluate the local market conditions in terms of availability of workforce, materials, and
machinery for improved estimation and planning of construction lettings.
 Accept cost saving proposals from contractors during bidding and construction. The
contractors may be more motivated to submit such proposals when potential cost savings
are shared.
 Provide more information regarding utilities located within the boundary limits of the
construction project.
 Relax prequalification requirements based on project type and cost to reduce contractors’
overhead related to the prequalification effort.
42
 Avoid unnecessary additions to the project scope that do not add value to the
performance or functionality of the construction component or element.
 Special attention should be paid to the condition of contracts.
 Select appropriate design criteria that can impact construction cost without compromising
performance requirements
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
43
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the course of this study, necessary input and information would be analyzed so as to enable us
draw reasonable and reliable information from there. The study is aimed at identifying the
factors that affect cost of construction of road in Nigeria and proffering solution to how the cost
can be minimized.
3.2 STUDY AREA
The study area for this research is Ibadan a metropolitan city in western Nigeria. The choice of
Ibadan as the study area is because of the size, being one of the biggest cities in West Africa.
Ibadan is a relatively urbanized environment endowed with many physical infrastructures such as
roads, bridges, High-rise buildings, estates, government establishments, all kinds of private
establishments, schools, hospitals, shopping malls, to mention a few. As such, there cannot be a
better place to obtain data for this study.
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDY POPULATION
The population of the study area consists of engineers, consultants and contractors in Ibadan,
western Nigeria.
3.4 SAMPLING DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Having identified engineers, consultants and contractors as the target groups for the effective
conduct of this research, seventy respondents comprising of thirty-two civil engineers, sixteen
consultants and twenty-two contractors were randomly selected using stratified random sampling
technique as type of probability sampling in order to give everyone that falls into any of these
identified target groups equal and independent chance of being included in the sample
3.5 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT
44
Two sets of data were identified as being relevant to the effective conduct of this research
namely primary and secondary.
The primary data which refers to field data were obtained through the use of well-structured
questionnaire developed from the initial identification of likely factors affecting construction
cost of roads in Nigeria and solutions to minimizing same.
The questionnaire was designed to obtain information on the following:
 The respondent’s role in road construction
 The respondent’s professional background (for consultants and engineers only)
 How long the respondent has been in construction
 An assessment of the severity of likely factors affecting construction cost from not severe
to extremely severe. See appendix for list of factors affecting road construction cost.
 An evaluation of the effectiveness of proffered solutions to minimizing construction cost
of road from not effective to very effective.
A typical questionnaire of factors affecting road construction cost of road is presented in Table 9.
The entire questionnaire is presented in Appendix B.
TABLE 9: LIST OF FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION COST OF ROAD

SA A U D SD
1 Cost of materials (indicate material(s))
2 High cost of machinery
3 Fraudulent practices and kickbacks
4 Bureaucracy in tendering method
5 Change in government
6 Duration of contract period
7 Compensation
8 Road terrain
45
9 Relocating utilities
10 Borrowing to finance projects
11 Government policies
12 Change in project design
13 Inflation
14 Inadequate planning
15 Unstable economy
16 Wrong method of cost estimation
Secondary data was obtained through review of relevant literatures, such as textbooks,
newspapers, and journals on factors that affect construction cost of roads. These were used as the
orbit in which the research design revolved around.
3.6 ADMINISTRATION OF THE DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT
The questionnaires were hand delivered to the various target groups, due to the busy nature of
some the target respondents it was considered best to stay and collect the completed
questionnaires the same day it was administered while those ones that can’t completed the day it
was administered were sent by mail and received within two weeks of administration.
3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
Data was presented in form of tables. Absolute figure was presented and analyzed where it was
necessary to see their magnitude and direction in the table.
46
3.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The major limitation of this study was reluctance of some of the respondents in finding time to
complete and return the questionnaires even after persuading them to do so.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
47
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The objective of this study is to identify the factors that affect construction cost of roads in
Nigeria and the approach used in this analysis is the computation of percentages and average, as
well as presentation of tables where necessary. The responses of the respondents were analyzed
in a simple and clear form based on the list of questions that were asked.
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATTON
Seventy questionnaires were randomly administered (Twenty-two Contractors, Thirty two Civil
Engineers and Sixteen Consultants). A total of forty-three usable responses were received,
representing 61.43% effective response rates. The number of responses and percentage responses
from each sampling frame are shown in Table 10.
TABLE 10: QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTERED AND RESPONSES

