THE POTENTIAL OF SOLAR HEAT IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES.

A STATE OF THE ART REVIEW FOR SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

Hans Schweiger
AIGUASOL Enginyería, Palau 4, 1º 1ª , E-08 002 Barcelona, Spain
tel.: +34 93 342 47 55, fax: +34 93 342 47 56, e-mail: hans@aiguasol.com

João Farinha Mendes

Inst. Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia Industrial, Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, 22, 1649-038 LISBOA (Portugal)
tel.: +351 21 712 71 86, fax: +351 21 712 71 95, e-mail: farinha.mendes@ite.ineti.pt

Nikolaus Benz
Bayr. Zentrum für angewandte Energieforschung e.V, Domagkstr. 11, 80807 MÜNCHEN (Germany)
tel.: +49 89 35 62 50 30, fax: +49 89 35 62 50 23, e-mail: nikolaus.benz@physik.uni-muenchen.de

Klaus Hennecke
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), Linder Höhe, 51147 KÖLN (Germany)
tel.: +49 2203 601 32 13, fax: +49 2203 669 00, e-mail: klaus.hennecke@dlr.de

Germán Prieto
Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía (IDAE), Pº de la Castellana 95, Planta 21, 28046 MADRID
(Spain), tel.: +34 91 456 50 27, fax: +34 91 555 13 89, e-mail: germanpy@idae.es

Mercè Cusí
Institut Català d’Energia (ICAEN), Av. Diagonal 453 bis, àtic, 08036 BARCELONA (Spain)
tel.: +34 93 622 05 09, fax: +34 93 622 05 01, e-mail: edificis@icaen.es

Helder Gonçalves
Sociedade Portuguesa de Energía Solar (SPES), Estrada Paço do Lumiar, 22, 1649-038 LISBOA (Portugal)
tel.: +351 21 712 72 37, fax: +351 21 712 71 95, e-mail: helder.goncalves@mail.ineti.pt

Abstract – In this paper an overview of the potential of solar industrial process heat is given, with a
special focus on Spain and Portugal: Available studies on the industrial heat demand are reviewed.
Experiences with existing pilot plants for solar process heat are referenced. The present energy demand in
the EU for medium and medium-high temperatures can be estimated to about 300 TWh. Recent
developments in the field of medium and high temperature solar collectors are summarised and an
overview of efficiency and cost of existing technologies is given. Future trends due to current research
and development projects are outlined. Based on TRNSYS simulations for five cities in Spain and
Portugal, an estimation of the system efficiency of solar process heat plants in the Southern European
climate are given for different collector technologies. With state-of-the art technology in the Iberian
Peninsulae annual energy gains of 400 – 1000 kWh/m2a and resulting energy costs of 0.04 – 0.12 /kWh
are obtained for solar heat at 100 ºC, depending on the site and on the applied collector technology.
Actually a detailed study on the solar process heat potential for Spain and Portugal is under way within
the 5th Framework Programme. First interim results of this project are presented.

1. INTRODUCTION countries. The present energy demand in the EU for

Beyond the low temperature applications there are several
potential fields of application for solar thermal energy at
a medium and medium-high temperature level (80 oC –
250 oC). The most important of them are: heat production
for industrial processes, solar cooling and air
conditioning, solar drying, distillation and desalination.
The industrial heat demand forms about 15 % of the
overall demand of final energy in the southern European
medium and medium-high temperatures can be estimated
to about 300 TWh.
Stationary collectors have been developed with a good
relation of cost and performance at medium temperature.
Several projects in this field are underway within the 4th
Framework Programme (JOULE). Improvements have
also been obtained in the field of sun tracking parabolic
trough collectors. For large collector fields costs are in
the same order of high efficient stationary collectors.
With this technology even higher temperatures up to 250 Table 1. Final energy consumption in the Spanish
ºC can be obtained with reasonable efficiency. industry. Selected sectors. Data for 1998 (IDAE 2000).

