1. Describe the 4 stroke cycle as applied to a light aircraft engine.

The 4 stroke cycle of an engine is the sequence of events that keep an engine running.
The 4 strokes make up two full rotations of the crankshaft through 720. The first is the
induction stoke where the piston starts at the top of the cylinder and travels downwards,
allowing an intake of fuel-air mixture. The second is the compression stroke, where the
piston moves back up the cylinder compressing the air mixture. As the piston reaches the
top an electric spark is sent out via the spark plugs and ignites the fuel-air mixture which
causes the gas to expand due to the heat and the piston is pushed down again for the
power stroke. The final stroke is the exhaust stroke where the piston moves back up the
cylinder pushing all of the used air mixture out through the exhaust valves.
2. What is the purpose of the carburettor and how does it work?
Carburettors are used to mix fuel and air in the correct proportions before the mix is sent
to the cylinders. Fuel is delivered from the tanks to the float chamber under low pressure.
A hinged float attached to a needle valve regulates the amount of fuel flow into the
chamber. The mixture control, according to the mixture lever in the cockpit, determines
how much of the fuel is allowed to flow through the main metering jet to the main
discharge nozzle. Air enters the carburettor through a venturi. As the air passes through
the narrow section of the venturi, it accelerates and the pressure drops (due to Bernoulli’s
theorem) causing suction. This suction draws the fuel from the main discharge nozzle into
the air mixture. The air/fuel mixture entering the cylinders after the carburettor needs to
be pure vapour, and to assist the evaporation of the fuel approaching the main discharge
nozzle more air is introduced to the discharge line to break up the fuel via an air bleed.
3. Why do aeroplane engines have dual ignition systems?
Aircraft engines have dual ignition systems as they have a large combustion chamber. For
the most efficient combustion to happen at the right time in the power stroke, two spark
plugs in each cylinder are required.
4. How does a magneto work?
A permanent magnet is spinning in the vicinity of a coiled conductor. The current
produce in this primary conductor is too small to produce a spark for the spark plugs. A
secondary coil is placed so that the two can interact, and breaker points are introduced to
the circuit. This allows the magneto to produce pulses of high voltage that are sent to the
spark plugs. If the primary circuit is sent directly to the earth without passing through the
breaker points, the high voltage pulses will not be created and the magneto is ‘off’.
5. What is an impulse coupling and what does it do?
The ignition timing of an aircraft engine is usually approximately 25 before TDC. As the
engine is starting up the crankshaft and the magnet in the magneto are both rotating very
slowly. This creates a problem as the magnet needs to be spun fairly quickly to produce a
spark and therefore ignite the fuel in the cylinders. Impulse coupling allows the ignition
timing of the engine to initially be delayed to almost TDC. Also, while the engine is being
cranked by the starter motor, the drive shaft rotates while the internal shaft remains
stationary (the internal is responsible for spinning the magnet). This winds up a spring
inside the impulse coupling, and when the cylinder is ready for ignition the internal shaft
quickly ‘catches up’ rapidly spinning the magnet. This produces a spark in the engine at
the correct time. The impulse coupling is disengaged after the engine is running, but
reengages after engine shutdown for the next start.
6. How does an engine tachometer work?
The tachometer of an engine shows the number of revolutions per minute (RPM) of the
engine. This is done by indicating the speed of the crankshaft in the engine. The
tachometer is used to ensure the engine is only used within certified operating limits.
7. When a circuit breaker “pops” how many times should you reset it and why?
If a circuit breaker that is essential to flight pops, it should be left to cool for a couple
minutes and then reset once. However, if the circuit breaker controls a circuit that is non-
essential, or the reason for it popping is unknown, it should not be reset. The circuit
breaker will be popping for a reason, therefore resetting it should not be taken lightly.
8. Describe the aeroplane refueling process from our local fuel bowser.
During the refuelling of an aircraft the aircraft and equipment must be located so that no
tank filling points are within 5 m (17 ft) of any sealed building, within 6 m (20 ft) of other
stationary aircraft, within 15 m (50 ft) of any exposed public area, within 15 m (50 ft) of
any unsealed building (heavy aircraft) or within 9 m (30 ft) of any unsealed building
(light aircraft). The aircraft must be carefully parked next to the fuel bowser and
completely shut down, and then the park brake must be turned off. The fuel should then
be checked to ensure that it is compatible with the type of aircraft being flown. The
aircraft should then be grounded using the equipment at the bowser. Ensuring there is no
one in the aircraft, the nozzle can be moved from the bowser to each of the filling vents
until each tank is full. During refuelling it is important that there are no smoking or naked
flames within 15m (50ft) of the aircraft and fuelling equipment and if there is any hazard
regarding the refuelling it is stopped immediately.
9. Describe how you check for water contamination?
Water contamination is checked by doing a thorough pre-flight check of the aircraft and
completing adequate fuel drains. Each fuel tank will have a vent and the lowest point of
the tank where a sample can be taken from in a fuel drain. If there is water in the fuel, it
will sink to the bottom and fuel will sit on top, making it visually clear if there is water in
the tank or not.
10. How do you ‘positively’ check for the absence of water in the aeroplane fuel
tanks?
Rock the wings and take a further sample.
11. Detonation:
• What is it?