DESCRIPTION NUMBER NUMBER PERCENTAGE
DISTRIBUTED OF RESPONDENTS RESPONSE
Engineers 32 27 84
Consultants 16 10 63
Contractors 22 06 27
Total 70 43 61
From thirty-two questionnaire that were distributed to the Civil Engineers only twenty-seven
responded representing 84% effective response from Civil engineers which indicates that the
Civil Engineers are more corporative, out of sixteen questionnaire distributed to the Consultants
only ten responded representing 63% effective responses on the Consultant part while only six
responses were gotten back out of the twenty-two questionnaire that were given to the
Contractors which represent 27% response rate from the Contractor.
TABLE 11: RESPONDENT YEARS OF EXPERINCE

RANK POPULATION % of Total Respondent
Above 20yrs 13 30.2
11-20yrs 14 35.6
48
5-10yrs 16 37.2
Total 43 100
The Respondents year of Professional experience is illustrated in Table 11 with these 13 of the
respondents representing 30.2% belongs to the category that have experience of above 20years,
14 respondents representing 35.6% belongs to the category that have 11-20 years of experience,
while 16 respondents representing 37.2% belong to category with 5-10yrs experience. These
figures are relatively long enough to provide valuable information on construction cost factors
affecting roads in Nigeria.
4.3 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ACCORDING TO RESEARCH

QUESTIONS
This research covers views and opinions of Contractors, Consultants and Civil Engineers in road
construction in Nigeria. The questionnaire was in form of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A),
undecided (U), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD).
TABLE 12: COST OF MATERIALS

RANK SA A U D SD
Engineers 15 11 1 - -
Consultants 9 1 - - -
Contractors 5 1 - - -
Total 29 13 1 - -
Percentage (%) 67.44 30.23 2.33 - -
Analysis in Table 12 shows that 97.67% either agree or strongly agree, 0% disagrees to cost of
materials as the most prominent factor of road construction cost in Nigeria.
TABLE 13: HIGH COSTS OF MACHINERY

RANK SA A U D SD
Total 27 15 1 - -
Percentage (%) 62.79 34.90 2.33 - -
49
Table 13 depicts that 97.69% either agree or strongly agree, 0% disagree to high cost of
machinery as one of the most prominent factors of road construction cost Nigeria.
TABLE 14: FRAUDULENT PRACTICES AND KICKBACKS

RANK SA A U D SD
Engineers 11 12 1 3 -
Contractors 1 4 1 - -
Total 17 21 2 3 -
Percentage (%) 39.53 48.84 4.65 6.98 -
88.37% either agree or strongly agree, only 6.98% disagree. Thus, this indicates the probable
level of fraudulent practices and Kickbacks in Nigeria.
TABLE 15: BUREAUCRACY IN TENDERING METHOD

RANK SA A U D SD
Engineers 3 9 7 6 2
Consultants 2 5 1 1 1
Contractors 1 2 2 - 1
Total 6 16 10 7 4
Percentage (%) 13.95 37.21 23.26 16.28 9.30
51.16% either agree or strongly agree, 25.58% disagree or strongly disagree to bureaucracy in
tendering method as a prominent factor of road construction cost in Nigeria.
TABLE 16: CHANGE IN GOVERNMENT

RANK SA A U D SD
Engineers 8 12 1 3 3
Consultants 4 3 1 1 1
Contractors 1 2 1 1 1
Total 13 17 3 5 5
Percentage (%) 30.23 39.53 6.98 11.63 11.63
69.76% either agree or strongly agree, 23.26% disagree or strongly disagree to change
government as a prominent factors of road construction cost.
TABLE 17: DURATION OF CONTRACT PERIOD
50
RANK SA A U D SD
Engineers 7 8 6 5 1
Consultants 1 4 3 - 2
Contractors - 2 2 1 1
Total 8 14 11 6 4
Percentage (%) 18.60 32.56 25.58 13.95 9.30
51.16% either agree or strongly agree, 23.25% disagree or strongly disagree to change of
contract period.
TABLE 18: COMPENSATION