In the present paper a state-of-the-art review, with a Industrial sector Heat Electricity
special focus on Spain and Portugal, is given: Available TWh TWh
studies on the industrial heat demand are reviewed. Food, Beverage and Tobacco 18.4 7.1
Experiences with existing pilot plants for solar process Textile, Leather and Footwear 8.6 3.7
heat are referenced. Pulp, Paper and Printing 19.1 5.3
Chemical 39.8 10.2
Recent developments in the field of medium and high Timber, Cork and Furniture 5.7 1.3
temperature solar collectors are summarised and an Total industry 187.9 71.4
overview of efficiency and cost of existing technologies
is given. Future trends due to current research and 2.1.2 Portugal
development projects are outlined. In the 80’s a large study was carried out in order to
characterise the industrial sectors in Portugal (NIFES et
Based on TRNSYS simulations, an estimation of the al., 1986) through a set of audits performed in the most
system efficiency of solar process heat plants in the important industry sub-sectors. Each volume of this study
Southern European climate are given for the different deals with a different industrial sub-sectors.
collector technologies. From these data an approximate
economical analysis is carried out. The indicators obtained in these studies are actually being
actualised through the realisation of a selected number of
Actually a detailed study on the solar process heat audits covering important industrial sub-sectors (food,
potential for Spain and Portugal is under way within the cork, textile and glass) but they are not yet available for
5th Framework Programme. First interim results of this consultancy.
project are presented.
An overview of the energy consumption by sectors in
2. THE INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEAT DEMAND Portugal is given in Table 2.

For some countries the industrial heat demand has been Table 2. Distribution of final energy consumption in the
analysed for different temperature levels. Studies for Portuguese industry. (NIFES 1986).
U.S.A. (Huerdes and Lachal 1986, Garg 1987),
Switzerland (Huerdes and Lachal 1986, Huerdes 1981), Industrial sector % of industrial energy
Sweden (Laue and Reichert 1994), Germany (Laue and consumption
Reichert 1994, Schreitmüller 1987), the U.K. (Lewis Chemistry 28.6
1980), the Netherlands (TNO 1995), Japan (Laue and Cement 13.9
Reichert 1994), Spain (Schreitmüller 1986) and Portugal Metallurgy 10.1
(Blank and Joeschke 1985) agree that more than 50 % of Ceramic 9.6
the industrial heat demand is in the range of low (< 60 Textile 9.2
oC), medium (60-150 oC) and medium-high temperatures Food 8.8
Paper 8.0
(< 250 oC). The fraction of heat demand at medium
Glass 3.5
temperatures is especially high in the food industry (66
Metalo-mechanic 2.6
%), the chemical industry (58 %) and the textile industry
Wood and others 2.5
(30 %) (Huerdes and Lachal 1986). The total potential for
Rubber and others 2.5
process heat at medium temperature (below 150 oC) for Extractive 0.7
the 12 countries, that formed the EU in 1994 was
estimated to 202.8 millions MWh (Laue and Reichert 2.2 Analysis of the heat demand by industrial sectors
1994), corresponding to a surface of 250 millions of
square meters of solar collectors. The present energy
From the existing studies on industrial heat demand,
demand in the EU for medium and medium-high several industrial sectors have been identified with
temperatures can be estimated to about 300 TWh. favourable conditions for the application of solar energy
(see also the study of for the food industry in Germany
2.1 Available data for Spain and Portugal (Benz et al. 1999). The most relevant industrial processes
using heat at a mean temperature level are: sterilising,
2.1.1 Spain
pasteurising and uperising, drying, hydrolysing,
The heat and electricity consumption in different distillation and evaporation, washing and cleaning,
industrial sectors for Spain is given in Table 1. The polymerisation. In a study from end of the 80’s for Spain
overall final energy demand for 1998 was 187.8 TWh for an overview is given (Table 3).
heat amd 71.4 TWh for electricity (IDAE 2000)
Table 3. Heat demand for different industrial processes by sectors and temperature ranges (from Monjo 1988)

TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

TEMPERATURE
INDUSTRY PROCESS
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
DAIRY PRESSURIZATION
STERILIZATION
DRYING
CONCENTRATES
BOILER FEED WATER
TINNED FOOD STERILIZATION
PASTEURIZATION
COOKING
BLEACHING
TEXTILE BLEACHING, DYEING
DRYING, DEGREASING
DYEING
FIXING
PRESSING
PAPER COCKING, DRYING
BOILER FEED WATER
BLEACHING
CHEMICAL SOAPS
SYNTHETIC RUBBER
PROCESSING HEAT
PRE-HEATING WATER
MEAT WASH., STERIL., CLEANING
COOKING
TINNED FOOD STERILIZATION
COOKING
BEVERAGES WASHING, STERILIZATION
PASTEURIZATION
FLOURS & BY-PROD. STERILIZATION
TIMBER BY-PRODUCTS THERMODIFUSSION BEAMS
DRYING
PRE-HEATING WATER
PREPARATION PULP
AUTOMOBILE PAINTING
DRYING
COOKING
BRICKS & BLOCKS CURING
PLASTER CALCINATING
CURING PLASTERBOARD
GLASS SHEETS
DRYING FIBRE-GLASS
PLASTICS PREPARATION
DISTILLATION
SAPARATION
EXTENSION
DRYING
BLENDING
Source: GESA Research Group, 1988