Detonation is the spontaneous combustion of the fuel charge inside of the cylinder.
• How is it caused?
It can be cause by anything that causes the temperature and pressure of the fuel air
mixture to become too high before ignition. Such as: operating the engine at a high
power setting with inadequate cooling airflow, operating at high power with very lean
mixture settings, operating at high power with carburettor heat applied, using high
manifold pressure with low RPM and the use of the incorrect grade of fuel for the
engine.
• What is its effect?
 The effect of detonation is the combustion of the fuel charge in the cylinders at the
wrong time. For the engine to obtain power from the power stroke, it is vital that the
fuel/air mixture combusted at exactly the right time. The heat from the combustion
can encourage for detonation making the problem worse.
• How do you fix it?
The initial response from the pilot should be to cool the engine as quickly as possible.
This is achieved by making the mixture fully rich, and reducing the power.
12. In normal cruise flight, what will be the indications of a magneto failure?
One indication of a magneto failure in flight is rough running of the engine. When both
magnetos are checked in flight, if on one magneto the engine runs substantially better
than when on the other, it is highly possible there has been a magneto failure. It is safe to
continue on the one magneto but landing safely at the nearest airfield should be top
priority.
13. What are the indications of carburettor icing during the various flight phases?
Indications of carburettor icing during flight is a drop in manifold pressure and in level
flight a drop in airspeed. If a build-up of ice continues it may cause rough running and
back firing (due to ice forming at the discharge nozzle).
14. When are you most likely to get carburettor icing?
The atmospheric conditions that carburettor icing is most likely to form in is temperatures
below about 20C and relative humidity above 80%. The aircraft configuration that is
most susceptible to carburettor icing is low power settings where the throttle is partly
closed such as in descent. Therefore, descent in the vicinity of clouds should be done with
caution. Carburettor heat can also be used to combat this type of icing.
15. When operating below 3000’ AMSL, what are the VMC requirements?
In class C airspace below 3000’, the requirements are 5km visibility, 1500m horizontal
and 1000’ vertical cloud separation. In class D below 3000’; 5km visibility, 600m
horizontal cloud separation, 1000’ vertically above and 500’ vertically below cloud. In
class E below 3000’; 5km visibility, 1500m horizontal and 1000’ vertical. In class G; 5km
visibility and clear of cloud with ground or water in sight as long as a radio is carried and
being used on the appropriate frequency.
16. When should you activate the following aeroplane lighting systems:
• Anti-collision lights?
Unless advised by CASA otherwise, whenever an aircraft is in flight or is operating on
the manoeuvring area of a land aerodrome.
• Strobe lights?
Thee strobe lights should be turned on just before entering an active runway and left on
until the aircraft has left the active runway upon landing. The use of strobe lights on the
ground other than on an active runway should be as little as possible, especially at night,
as it can be very distracting and can even impair night vision.
• Navigation lights?
Unless advised by CASA otherwise, whenever an aircraft is in flight or is operating on
the manoeuvring area of a land aerodrome.
17. Describe how to correctly set the mixture control for the various flight phases.
In level flight, with less than about 75% power being used (a cruise) the mixture can be
leaned from the fully rich position. The excess fuel that is used for cooling when in a
climb with full power is no longer used and is being wasted when it is in the fully rich
position. This leaning of the mixture will increase the power output and can cause a slight
increase in TAS, this is the best power setting. The best economy setting may occur at
peak EGT or a little leaner depending on the type of aircraft. At take off the mixture is set
to fully rich because of the high power demand and therefore cooling required.
18. What are thrust and power? How they are developed in one of our training
aeroplanes?
As air is thrown backwards by the propeller of an aircraft, the aircraft experiences a force
which pushes it forward. This is due to Newton’s third law for every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction. This force is the thrust and it depends on the mass of air
being accelerated and the velocity change imparted to that air by the propeller disk.
work
Power is the rate at which work is being done and can be calculated by . An
time
indication of power is the rate at which fuel is being supplied to the engine to make thrust.
19. How would you configure a piston-engine aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller
for:
• Maximum range in no wind conditions and why?
The range of an aircraft is the physical distance that the aircraft can fly. Maximum range
is achieved by flying the aircraft to be flown with minimum drag. This is because due to
the work formula (work =force ×distance), if work is constant, the smaller the force the
larger the distance will be. In level flight the force that must be overcome is drag,
therefore the less drag the further the range.
• Maximum endurance and why?
The maximum endurance is achieved by flying an aircraft at the minimum power.
Endurance is relative to the amount of time the aircraft spends in the air. The less power,
the less fuel flow and the more time the fuel on board will last.
20. What are the maximum range and maximum endurance configurations for our
training aircraft?
Max endurance configuration: 7.5USG/hr, with power setting 21”/2400rpm (100kts).
Max range: 75kts with idle power
21. How are these configurations in Q 21 derived?
The max endurance configuration is based on the holding configuration which uses 45%
power. This configuration is aimed to keep the aircraft flying for the longest time while
using as least fuel as possible.
The max range of the aircraft is when the drag is at a minimum, therefore the thrust is as
well. This is the glide speed of the aircraft.
22. While maintaining a turn with a constant angle of bank, what happens to the
radius of turn if you change the airspeed, and why?