RANK SA A U D SD
Engineers 6 9 3 9 -
Contractors 1 3 1 1 -
Total 10 16 5 10 2
Percentage (%) 23.26 37.21 11.63 23.26 4.65
60.47% either agree or strongly agree, 27.91% disagree or strongly disagree on compensation as
a factor of road construction cost.
TABLE 19: ROAD TERRAIN

RANK SA A U D SD
Consultants 3 6 - 1
Total 19 17 3 2 2
Percentage (%) 44.18 39.53 6.98 4.65 4.65
83.71% either agree or strongly agree, 9.3% disagree or strongly disagree. Thus indicating the
level of importance of soil investigation in road construction in Nigeria
TABLE 20: RELOCATING UTILITIES

RANK SA A U D SD
Total 12 20 7 1 3
Percentage (%) 27.91 46.51 16.27 2.33 6.98
51
74.42% either agree or strongly agree, 9.31% disagree or strongly disagree that relocating
utilities adds to cost of construction of roads.
TABLE 21: BORROWING TO FINANCE PROJECTS

RANK SA A U D SD
Contractors 2 2 1 - 1
Total 17 18 5 1 2
Percentage (%) 39.53 41.86 11.63 2.33 4.65
81.39% either agree or strongly agree, 6.98% disagree or strongly disagree. Thus indicating that
borrowing to finance road projects is another prominent factor of road construction cost.
TABLE 22: GOVERNMENT POLICIES

RANK SA A U D SD
Consultants 3 5 1 1 -
Total 9 22 8 4 -
Percentage (%) 20.93 51.16 18.60 9.30 -
72.09% either agrees or strongly agree, 9.30 disagree that changes in government policies
affects road construction cost in Nigeria.
TABLE 23: CHANGE IN PROJECT DESIGN

RANK SA A U D SD
Consultants 5 4 1 - -
Total 15 17 8 2 1
52
Percentage (%) 34.88 39.53 18.60 4.65 2.33
74.41% either agrees of strongly agree, 6.98% disagree or strongly disagree while 18.60% were
undecided.
TABLE 24: INFLATION

RANK SA A U D SD
Total 15 23 4 1 -
Percentage (%) 34.88 53.49 9.30 2.33 -
88.37% either agree or strongly agrees, only 2.33% disagree while 9.30% were undecided
TABLE 25: INADEQUATE PLANNING

RANK SA A U D SD
Total 11 22 5 4 2
Percentage (%) 25.58 51.20 11.63 9.30 4.65
76.78% either agree or strongly agree, 13.95% disagree or strongly disagree while 11.63% were
neutral
TABLE 26: UNSTABLE ECONOMY