industry. Drying of milk powder is another important

2.2.1 Brewing and Malting
In the brewing process thermal energy accounts for 77 %
of the total final energy demand. The principal consumers
are the wort boiling (24-50 %), the bottle washers (25-38
%), and pasteurisation. Solar thermal energy can be used
for low pressure steam generation (at 104 – 110 ºC and
for refrigeration of the wort (absorption cooling).
In the malting process the principal energy consumption
is for drying of the barley, before malting, and of the
grains after germination to stop germination and for
conservation (hot air at 60 – 80 ºC) and for cooling of air
in the germination process (during the summer months).
2.2.2 Milk industry
Pasteurisation (62 – 85 ºC) and sterilisation (130-150 ºC)
processes consume 23 % of energy in Portuguese milk
consumer.
2.2.3 Food preservation
Several processes were identified, where solar thermal
energy could be used: scalding of vegetables, sterilisation
(vegetables, fish, meat, baby food) with hot water or
direct steam, scalding, cleaning and pre-cooking of fish,
sealing and cleaning of cans, cooking. In addition cold
demand can be covered by solar cooling and
refrigeration.
2.2.4 Textile industry
Heating of liquid baths close to 100 ºC for washing,
bleaching and dyeing is an important energy consumer in
textile industry. Drying processes usually use hot air or
gases from 140 to 220 ºC. Wool industry in Portugal
consumes 507 GWh with a potential application for dying
and drying processes.
2.2.5 Auxiliary industry for the automobile sector
For textile and plastics hot water and steam is used for
preparation, bleaching, dyeing, painting and finishing
processes. 78 % of the energy demand in this sector is for
heat. For tyre manufacturing high pressure steam of 20-
25 bar is used for rubber treatment.
2.2.6 Paper industry
The paper industry is one of the largest consumers of
energy in western European countries with a total of 284
TWh. The basic process in the production of paper pulp,
the cooking process, the bleaching liquor and the chips
are contacted at a pressure of 8 – 10 bar and 170 – 180
ºC. Another important consumer is the drying process in
the paper manufacturing.
2.2.7 Tanning
In the tanning industry, concentrated in Spain mainly in
the regions of Catalonia, Valencia and Murcia, a potential
for solar energy exists for generation of saturated steam at
7 – 10 bar.
2.2.8 Cork industry
The cork industry in Portugal consumes a total of 262
GWh / year. Several processes use heat at 40 – 155 ºC,
such as drying processes and cork baking.
3. EXISTING SOLAR PROCESS HEAT PLANTS
During the 80’s several demonstration systems for solar
process heat were carried out in Spain and Portugal. In
Portugal three large solar demonstration systems were
installed:
• In UCAL (milk products factory) designed for
Helioman linear parabolic concentrators. This
installation was financed in equal parts by the
Portuguese and German Governments in 1985, but it
is not in operation now by lack of spare parts and
lack of interest of the actual owners (PARMALAT)
of the factory.
• In Central de Cervejas of Vialonga (beer industry)
with low concentration CPC type collectors for
preheating of water.
• At KNORR factory (in Carregado) with flat plate
solar collectors for water heating.
In the same decade in Spain three projects with parabolic
trough collectors were developed:
• In Lactaria Castellana in Alcorcón (Madrid) steam
was generated for presterilisation of milk products.
• In CARCESA (Mérida, Badajoz) steam was
generated for sterilisation of meat products.
• In ENUSA an absorption cooling machine for cold
generation was driven by solar heat.
All these plants of the first generation are actually
shutdown or dismantled, except for the low temperature
system at Knorr factory in Carregado (Portugal).
At present several non-industrial solar absorption cooling
systems are projected in Spain in Palma de Mallorca
(ParcBit), Sevilla and Vigo (University). A solar cooling
system with evacuated tube collectors is operated in a
hotel in Benidorm since 1992.
Light-weight parabolic trough collectors developed by
Industrial Solar Technologies (IST), Golden, Colorado,
are operating successfully in a number of installations in
the US, sized between about 200m² and almost 3000m² to
provide hot water for various applications (Brown et al.,
1997).
The existing projects on solar process heat (including
some non-industrial applications for absorption cooling
and low temperature industrial heat) are listed in Table 4.
4. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS OF SOLAR
COLLECTOR TECHNOLOGY
In the following two sections, the recent development in
the field of non-tracking (stationary) collectors and one-
axis sun-tracking parabolic trough collectors is reviewed.
4.1 Stationary solar collectors
Due to the introduction of highly selective coatings actual
standard flat plate collectors on the market in central and
northern Europe reach stagnation temperatures of more
than 200 oC. With these collectors in Southern European
climates good efficiencies can be obtained up to
temperatures of 100 oC.
Additional improvements in efficiency of stationary (non-
tracking) collectors and an extension of the range of
possible working temperatures up to 150 ºC can be
obtained by:
• suppression of convection heat transfer by
evacuation (evacuated tubes, evacuated flat plate
collector), gas fillings with inert gases, convection
barrier by an additional plastic foil or by
honeycomb-type transparent insulation (TI)
materials.
• non-imaging concentrators of low concentration
ratio (up to about C=2 corresponding to an
acceptance half angle of 30º).
The application of one or the combination of several of
these technologies led to several recent developments of
stationary collectors for medium temperature
applications:
A large number of evacuated tube collectors is on the
market. Evacuated tubes with CPC-reflectors are also
commercialised by several manufacturers. The
manufacturer SCHOTT (Germany) recently presented an
all-glass evacuated tube collector, which may be an
Table. 4 List of solar industrial process heat projects.

General information information on the process information on the solar system

Companies Temperature
Company Year of start of Temperature of Type of
Short name (Design and Site Actual state Process Collector area (output of collector Working fluid
(user of the plant) operation use collectors (1)
construction) field)

2
ºC m ºC
SPAIN
dismantled
LACTARIA Alcorcón (since 1987 out Processing of steam PTC Thermal
Lactaria Española 1981 600 180 / 220
CASTELLANA (Madrid) of use) for pre-sterilisation (Casa-Auxini) oil/steam

dismantled Sterilisation of meat Thermal oil

Carnes y Conservas 1982
CARCESA Merida (Badajoz) (operating 1984- products 207 (1) PTC 1024 180 (2) "Heliotermo
Españolas S.A. definitively 1985
1988) (steam for back-up) 2550"

shutdown Thermal oil

Empresa Nacional de IER-CIEMAT Juzbado Cold generation with
ENUSA 1985 (operating 1983- 20-300 PTC 1080 180 "Heliotermo
Uranio S.A. ENDESA / GESA (Salamanca) absorption machine
1988) 2550"

water-heating, cooling,
BENIDROM Hotel Benidrom 1992 VTC -450 90
heating

ARINAGA Gran Canaria shutdown Desalination of water 360 120 Steam

PORTUGAL

UCAL, AGUAS DE TECNIVEST, Águas de Moura

UCAL 1985 out of service Dairy 188 PTC 1280 140-280 Thermal oil
MOURA SA (Portugal)