In a turn with a constant bank angle, if the speed is increased, the radius of the turn will
increase. Similarly, if the speed is reduced the radius will be reduced as well. This is
because the radius is directly proportional to the square of the speed as seen in the
v2 v2
formula F C = , ∴ r= .
r FC
23. State the lift formula and define each component.
1
Lift =C L × ρ v 2 S , where C L =¿ coefficient of lift, ρ=¿ density, v=¿ aircraft speed and
2
S=¿ wing surface area.
24. Demonstrate a practical application of the lift formula.
Draft only: August 2011
APPENDIX F to CAAP 5.14-2(0): Flight Instructor Training (Aeroplane) F4

25. Describe Bernoulli’s theorem.

Bernoulli’s theorem describes the relationship between the speed of airflow and the
pressure exerted. As airflows through a venturi, a tube with a narrow section in the
middle, as the air passes through this narrow section it speeds up, which causes the
pressure to drop. This ensures that the total energy of the airflow remains the same.
26. Describe how you would achieve a minimum radius level turn in our training
aircraft.
To reduce the radius of a turn in an aircraft there are two simple actions that can be done.
The first of which is to slow the aircraft down, and the second is to increase the angle of
bank. However, when the angle of bank of an aircraft is increased, the load factor is also
increased. If the stall speed of level flight of an aircraft is 60kts, at a 34 angle of bank the
load factor is increased to 1.2 and at 60 it is increased to 2.0. The increase in load factor
also increases the stall speed of the aircraft, and at 34 angle of bank it is up to 66kts and
at 60 it is up to 84kts. Therefore, although reducing the speed and increasing the angle of
bank will reduce the turn, it is to be done with caution as if the aircraft is too slow it will
be in danger of stalling. It can be seen that a combination of the both should be used but
no excess of either to avoid manoeuvring the aircraft anywhere near the stall.
27. Describe how the stability of our training aircraft is affected as the loaded C of G
is moved progressively to the aft limit.
As the centre of gravity is moved aft in an aircraft the shorter the arm to the tail plane
becomes and the more longitudinally unstable the aircraft becomes. This also causes the
effectiveness of the elevator in a stall to reduce and makes it harder to control and recover
from that situation.
28. What is the difference between ETP and PNR? Describe how you calculate these
figures.
The ETP is the equal time point, which is a point along a flight path where it will take the
same amount of time to go on to the destination as it would to turn around and return to
total distance ×GS home
the starting point. ETP= [nm].
GS home +GS on
However, the PNR, point of no return, is the maximum distance an aircraft can travel
from take-off before it cannot get back to the take off point with reserves intact.
safe endurance ×GS home
Time ¿ PNR= [min].
2 ×TAS
29. What is our flying school fuel policy and how do we calculate the following:
• Taxi Fuel
2USG is used for start-up, taxi and run ups.
• Circuit maneuvering fuel
14USG/hr
• Trip fuel
9.5USG/hr, 0.3USG per 2000ft of climb
• Variable reserve
15% of trip fuel
• Fixed reserve
7USG
• Margin fuel
The total usable fuel, (40.2 USG in short range and 51.0 USG in long range), minus the
trip fuel and the reserves.
30. When calculating a LSALT on a NVFR flight, what splay do we use from a
Navaid?
The pilot in command of an aircraft must not fly the aircraft at night under VFR at a
height of less than 1000 ft above the highest obstacle located within 10 nm of the aircraft
in flight if it is not necessary for take-off or landing.
The area to be considered must be:
- the area specified for aircraft being navigated by means of a radio navigation system
or
- within a radius of 10 nm from any point along the aircraft’s nominal track.
However, an aircraft which has positively determined by visual fix that a critical
obstruction has been passed may descend immediately to a lower altitude, provided that
the required obstacle clearance above significant obstructions ahead of the aircraft is
maintained.
An aircraft must not be flown at night under VFR lower than the published lowest safe
altitude or the lowest safe altitude calculated in accordance with this section except:
- during take-off and climb in the vicinity of the departure aerodrome
- when the destination aerodrome is in sight and descent can be made within the
prescribed circling area of three nm radius of the destination or
- when being radar vectored.
31. What is the difference between PAL and AFRU aerodrome lighting?
PAL lighting is pilot activated lighting. When an aerodrome has PAL, if a pilot in the
vicinity of the aerodrome requires the lighting, they will set their radio to the
corresponding frequency described in the aerodrome plate, and make three once second
transmissions on the radio one second apart which will cause the lighting to come on.
AFRU, aerodrome frequency response unit, causes the first transmission on the frequency
after being inactive for 5 minutes to have an automated voice response specific to the
aerodrome. This is to increase safety by verifying that the right frequency is being used
by the aircraft.
32. Describe how to calculate pressure altitude and density altitude.
pressure altitude=elevation+ ( 1013−QNH ) ×30 [ft]. The pressure altitude can be
calculated if the elevation of the field and the QNH is known.
To work out the density altitude the pressure height must first be worked out, as well as
the temperature correction. The ISA variation is worked out by knowing ISA at the
pressure height, (ISA is 15C at sea level at falls by 2C every 1000’), and then
calculating the variation between that and the actual temperature.
density height =pressure height + ISA variation ×120
33. What is AERIS?
Automatic en route information service (AERIS) continuously broadcasts METAR from a
network of VHF transmitters installed around Australia. The information broadcasted is
specific to operational needs of the aircraft within VHF coverage of the station
transmitting.