RANK SA A U D SD
Consultants 2 7 1 - -
Total 12 28 3 - -
Percentage (%) 27.91 65.12 6.98 - -
93.03% either agree or strongly agree, 0% disagree or strongly disagree while 6.98% did not
decide unstable economy ranks third as most prominent factor of road construction cost in
Nigeria.
53
TABLE 27: WRONG METHOD OF ESTIMATION
RANK SA A U D SD
Consultants 5 3 1 1 -
Total 17 15 6 5 -
Percentage (%) 39.53 34.88 13.95 11.63 -
74.41% either agree or strongly agree, 11.63% disagree and 13.95% did not decide
4.4 DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS
The survey results revealed High Cost of Machinery as most the most prominent factor of road
construction cost in Nigeria. This can be attributed to the expenses incurred in operating and
maintaining the machinery (See Table 13).
Cost of Materials was ranked second in order of most prominent factors of road construction cost
in Nigeria (See Table 12).Which can be attributed to non-availability or shortage in supply of
materials with respect to project location.
Unstable Economy was ranked third by the respondent (See Table 26). This factor could be
attributed to the limitation in exchange rate which is a direct result of demand exceeding supply,
creating a scarcity of goods which in turn leads to the escalation of the cost of goods.
Fraudulent practices and Kickbacks were ranked fourth (See Tables 14). This simply show the
high level corrupt practices involved in road construction in Nigeria.
Road terrain ranked fifth (See Table 19) followed by Borrowing to Finance Project which ranked
sixth (See Table 21) with severity index of 81.39% responses this factor can be attributed to the
fact that government cannot pay for such projects at once in which the contractors have to
contend with and wait for revenue to trickle in, which in turn adds to overall cost of construction.
Inadequate Planning ranks sixth (See Table 25) with severity index of 76.78% these outcomes
are also similar to that of Abdul-Aziz and Al – Juwairah (2002) about the factors contributing to
54
construction cost in Saudi Arabia. The respondents believe that inadequate planning also have
very significant effects on the cost of construction. They rank it fifth most important factor.
Omoregie and Radfort (2005) came to the same conclusion after they studied the factors
responsible for project delays and construction cost escalation in Nigeria. Although their survey
revealed price fluctuation as the most severe cause of project cost escalation which they
attributed to the limitation in exchange rate which in turn affects construction material prices and
general price level.
Additionally, Change in project design as indicated (See Table 23) by the respondent has ability
of creating cost overrun, since the propose features is not part of initial agreement. More care
has to taking when changing design since it could lead to cost overrun.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSION
55
In conclusion, identifying construction cost factor of roads in Nigeria is worth studying because
of its importance and usefulness in generating complementary resource inputs on measures to
drastically reduce the high cost of road projects at the federal, state and local government levels.
It is pertinent to note that in order to reduce construction cost factors, the following are
necessary:
 Construction Cost Factors (Such as; high cost of machinery and materials) must be
identified along with the methods and strategies that can help to reduce these costs.
 More comprehensive guidelines on how to modify projects to reduce initial construction
costs while maintaining equal or better performance should be developed.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
After conducting a thorough research study into the factors affecting construction cost of road in
Nigeria the following recommendations were deduce from the study which will sincerely be of
great help and assistance in minimizing construction cost of roads in Nigeria. These as follows:
 Estimates should be verified thoroughly based on updated price information in order to

avoid any wrong estimation.
 Contractor inputs should be used in the development of design, specifications, schedule,

and in constructability review process.
 Cost estimates should be based on feedback from the contractors experience and
understanding of the project conditions rather than on historical data adjusted for inflation
increases over each year using a cost-based bottom-up approach to estimate preparation.
 Utilization of recycled materials such as crushed concrete aggregate, which reduces