TECSO, Técnica Solar

Sociedade Central de Vialonga Non evacuated
VIALONGA Lda. (Valado de 1985 out of service Brewery 63 192.8 65 water
cervejas (Portugal) 1.5 x CPC
Frades Nazaré, Pt.)

Quinta do
Knorr Best Foods Mendanha, Non selective flat water / ethylene
KNORR Pretec 1987 operating Dairy 40-45 440
S.A. Carregado plate glycol
(Portugal)
REST OF EUROPE
PTC
PISTICCI Pisticci (Italy) Chemical 1728 280 Steam
(2 axis)

food industrie:
SWISS: HATTWILL Hattwill (Swiss) 1988 farinaceous products VTC 400 90
factory (Drying)

food industrie:
SWISS: HALLAU Vinejard Swiss: Hallau 1983 80-120 VTC 500 140
Pasteurization
Targassonne
TARGASSONNE Thermal PTC 770 280 Oil / Salts
(France)
U.S.A.

Adams County Brighton

ACDF PTC 725 Steam
Detention Facility (Colorado, USA)

FAIRFAX Alabama Drying PTC 900 Steam

MACON Georgia operating Textile PTC 10000 Steam
PASADENA California 1980 operating Laundry PTC 1000 Steam
SAN ANTONIO Texas operating Malt PTC 1150 Steam
CHANDLER Arizona dic-83 process-water 95 PTC 5620 260 water
California
Tehachapi
TEHACHAPI Correctional IST 105/55 PTC 2676 150
(California, USA)
Institution

(1) PTC: parabolic trough collectors (2) VTC: Vacuum tube collector

important step to (necessary) cost reduction and increase (1997) and was developed in a JOULE project (ISE 1997)
of lifetime. under participation of the manufacturer KALKGRUBER
(Austria).
The manufacturer THERMOSOLAR (Slovakia) offers
evacuated flat plate collectors and flat plate collectors The manufacturer ARCON (Denmark) offers large sized
with krypton fillings. collector modules with a Teflon convection barrier.