34. What is an Isoganal?
An isoganal is a line on a map that connects points of equal magnetic declination – where
the magnetic variation is equal.
35. What is magnetic dip and when is it most noticeable?
Magnetic dip is the angle made with the horizontal by the Earth’s magnetic field lines.
This causes the north end of a compass needle to point downward in the northern
hemisphere or upward in the southern hemisphere as the earth’s magnetic field lines are
not parallel to the surface. It would be most noticeable at the magnetic north and south
poles.
36. In relation to the principles of operation of a gyro, describe the following
characteristics:
• Precession
Precession is the property of a spinning gyro that gives it the tendency to resist a force
applied at one point while responding with a displacement at 90 in the direction of
rotation. For example, a spinning gyro that suffers a displacement in yaw will respond by
attempting to roll. This property is used by the turn coordinator or turn and balance
indicator.
• Rigidity
Rigidity is the property of a spinning gyro being able to stabilize itself about its axis of
rotation. If mounted properly, the spinning gyro can be isolated from movement in pitch
roll and yaw. This property is what allows the gyro to operate the artificial horizon and
the DG as the axis of the spinning gyro remains the same while the aircraft moves around.
37. What is the purpose of a counterweight in a CSU mechanism?
The counterweights in CSU mechanisms are used to help control the pitch of the propeller
in the governor. If the propeller RPM increases and begins to over speed, due to the
centrifugal force the counterweights will move outwards lifting the pilot valve. This
allows oil to leave the propeller hub, which causes the blades to move to a coarser pitch.
If the propeller RPM begins to decrease, the counterweights move inwards, pushing the
pilot valve down and allows more pressure oil to enter the hub, causing the blades to
move to a finer pitch.
38. What is washout and what is its purpose?
Washout is a design feature on the wings of aircraft where the angle of attack is reduced
span wise from root to tip, typically, 1 to 2. This reduction in angle of attack creates a
situation where the root of the wing stalls before the tip, softening the stall and allowing
the ailerons to be effective further into the stall.
39. Why do we check the magnetos prior to shut down?
This check is to ensure that the aircraft is left in a safe state. Both of the magnetos are
checked to see if they are both earthed when they need to be. If something was wrong
with one of the magnetos and wasn’t checked, if the prop was moved afterwards it could
cause the engine to start which would be very unsafe.
40. What is a fohn wind?
The fohn wind effect is when humid air is forced to rise over a mountain form a cloud as
it rises and cools adiabatically. The latent heat released by the condensation is carried
with the air as it continues down the lee side of the mountain as a warm dry wind.
41. What is virga?
Virga is the term used to describe water droplets or snowflakes that leave a cloud base but
evaporate before reaching the ground. This phenomenon is common when the cloud base
is relatively high, or when the air beneath the cloud is warm and dry.
42. Describe the principles for calculating SGR.
Specific ground range is the distance that an aircraft travels per unit of fuel used. The
GS
equation used to work this out is SGR= . GS being the ground speed, the aircraft
FF
speed adjusted for head or tail wing, and FF being fuel flow.
43. What is Coriolis force?
Due to the Earth’s rotation from west to east, any particle that moves across its surface
will be deflected. In the southern hemisphere, Coriolis causes a deflection to the left.
Coriolis force majorly effects the wind direction.
44. What are Hadley cells?
Hadley cells are the two winds cells above and below the equator. The cells cover from
the equator to 30 latitude. The air rises at the equator and then sinks at the latitude where
the Hadley cell ends. The Hadley cells are one of three wind cells that make u each half
of the globe.
45. Interpret the following weather related messages.
• METAR YBMK 010300Z AUTO 05014KT 9999NDV // NCD 31/22 Q1010 RMK
RF04.0/010.0
This is a meteorological aerodrome report at the Mackay aerodrome, on the first of the
month the observations were made at 0300UTC. They are only automated observations.
The wind is from 050T at 14kts. The visibility is 10km or better. There is no cloud
detected within the vicinity of the aerodrome. The temperature is 31C and the dew point
temperature is 22C. The QNH is between 1010hPa and 1010.9hPa. There has been 4mm
of rain in the last 10 minutes and 10mm of rain since 9am local time.
• METAR/TTF YBBN 0300Z 18020 9999 - RASH BKN020 18/16 Q1017 RMK
RF00.0/000.0 NOSIG
This is a routine meteorological report and a trend type forecast for Brisbane airport. The
time of the report is 0300UTC. The wind is from 180T and is at 20kts. The visibility is
10km or better. There are moderate showers of rain and there is 5-7 oktas of the sky
covered in cloud with a base of 2000ft. The temperature is 18C and the dew point
temperature is 16C. The QNH is between 1017hPa and 1017.9hPa. There has been no
rainfall in the last 10 minutes or since 9am local time. There are no significant changes to
the existing conditions are expected for the validity of the TTF.