pressure on material supply which addresses the increase in price of oil, steel, aggregate
and cement
56
 The method and strategies of reducing construction cost should be evaluated at different
stages of construction to address any loopholes.
 Much emphasis should be placed on the methods and strategies that can help in reducing
the major factors affecting construction cost of roads in Nigeria to enhance construction
performance and generate confidence within the construction industry.
REFERENCES
 Adedimila, A.S (2013): Lecture Note on Transportation Systems: Analysis and
Design, Covenant University, Ogun State, Nigeria.
 Amusan, L.M. (2008): Study of Factors Affecting Construction Cost Performance in
Nigerian Construction Sites.
57
 Audian, K. (2012): The Adverse Impacts of Road Construction on the Environment.
http://www.ehow.com/info_8567285_adverse-impacts-road-construction-
environment.html
 Arora, K.R. (2009): Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 7th edition,
Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi.
 Callahan, R. (2012): The Effects of Road construction.
http://www.ehow.com/info_8174804_effects-road-construction.html
 Central Bank of Nigeria (2003): Highway Maintenance in Nigeria: Lessons from the
other Countries, Research Department, Central Bank of Nigeria Occasional Paper
No.27.
 Daniel, O.I (2011) Travails on the Nigerian Roads: The case of the Luxury Bus
Transport Services: paper submitted at the 4th European Conference on African
Studies, Uppsala, Sweden. pg. 1-2.
 Damnjanovic. I., et al (2009): Evaluation of Ways and Procedures to Reduce
Construction Cost and Increase Competition.
58
 Eshofonie, F.P. (2008): Factors Affecting Cost of Construction in Nigeria, University
of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria.
 Federal Ministry of Works (2006): Highway Design Manual Part 1. Abuja, Nigeria.
 Federal Highway Administration (2012): Flexibility in Highway Design. New Jersey.
 Federal Government of Nigeria (2010): Draft National Transport policy. pp. 26-27.
 Gupta, B.L., and Gupta, Amit (2010): Highway and Bridge Engineering, 3rd edition,
Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi.
 Ibrahim Mahamid and Amund Bruland (2011): Cost Overrun Causes in Road
Construction Projects: “Consultants’ Perspective”, 2nd International Conference on
Construction and Project Management.
 Igbokwe, I. (2009): 12 Steps - Transportation: Reforming Road Transport in Nigeria.
 Ighodaro, A. U. (2009): Transport infrastructure and economic growth in Nigeria.
Journal of Research National Development 7 (2) pg. 1-7.
 Kadyali, K.R. and Lai, N.B. (2011): Principles and Practices of Highway
Engineering, 5th Edition, Khanna Publisher, New Delhi.
59
 Mansfield, N.R., Ugwu, O.O. and Doran, T. (1994) Causes of delay and cost overruns
in Nigeria construction Projects. International Journal of Project management 12 (4)
254 – 260.
 Ochigbo, F. (2012): Cost of construction projects in Nigeria ranks highest in the
world. www.thenationonlineng.net/2011/index.php/business/building-
properties/41767-cost-of-construction-projects-in-nigeria-ranks-highest-in-the-
world.html.
 Omole A.O. (1986): Causes of the High Cost of Building and Civil Engineering
Construction in Nigeria. The Nigerian Quantity Surveyor (6) 1-2.
 Omoregie, A and Radford, D (2006): Infrastructure Delays and Cost Escalation:
Causes and Effects in Nigeria.
 Santinho, F. (2007): Practical Highway Design Drainage
www.watmove.org/wip05/07-Practical-Highway-Design-Drainage.pdf [Retrieved 29
August 2012].
 Turnbull, P. (1989): Stages in Road Construction.
http://www.ehow.com/info_8645892_stages-road-construction.html [Retrieved 17
December 2012]
60
 Why Road Construction in Nigeria is Costly.
http://www.punchng.com/business/homes-property/why-road-construction-in-nigeria-
is-costly-hamzat/. [Retrieved 14 December 2012].
 Xu Honggang, Ali N.Mashaykhi and Khalid Saeed: Effectiveness of Infrastructure
Service Delivery through Earmarking: The Case of Highway Construction in China.
pg. 1-3 [Retrieved 12 December 2012].
APPENDIX A
LIST OF FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION COST OF ROADS IN NIGERIA
SERIAL FACTORS REFERENCES

NUMBER
1 Additional Work Mansfield et al (1994)
2 Bureaucracy in Tendering Method Elinwa and Silas (1993)
3 Borrowing to Finance Projects Hamzat (2012)
4 Compensation Hamzat (2012)
5 Cost of Materials Elinwa and Silas (1993)
6 Change in Project Design Amusan (2008)
61
7 Duration in Contract Period Aibinu and Jagboro (2002)
8 Erratic Power Supply Hamzat (2012)
9 Fraudulent Practices and Kickbacks Mansfield et al (1994)
10 Government Policies Omole (1986)
11 High Cost Machinery Elinwa and Silas (1993)
12 Inadequate Planning Amusan (2008)
13 Inflation Kasimu (2012)
14 Insurance Mansfield (1994)
15 Political Interference Omole (1986)
16 Poor Financial Control on Site Ogunlana, Krit and Vithool
(1996)
17 Previous Experience of Contractors Al-Khaldi (1990)
18 Relocating Utilities Hamzat (2012)
19 Road Terrain Hamzat (2012)
20 Unstable Economy Mansfield et al (1994)
21 Wrong Method of Estimation Mansfield et al (1994)
APPENDIX B
TYPICAL QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE STUDY
Department of Civil Engineering