Various prototypes of transparently insulated flat plate Possibilities for future developments in this field are
collectors and CPC collectors have been built and tested strategies for cost reduction on the one hand
in the last decade. For a review see Benz et al. (1998) and (manufacturing technologies, large size modules, building
Schweiger (1997). Low cost and high temperature integration) and a design optimisation of the described
resistant TI materials have been developed so that the technologies on the other.
commercialisation of these collectors becomes feasible.
In an ongoing JOULE project under participation of the The direct steam generation in flat plate collectors has
Spanish collector manufacturer MADE a TI flat plate been investigated by Benz et al. (1996) with promising
collector using ventilation for the control of the results.
stagnation temperature is being developed (Cadafalch et
al. 2000). 4.2 Sun tracking parabolic-trough collectors
Parabolic trough collectors are the most mature solar
Collectors with CPC-type concentrators are technology to generate heat at temperatures up to 400°C
commercialised by the companies AOSOL (Portugal) and for solar thermal electricity generation or process heat
SOLEL (Israel). The combination of CPC reflectors with applications. Trough reflectors with a parabolic shape
convection barriers has been studied in Carvalho et al. concentrate the direct solar radiation onto an absorber
 Fig. 1. Test Facility at DLR Cologne (Germany) with Fix-Focus-Collector at the right and IST-Collector in Front
tube located in the focal line of the parabola. A single
axis tracking system follows the sun position over the
day. The thermal performance of the absorber is
enhanced by a selective coating with high absorptivity in
the solar spectrum and low emissivity in the infrared
radiation band associated with the operating temperature.
Convective losses are reduced by means of a glass
envelope, which usually has an anti-reflective coating to
improve transmissivity, and may be evacuated,
particularly for high temperature applications.
In the last years several companies started selling
parabolic trough collectors for the temperature range
between 50°C – 300°C, all of them with one-axis
tracking. Except for a greater installation (1584 m²) in
Phoenix, USA in 98/99 using the parabolic trough from
IST, no new installations using troughs are known of.
New collector developments aim at cost reduction and
improvements of the technology. The Eurotrough
collector, being developed by an European consortium,
will produce heat in the temperature range between 200 –
400°C, which can be used for process heat applications or
for power production of several Megawatt. The aperture
width measures 5.8 m, the length is 100 m or more. A
collector with similar characteristics has recently been
presented by Synthesys Solar. The collector can be folded
so it is protected against wind and can automatically be
washed. The company Solel developed a small trough for
temperatures up to 300°C using a glass cover over the
whole collector. At DLR Cologne a line focussing fix-
focus collector is being developed together with the
company Heinrich for roof top mounting for temperatures
up to 300°C heating a fluid or air (volumetric receiver).
Direct steam production in the absorber, which is tested
at the PSA in Almeria in a LS-3 collector for power
production, will in future be tested in smaller parabolic
troughs for use as process steam. For more lightweight
constructions aluminium reflectors are under
development and tested.
5. COUPLING OF SOLAR SYSTEM AND
CONVENTIONAL HEAT SUPPLY
The central system for heat supply in most factories uses
steam at a pressure corresponding to the highest
temperature needed in the different processes. Typical
temperatures are about 180 – 200 ºC. Solar steam
production at these temperatures with reasonable
efficiencies and cost is possible only with parabolic
trough technology. The advantage of this option is the
high and continuous demand, the simplicity of the system
and no need for additional piping.
Hot water or low pressure steam at medium temperatures
(< 150 ºC) can be used either for preheating of water (or
other fluids) used for processes (washing, dyeing etc) or
for steam generation or by direct coupling of the solar
system to an individual process working at temperatures
lower than that of the central steam supply. Preheating of
water yields high efficiencies due to the low input
temperature of the solar system. However, an additional
piping for preheated water supply to the processes is
required.
Steam generation
Direct coupling
to the process
Central steam supply
Process Process Process
Return water
Feed-up water
Pre--heating of
feed up water
Fig. 2. Possibilities of the coupling of the solar system
into the existing heat supply.
A schematic view of the different possibilities is given in the local latitude. Mutual shading of collectors is
Fig. 2. considered
• Heat losses of the piping is considered by applying
6. ANNUAL ENERGY GAINS pipes in the collector field and by applying 50 m
long pipes between the collector field exit and the
6.1. Non-tracking collectors process
To estimate the solar energy gains for stationary • The outlet temperature of the collector field is
collectors, TRNSYS-calculations were carried out for 5 controlled adapting the mass flow .
different sites: Bilbao, Barcelona, Madrid, Lisbon and
Huelva (near Sevilla). Table 5 shows the global 0 .9
irradiation at these sites. To cover the suitable and
market available range of stationary collectors, 4 0 .8 e v a c u a te d fla t - p la t e
representative collector types were used: 0 .7 e v a c u a te d
• Flat-plate collector (FPC) tube CPC
0 .6
• Evacuated flat-plate collector (EFPC)

e ffic ie n c y
• Evacuated tube collector (ETC) 0 .5
• Evacuated tube collector with external CPC- 0 .4
reflector (Muschaweck et al, 2000)
The collector parameters are given in Table 6. To allow a 0 .3
comparability of the results, all parameters and output 0 .2 fla t p l a t e
results are related to the collector gross area. The
resulting efficiency curves are shown in Fig. 3. 0 .1
I r r a d ia tio n : 1 0 0 0 W / m ²
0 .0
Table 5: Global irradiation for 5 sites on the Iberian 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Peninsula. T - T A M B [K ]