• TAF YMDG 300048Z 0214 VRB10KT 9999 BKN030 TEMPO 0207 3000 TS
ISOL030CB BKN040
T22 26 31 31 Q1019 1020 1020 1019
This is a terminal area forecast for Mudgee airport. The forecast was issued at 0048UTC
on the 30th of the month. The TAF is valid from 0200UTC to 1400UTC. The wind is
variable (when a mean direction cannot be taken) at is at 10kts. The visibility is 10km or
better. 5-7 oktas of the sky is covered by cloud with a base of 3000ft. Temporary
variations, of periods of 30-60mins, to the previously given mean conditions are expected
from 0200UTC to 0700UTC. In these periods the visibility will be 3000m, there will be
thunderstorms, isolated cumulonimbus clouds with a base of 3000ft and 5-7 oktas of
cloud with a base of 4000ft. At 0200UTC the temperature will be 22C and QNH 1019, at
0500UTC 26C and 1020, at 0800UTC 31C and 1020 and at 1100UTC 1019.
TAF YTRE 01 1835Z 2008 33025KT CAVOK FM01 18018KT 9999 FEW010
SCT012
T20 22 22 21 Q 1010 1010 1013 1013
SPECI YSXX 2310Z 11010G20KT 8000 FEW003 BKN006 17/16 Q 1016
This is a terminal are forecast for Taree airport. The forecast was issued on the first of the
month at 1835UTC. The TAF is valid from 2000UTC to 0800UTC. The wind is from
330T at 25kts. The visibility is 10km or more and there is no cloud below 5000ft or
below the highest 25nm minimum sector altitude, whichever is higher, there is no
cumulonimbus at any height and there is no other significant weather. From 0100UTC the
weather is expected to change to visibility of 10km or more, 1 to 2 oktas of the sky
coverd in cloud with base of 2000ft and 3 to 4 oktas covered with cloud bases of 1200ft.
The temperature at 2000UTC will be 20C and QNH 1010hPa, at 2300UTC 22C and
1010hPa, at 0200UTC 22C and 1013 and at 0500UTC 21C and 1013. There is a special
meteorological observation at YSXX airport. The weather in the speci is wind coming
from 110T at 10kts with gusts of 20kts, visibility of 8km, 1 to 2 oktas of cloud with a
base of 300ft, 5 to 7 oktas of cloud with a base of 600ft, temperature of 17C, dew point
temperature of 16C and QNH between 1016hPa and 1016.9hPa.
46. What is a mountain wave and what conditions are most likely to generate these?
Mountain waves is undulating airflow that can occur on the downstream side of a
mountain if the right conditions are met. This can be particularly dangerous to light
aircraft as it can cause strong up and down drafts as well as severe turbulence. The
mountain waves are most likely to form when the wind is at right angles to the mountain
range. The speed of the wind need to be at least 25kts at the top of the mountains and
increasing with height. The atmosphere should also be stable at the top of the mountain
but unstable above and below the top.
47. What is a katabatic wind?
Katabatic wind is wind under the force of gravity that flows down a high plateau that
steeply slopes down to low terrain. During the night, the air over the plateau becomes
chilled by conductions with the cold surface. The temperature eventually becomes so low
that the density becomes greater than that of the lower air. It descends down the slope
under the influence of gravity, giving rise to a cold wind blowing down the slope to the
lowest terrain. Katabatic winds usually form during the night and become the strongest at
dawn.
48. What frequency band does the VOR work on?
VORs are assigned radio channels between 108.0MHz and 117.95MHz, with 50kHz
spacing, which is in the VHF band.
49. How do you test if the VOR is serviceable and generating accurate data?
To test if the VOR is serviceable, tune the VOR to a known station with the specific
frequency indicated on the map. The VOR should then be identified if the system is
serviceable and the VOR’s specific identifier should be transmitted. This identifier will be
transmitted in Morse code and will be described on the map, and is important that the
audible tone is checked against it.
50. How does a GPS unit calculate its position?
GNSS units receive signals generated from constellations of satellites to give the position
of an aircraft. GNSS satellites orbit the Earth in several included planes. The orbital
planes, and the spacing of the satellites within them, are optimised to provide a wide
coverage of the globe. Signals from at least four satellites are required to determine a
position, one for each of the three spatial dimensions, and one for accurate time. Australia
has particularly good coverage: GNSS receivers can normally ‘see’ more than eight
satellites at any given time.
51. How do you know if the GPS unit is serviceable and generating accurate data?
Having a way of alerting users that GNSS is underperforming is critical to the safety of
the system. GNSS avionics have software to protect integrity—the measure of trust in the
information supplied by the total system. Integrity includes the ability of a system to
provide timely warnings to the user when the system cannot be used for the intended
operation. Aircraft based, satellite-based and ground-based augmentation systems can
ensure integrity. A number of augmentation systems can be used to improve the
navigational performance provided by the GNSS constellations.
Aircraft based augmentation system use on board equipment designed to overcome
performance limitations of the GNSS constellations. Current ABAS stand-alone receivers
are designed to resolve integrity deficiencies. Highly integrated systems may use other
aids such as inertial navigation. The two ABAS currently in use are receiver autonomous
integrity monitoring (RAIM) and the aircraft autonomous integrity monitor (AAIM).
RAIM ensures that:
- an erroneous ranging signal from a satellite will not adversely affect the accurate
navigation of the aircraft
- the constellation geometry is good enough to provide an accurate position—that is,
the satellites are spread evenly across the sky
- if an error is detected within the constellation, pilots are notified that they cannot rely
on GNSS for navigation.