College of Science and Technology
Covenant University
Ota, Ogun State
March 2013
Dear Respondent,
This questionnaire is designed to gather information on the factors that affect construction cost of
roads in Nigeria.
Please render your assistance by completing the questionnaire as accurately as you can.
I assure you that your information will be used for purely academic purposes and will be treated
with utmost confidentiality.
62
QUESTIONNAIRE
Please answer all questions by ticking the appropriate boxes. The spaces provided are for
additional information; please fill relevant information as clearly as possible.
SECTION A (Professional Information)
1. Respondent’s Profession (tick all relevant professions)
Engineer [ ], Consultant [ ], Contractor [ ], Academics [ ]
2. Qualification(s) of Respondent
OND [ ], B.Sc/HND [ ], M.Sc/PhD [ ], Others (specify) [ ]
3. Are you registered with any professional body? Yes [ ], No [ ]
If yes, please specify [ ]
4. Number of years of practice
Below 5 years [ ], 6-10 years [ ], 11-15 [ ], 16-20 [ ], above 20 years [ ]
6. How many road construction works have you been involved in?
1-5 [ ], 6-10 [ ], 11-15 [ ], 16-20 [ ], Above 20 [ ]
SECTION B
Please mark your level of agreement with the following statements on the most prominent factors
that contribute to the construction cost of roads in Nigeria.
SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, U = Undecided, D = Disagree, SD = Strongly Disagree
SA A U D SD
7 Cost of materials (indicate material(s))
8 High cost of machinery
63
9 Fraudulent practices and kickbacks
10 Bureaucracy in tendering method
11 Change in government
12 Duration of contract period
13 Compensation
14 Road terrain
15 Relocating utilities
16 Borrowing to finance projects
17 Government policies
18 Change in project design
19 Inflation
20 Inadequate planning
21 Unstable economy
22 Wrong method of cost estimation
23. What is your general perception towards the escalating cost of construction of roads in
Nigeria?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
24. Suggest possible ways to minimize the escalating cost of road construction in Nigeria
64
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
25. Thank you.
65

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HIGHWAY PRACTICE IN NIGERIA WITH EMPHASIS ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION

AKINWALE, AFOLARIN WANDE

MATRIC NO: 08CI07910

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, COVENANT UNIVERSITY OTA

Professor A.S. Adedimila Date

Professor J.B. Adeyeri Date

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 7

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 43

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 47

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 56

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

TABLE 1: STRUCTURE OF ROAD OWNERSHIP

FEDERAL STATE L.G. ROADS TOTAL PERCENT

PAVED 26,500 10,400 36,900 19%

UNPAVED 5,600 20,100 25,700 13%

URBAN 21,900 21,900 11%

MAIN 72,800 72,800 38%

VILLAGE 35,900 35,900 19%

TOTAL 32,100 30,500 130,600 193,200 100%

PERCENT 17% 16% 67% 100%

Source: Central Bank of Nigeria (2003)

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

 To identify the construction cost factors of roads in Nigeria.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1.5 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

1.6 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Bitumen: It is a viscous material having adhesive properties obtained either naturally or by

Camber: The slope provided to the road surface in transverse direction.

Design speed: The safe permissible speed on a given category of road.

Drainage: Removal and diversion of water from the road surface.

Horizontal alignment: Horizontal alignment comprises of speed, radius of circular curves,

2.2 HISTORY OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION

ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

INVESTMENTS IN ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

 widening, straightening and surfacing of Trunk ‘A’ roads

TABLE 2: FIRST NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN 1962-68

Source: First National Development Plan (1962-1968)

TABLE 3: SECOND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN, 1970-74

Source: Second National Development Plan, 1970-74

Source: Third National Development Plan (1975 – 1980)

2.3 PLANNING ROAD CONSTRUCTION

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING ROAD CONSTRUCTION

2.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

Principal Minor Major Minor Principal Minor

Figure 1: Roadways Functional Classification Hierarchy

Source: Federal Highway Authority (2008)

Plate 1: Rural Arterial Road Plate 2: Urban Arterial Road

(Taconic State Parkway, NY) (Windsor, CT)

Source: FHWA (2012)

(Easton, CT) (Lambertville, NJ)

Source: FHWA (2012)

Plate 5: Local Rural Road Plate 6: Local Urban Road

(Montgomery Co., MD)

Source: FHWA (2012)

2.4.1 Project Report

2.5 KEY ROLE PLAYERS IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION

2.6 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS AND FINANCE

 To compare alternate location.

 To evaluate various features of highway design.

 To determine priority of improvement among competing highway improvement.

2.6.1 HIGHWAY FUNDING

Road User Charges