Site Global irradiation (horizontal)

kWh/m²a Fig. 3. Efficiency of the four non-tracking collectors.
Bilbao 1 294 Values are related to collector gross area.
Barcelona 1 445
Madrid 1 664 The calculations for the sites were carried out using
Lisbon 1 686 METEONORM data. Figure 4 shows the yearly energy
Huelva 1 872 yield delivered to the process for the site Barcelona.
Figure 5 gives the results for Huelva.
Table 6: Collector parameters for the four collectors
applied in the simulation. R is the ratio between absorber
area and collector gross area. η0 is the optical efficiency 900

and U1 an U2 are linear and quadratic overall heat loss 800 FPC
coefficients. EFPC
e n e r g y y i e l d [ k W h /m ²]

700 ETC
CPC
Collector R η0 U1 U2 600
[1] [-] [W/m²K] [W/m²K²]
500
FPC 0.89 0.71 3.52 0.0062
EFPC 0.86 0.70 1,08 0.0074 400
ETC 0.72 0.61 0.77 0.0036
300
CPC 0.96 0.62* 0.87* 0
(*) Only valid for normal incidence of the direct 200
irradiation Gd and for Gd ≥ 800 W/m².
100

0
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
For the estimation of the yearly energy supply to an
temperature [°C]
arbitrary process, the following assumptions were made:
• The energy demand of the process is always bigger Fig. 4. Yearly energy yield delivered to a process for the
than the supply of the collector field site Barcelona, depending on the process temperature
• The collector field has a gross area of 1000 m² and (related to gross area).
consists of 10 rows in a distance of 4 m. The
modules are inclined with an angle which is 90% of
 900
Table 8. Collector parameters for the collectors applied
800 FPC in the simulation.
EFPC
700 ETC
CPC Collector R η0 U1 U2
energy yield [kWh/m²]

600 [-] [-] [W/m²K] [W/m²K²]

500 ParabolicTrough 14 0.6931 47.55 0.3128

400
Improved Trough 14 0.76 47.55 0.3128

300
700
Optically Improved

Energy Yield [kWh/m²/a].

200 600 Parabolic Trough
100 500
0 400
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
temperature [°C] 300

Fig. 5. Yearly energy yield delivered to a process for the 200

site Huelva, depending on the process temperature 100 Parabolic Trough Collector
(related to gross area).
0
6.2. One-axis tracking collector 50 100 150 200
The IST parabolic trough has thoroughly been tested and
evaluated by Sandia (Dudley, 1995) and DLR (Krueger et Absorber Fluid Temperature (°C)
al, 2000) for efficiency and durability. Simulations of the Fig. 6. Annual energy yield in Barcelona for parabolic
collectors performance were carried out under the trough as a function of the process temperature
assumptions described in chapter 6.1.. Collector row
distances of 6.9m lead to longer field piping though,
which was included in the simulations. The simulations
1200 Optically Improved
are based on the measurements at DLR (Parabolic
Energy Yield [kWh/m²/a].

Parabolic Trough
Trough). Improvements of the optical performance, 1000
which recently have been discussed (Riffelmann 2000),
would lead to a better incident angle modifier and a 800
higher optical efficiency (Improved Trough). Radiation
600
and collector parameters are presented in Tables 7 and 8.
400
Table 7. Annual direct normal irradiation for Barcelona Parabolic Trough Collector
and Huelva. 200

Site Annual direct normal

0
irradiation (kWh/m²a) 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Barcelona 1312 Absorber Fluid Temperature (°C)
Huelva 2092
Fig. 7. Annual energy yield in Huelva for parabolic
Again the sites Barcelona and Huelva were considered trough as a function of the process temperature.
for simulation of the energy yield (Figures 6 and 7).
Collected energy excluding field piping losses are
presented by the dotted curve. 7. ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS

The trough collector is relatively insensitive to rises in the Table 9 shows the estimated costs for stationary
absorber fluid temperature. This is the consequence of its collectors. Turnkey installation costs of IST troughs for
small receiver surface area, which leads to low heat several existing collector fields are presented in Figure 8.
losses. The trough‘s high energy yield results also from
its tracking system: the trough already catches the sun in
the morning and in the evening.
Table 9. Investment costs for stationary collectors
(related to collector gross are). Included are 0.30
Barcelona CPC