RAIM calculates the worst error that might exist in the satellite that is most difficult to
detect it in. GNSS avionics compare the navigation solutions from at least six satellites
with the solution using all satellites except one. If there is a substantial difference
between the two solutions, it is reasonable to assume an error in one satellite.
Upon detection of an error, some avionics can continue to operate by removing the
erroneous satellite from the navigation solution—this is called fault detection and
exclusion (FDE). However, if a second satellite is detected with a faulty ranging signal,
the avionics will notify the pilot that GNSS cannot be relied upon for navigation. If the
avionics cannot remove the satellite, it has fault detection (FD) only. All TSO-C145,
TSO-C146, and TSO-C196 GNSS receivers have FDE. Some TSO-C129 GNSS receivers
have FDE, while others have FD only.
Aircraft autonomous integrity monitor (AAIM) uses the redundancy of position estimates
from multiple sensors, including GNSS, to provide integrity performance that is at least
equivalent to RAIM. AAIM uses inertial navigation solutions as an integrity check of the
GPS solution when RAIM is unavailable, but GPS positioning information continues to
be valid.
Satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS) support wide-area or regional
augmentation by using additional satellite-broadcast messages—ranging, integrity and
tracking signals. The SBAS system comprises:
- a network of ground reference stations that monitor satellite signals
- master stations that collect and process reference station data and generate SBAS
messages
- uplink stations that send the messages to geostationary satellites
- transponders on these satellites that broadcast the SBAS messages.
Ground-based augmentation systems (GBAS) provide GPS integrity monitoring through
data obtained from the ground. They also boost the accuracy of satellite navigation,
clearing the way for GNSS precision approach and landing. An airport ground station
transmits locally relevant corrections, integrity data and approach data to aircraft in the
terminal area in the VHF band.
52. On the whiteboard, draw a graph showing the level flight - power required and
power available curves.
• Point out the maximum and minimum level flight speeds and explain why
S1 on the above diagram represents the maximum level flight speed. This is because it is
where the required power and the power available curves meet and no more poer can be
applied. The minimum level flight speed is at the start of the curves on the left as any
slower flight will cause the aircraft to stall.
• Point out the maximum range and maximum endurance speeds and explain why
S3 is the speed at which maximum endurance is achieved as it is the minimum power
speed, therefore the least fuel is used and can last for longer.
53. What is an:
• Earth gyro
An earth gyro is a gyro having freedom in 3 planes at right angles to each other but is
controlled by gravity to maintain its position relative to the earth. These are used in
artificial horizons and attitude indicators.
• Rate gyro
A rate gyro is a gyro with one plane of freedom at right angles to the plane of rotation and
constructed so that a calibrated spring opposes the precessive forces to indicate the rate of
rotation about the plane at right angles to both the plane of rotation and freedom. A turn
and slip indicator uses a rate gyro.
54. Explain what is likely to happen if the aeroplane vacuum gauge is consistently
indicating well below the green arc for the flight.
If the vacuum gauge in the aircraft is indicating below the green arc it means that the
vacuum pressure used to create suction to spin the gyros is too low. The gyros require to
be spun within a certain range to ensure correct operation. If the vacuum pressure is too
low it will cause instruments such as the turn coordinator, attitude indicator and heading
indicator, that rely on gyros for operation, to not show reliable information.
55. How do you check the magnetos at the conclusion of a flight and why?
The magnetos at the end of a flight are checked by switching from both to the right and
then back, and then the same with the right and with ‘off’. An audible change should be
detected as all of these are checked. This is to ensure that the magnetos can be earthed
and there is nothing wrong within the circuits that could cause the engine to start if the
propeller was slightly moved.
56. What do you check during a post flight inspection and why?
During a post flight inspection, it is important to check the condition of the propeller,
wheel struts and other external parts of the aircraft. This is to ensure that the aircraft will
be safe for other crews to fly in the future.
57. Using the supplied MR – flying school to supply, explain the following:
• Is the aeroplane currently serviceable for flight?

• How many hours can the aeroplane be flown before it next requires maintenance?

• Expand on the maintenance requirements listed in Part 2 of the MR.

58. What is the purpose of a mass balance fitted to a primary aerodynamic control
surface?
Because control surfaces are located at the trailing edges of aerofoils, due to aerodynamic
and inertia forces they can experience unstable oscillations known as flutter. This flutter
can rapidly increase in amplitude and can cause structural damage. Mass balances can be
fitted to these control surfaces to combat the flutter. A mass balance is a weight attached
to the control surface to bring the centre of gravity of the system closer to the hinge.
59. What is a frize aileron and what is its purpose?
Frize ailerons are devices that even up the drag caused by deflected ailerons. They have a
hinge at the top that connect to the aerofoil and a wedge out of the front. The wedge tucks
up under the aerofoil when the aileron is deflected downwards making no change to the
normal smooth airflow. When the aileron is deflected upwards, the wedge protrudes the
bottom surface of the aerofoil and generates additional parasite drag by disrupting the
smooth airflow. This alleviates the need for a large amount of rudder deflection by
evening up the drag as the total drag is actually reduced.
60. Why is the tail plane angle of incidence usually greater than the wing angle of
incidence?