Heat Price [EURO/kWh].

conventional mountings and field piping. 0.25 Barcelona Trough
Collector type Costs in Euro/m² 0.20 Huelva CPC
Evacuated tube ≤ 500
Evacuated flat-plate ≤ 350 0.15 Huelva Trough
Evac. tube with CPC ≤ 400
Flat plate ≤ 250 0.10
0.05

320
0.00
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
300
Absorber Fluid Temperature (°C)
Price [ECU/m²]

280
260
240
220
200
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
Aperture Area [m²]
Fig. 8. Specific costs for turnkey installed IST collector
Maintenance costs include surveillance and cleaning of
the collector and a sum for possible repair costs. They are
assumed to be higher than those of flat plate collectors.
Costs for investment and maintenance for collector fields
of 1000m² area of vacuum pipe collectors with CPC and
parabolic trough collectors (type IST) are compared in
Table 10.
Table 10. Costs assumptions for collector fields of about
1000 m² aperture area
Price Maintenance
installed
Euro/m² Euro/m²*a
Evac. Tube with CPC 400
Trough collector 300
Lifetime: 15 years, Annuity: 0.1168
The heat costs resulting from the annual costs and heat
production are presented in Fig. 9 for the vacuum tube
with CPC and the parabolic trough collector (IST type
including field piping).
Due to the low specific cost of parabolic trough collectors
for larger process heat installations heat costs are lower
than that of stationary collectors also for the lower
temperature range. The latter one however offer better
possibilities for roof integration, so that this technology
might be chosen where no free or low-cost ground area is
available. For applications at 100 ºC heat costs in the
range of 0.04 – 0.12 /kWh are obtained.
Fig. 9. Heat prices as a function of mean collector fluid
temperature
8. INSTEAD OF CONCLUSIONS: FIRST INTERIM
RESULTS OF THE PROJECT POSHIP.
3,000
In February 2000 the project POSHIP (The Potential of
Solar Heat in Industrial Processes) was started within the
5th Framework Programme of the EU with the following
objectives:
• Quantification of the potential of solar heat at
medium temperature level in the Iberian Peninsula
representative for the Southern European climate.
Classification into different temperature levels,
industrial sectors and applied processes.
Identification of the industrial sectors and
processes with most favourable conditions.
• Case studies, analysing the technical and
economical feasibility of solar process heat. From
the cases with best conditions, detailed proposals
for several demonstration projects will be
elaborated.
• Promotion of the use of solar thermal energy in
costs
industry and analysis of present energy policy and
administrative measures with respect to solar
2.5 process heat.
5
Within this project, in April 2000 several factories have
been contacted in Spain and Portugal in the following
sectors: food and beverage (breweries, malt factories,
milk, juices of fruits, meat), paper, textile, automobile,
furniture.
The experience obtained from these first contacts can be
resumed as follows:
• As expected a large technical potential exists in
many industrial sectors.
• The limitation of size for the solar system in most
cases is given by the size of the available roof or
ground area.
• The implementation of solar systems is conditioned
by the expectation on pay-back times and energy
 costs of conventional systems. Actual costs for
thermal energy in industry are of about 0.010
/kWh. As shown in section 7, at present system
costs a competitiveness of solar process heat is
given only if funding of about 3/4 of the investment
or 225 /m2 is obtained. Further reduction of solar
collector costs and increasing fuel prices may
change this situation in the near future.
• The most frequent reason for a rejection of a solar
system is the existence of a combined heat and
power (CHP) system that in many cases produces an
excess of heat. The integration of solar systems into
CHP systems may open an additional field of
application. This possibility has been analysed for
parabolic trough technology by Hennecke et al.
(1998) and for small scale solar tower systems with
heliostats by Marcos Crespo et al. (2000).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been supported by the European Commission,
DG XII, Project number NNE5-1999-0308.
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