The tail plane needs a smaller angle of incidence as it generally requires down force. This
is due to a number of reasons including:
At take off and landing the angle of attack is very high therefore a nose up attitude
combined with a commanded downward tail force. Velocity is low so the large force
achieved by a large upwards deflection of the elevator and or a negative stabiliser
incidence. The angle of attack range is from around 0 in cruise to 15-20 nose up, the
required elevator range is from 0 to large up deflection hence the average required force
is downwards. This is all because you don’t ever want the horizontal control surface to
stall but particularly not at low airspeeds hence during take-off and landing. Placing the
tail at a lower average incidence angle than the main wings means that there is an angle of
attack margin when the main wing approaches the stall the tail surface has some angle of
attack left before stalling.
61. What is asymmetric propeller blade effect?
When an aircraft is travelling straight and level the propeller blades are travelling the
same distance at the same speed at the same angle of attack. When a higher angle of
attack is introduced, the down going blade travels a further distance and has therefore
encountered a faster airflow than the up going blade. The angle of attack of the down
going blade is also greater. Therefore, more thrust is produced by the down going blade
and this asymmetry of thrust causes the thrust line to shift from the propeller shaft
towards the side of the down going blade.
62. How does a carburettor accelerator pump work?
A carburettor accelerator pump is used to increase fuel flow if the throttle is suddenly
opened to increase power. Much of the fuel is still in liquid form as it leaves the main
discharge nozzle, and since liquid droplets are heavier than air, inertia prevents them from
suddenly accelerating, meaning it gets left behind. The resulting mixture can become too
lean to burn, causing a power lag during which the engine hesitates and misfires just at
the moment when power is needed most. The accelerator pump sends a surge of fuel to
the discharge nozzle as the throttle is opened to help overcome the inertia of the fuel and
provide smooth acceleration.
63. Explain ‘full throttle height’.
The height above which a particular manifold pressure is no longer available at full
throttle is full throttle height for that particular manifold pressure. This means that for
example 25”, if you got to a certain height and can no longer maintain that manifold
pressure even when the throttle is fully open, you have passed the full throttle height for
that particular manifold pressure.
64. Why is the vertical fin offset in some aeroplanes?
The vertical fin in some aircraft is slightly offset to counter the left turning tendencies.
The first of which is torque. Most western aircraft have propellers that turn clockwise
from the cockpit, and due to Newton’s third law, for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction, the aircraft experiences a left turning tendency. P factor is another that
causing a left turning tendency as the down going blade of a propeller has a bigger angle
of attack and therefore creates more thrust and lift. The other two factors that also
contribute to this tendency gyroscopic precession and spiralling slipstream. Gyroscopic
precession is what happens when you applying force to a spinning disc (the propeller) and
the force is felt 90 to the direction of rotation (the left). Spiralling slipstream is when air
accelerated behind the propeller in a corkscrew pattern, wrapping itself round the fuselage
and hitting the left side of the tail, creating yaw to the left.
65. Why is pre-stall buffet felt through the controls in some aeroplanes?
Pre-stall buffet is felt through the controls in some aircraft as when the aircraft is
approaching the stall, more and more turbulent air is produced as the separation point
moves forward. This turbulent air then travels backwards washing over the elevator
creating the buffet.
66. What is the reason for removing stone chips from a metal propeller blade and
who is authorised to do it?
Aircraft propellers are exposed to large amounts of thrust and centrifugal force every
flight. These forces cause the blades to bend and flex in different directions, therefore the
propeller needs to be as strong as possible, which would not be possible with indents such
as stone chips. Especially on the tip of the blades, things such as stone chips can cause
cracks running through the whole blade and failures in flight. Any pilot is authorised to
check the propeller for chips, and it is necessary for them to do so in the pre and post
flight inspections. However, a licensed aircraft maintenance engineer (LAME) should be
consulted to remove the chip.
67. Name three possible applications of a sideslip.
One application of side slip in an aircraft is in crosswind landings. This side slip is used to
counteract the effect of drift when landing in the crosswind. As the bank angle is
increased to combat the wind, additional rudder is required to prevent turning. Another
application is to use side slip to lose height, such as in a forced landing. If an aircraft is
too high and expecting to overshoot a field, side slipping can be used to lose height
quickly and regain the correct descent path. Another application is to increase the field of
view of an aircraft. If when flying visually a pilot is unsure of what is beneath them or
whether or not they have passed a certain waypoint, side slip can be used to have a look at
what is further towards underneath them.
68. What is the limiting factor in a sideslip?
The limiting factor in a sideslip is the rudder effectiveness. The amount of rudder that is
able to be introduced will run out before the amount of aileron that is available.
69. Explain the possible effects of running an aeroplane piston engine with either too
rich or too lean fuel mixture settings.
An aircraft flying with too rich mixture settings can lead to a waste of fuel. If cruising
flying straight and level and the mixture is too rich, some of the excess fuel will be used
for cooling but some of it will also go to waste. If too much fuel is introduced and is too
rich, it may cause the engine to flood as it has too much fuel to burn and can cause
problems starting up. Having the mixture too lean may cause misfiring as there is not
enough fuel to burn in the closed cylinder. A lean mixture also takes longer to combust,
and can still be doing so when the inlet valve opens to allow fresh charge into the
cylinder. This can cause the mixture in the inlet pipe to ignite, which sends a shockwave
through the induction system, known as a backfire.
70. You are flying a single engine light aeroplane fitted with a constant speed
propeller. In the event of a total engine failure what propeller pitch setting do
you select and why?
If when flying a single engine aircraft with a CSU a total engine failure occurs, the
propeller pitch should be moved towards the coarse setting. This is to reduce the amount
of drag that the propeller makes, similar to how a multi engine pilot would feather a failed
engine to reduce the drag.
71. You are flying a single engine light aeroplane fitted with a constant speed
propeller. In the event of a total loss of engine oil, what will happen to the
propeller and why?
Single engine aircraft with CSUs are designed to go to fine pitch if the oil pressure fails.
A tube allows oil to flow through the piston into or out of the hub. When oil is allowed to
flow out of the hub, the spring becomes the strongest influence and the piston is moved
into the hub rotating the blades towards fine pitch, which is what occurs when there is a
loss of oil pressure.
72. Explain a dynamic stall.
When an aircraft pitches up, due to inertia, the change in altitude is not immediate as the
aircraft initially continues along the initial flight path with a nose up attitude. The
increase in angle of attack eventually generates more lift causing the aircraft to start
climbing. Once the lift has succeeded in changing the flight path the relative airflow will
come from a direction opposite to the modified flight path and therefore the angle of
attack will decrease to a low value. Although, this sequence of events will only happen if
the rate and magnitude of the pitch change is gentle enough to allow the flight path to
change. If the elevator up control input is abrupt, and the airspeed is relatively low, the
inertia delay between the change in pitch attitude and the change in flight path can cause
the angle of attack to increase beyond the stalling angle. This results in less lift and at low
level the result can be catastrophic. When a wing exceeds the stalling angle in this
manner, the stall occurs irrespective of the current airspeed. This is called a dynamic stall,
and is much more likely in an aircraft with high wing loading.
73. During your pre-flight inspection of a single engine light aeroplane fitted with a
constant speed propeller, you note the manifold pressure gauge reading. What
should it read and why?
The manifold pressure gauge is used to show engine power output on an aircraft with a
CSU. This gauge measures the pressure in the inlet manifold between the throttle
butterfly and the inlet valve. As this manifold pressure decides how much of the fuel and
air mixture will enter the cylinder when the inlet valve opens, it is an indication of how
hard the piston is being pushed. While an aircraft with a CSU is parked with the engine
inoperative, the manifold pressure gauge should read about 30HG” (inches of mercury).
This is the normal atmospheric pressure at sea level, which will flood through the inlet
manifold and display on the gauge.
74. What is an inset hinge balance?
An inset hinge balance is used to help with the movement of control surfaces. The hinge
link is set inside the control surface by 20-25% of the chord length, this reducing the
movement arm.
75. What is the purpose of a ‘shower of sparks’ device fitted to some aeroplanes?
A shower of sparks device is fitted to some aircraft to help to make a hot spark when the
engine is turning over slowly while starting up. When an aircraft is running, the most
efficient ignition timing if 25 before TDC. However, when an engine is starting up, if it
was to spark at this time it would cause the engine to run in the wrong direction.
Therefore, the ignition timing must be delayed to get the engine running in the right
direction. When starting up, the best time for the ignition to occur is just as the piston is at
the top of the compression stroke or a little past it, 25 later than usual. A magneto with
this device fitted has two sets of contact points, one adjusted to open 25 before TDC for
normal operation, and the other set (the ‘retard points’) are adjusted to open 25 later for
TDC. When the key is pushed in in the ignition switch, the engine starter is activated and
when moved to the far right of ‘both’ the starter vibrator is activated. Simultaneously, the
right magneto is grounded as it is only set for normal operation and does not have the
retard points. If the right was fired it would cause the engine to kick back, therefore only
the left magneto is used for starting. The vibrator switch is now supplying interrupted
aircraft battery power to the left magneto coil thru the retard points. When the piston
reaches TDC on the compression stroke, the retard points open allowing the magneto coil
to charge and discharge as rapidly as the vibrator points can open and close. The result is
a continuous spark that resembles a lightning bolt igniting the fuel/air mixture. This event
continues for a few degrees of rotation on each cylinder until the engine starts and the
switch is released to the both position. In the both position, the right magneto is enabled
as well as the left magneto’s main set of points.
76. Why do most gliders have high aspect ratio wings? What are the advantages and
disadvantages and why?
The aspect ratio of an aircraft is the ratio of the length of the wings to the width og the
wings. A high aspect ratio indicates long, narrow wings and a low aspect ratio indicated
short, wide wings. Generally high aspect ratio wings give slight more lift and enable
sustained, endurance flight. These advantages are the reasons why gliders are designed to
have high aspect ratios. As there is no engine to power the flight, the more lift the wings
can produce the better. Another advantage of high aspect ratio wings is that is offers more
stability, however, it also creates the disadvantage of low manoeuvrability. High aspect
ratio aircraft also produce less induced drag.
77. What are the performance implications of flying an aeroplane out of balance and
why?
Flying an aircraft out of balance can cause difficulty in the controllability of the aircraft.
Having the centre of gravity too far forward can cause a heavy nose down attitude, and
too far back can cause a nose up attitude. If the problem is too severe, it may produce a
very unstable aircraft and may become completely uncontrollable.