Unit 3 Process Data Collection and Presentation: Structure

Statistical Process Control Unit 3
Unit 3 Process Data Collection and Presentation
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Types of Data
On the basis of content
On the basis of data collection methods
3.3 Data Collection
3.4 Bar Charts and Histograms
3.5 Charts and Graphs
3.6 Summary
3.7 Glossary
3.8 Terminal Questions
3.9 Answers
3.10 Case Study
3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you have studied the basic concepts of process and
how to manage different processes of an organisation. To manage its
processes, an organisation needs to collect different types of data. In this
unit, let us study more about data and the methods of collecting data.
Contemporary businesses operate in a data-centered, complex world. Many
businesses have departments like analytics and business intelligence, just
to accumulate, analyse, and interpret data, and extract meaningful
information from it, for their organisation. An organisation requires timely
and accurate data to carry out its operations smoothly, to improve its
processes and business. The data can be collected from various sources
like books, magazines, newspapers etc.
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 45

After collecting data from the above mentioned sources, an organisation has
to analyse it to get substantive information. This data is further presented in
various forms so that it can be easily understood by the users. In order to
achieve this objective an organisation uses various data representation
tools, such as bar charts, histograms, graphs, run charts, etc.
In this unit, you will learn about the definition of data, its significance, and
different types of data. Further, you will learn about the methods of data
collection and various tools for data representation.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the types of data
 list the methods of data collection
 describe the use of bar charts and histograms
 discuss the importance of graphs, run charts, and diagrams
3.2 Types of Data

Data can be simply defined as raw facts, or figures, which have no meaning
until they are processed. The processed form of data is called information.
For example, when you just write ‘12’ on paper, it does not carry any
specific meaning as it is difficult to see what this number can represent.
However, if you write 12 candies, it takes a specific meaning. In this case,
number 12 is data, while 12 candies is information. So, basically, data has
to be processed to extract any substantial information.
Data can be of different types and categories. An organisation needs to
collect different types of data to manage its operations.
Figure 3.1 shows the basis for categorising the data and different types of
data:

Figure 3.1: Types of Data

Figure 3.1 depicts that the data can be classified on the basis of the content
of data and on the basis of the method used for data collection.
On the basis of content, data can be further sub-divided into categorical
data and numerical data. On the other hand, on the basis of data collection
methods, data can be categorised as primary data and secondary data.
Let us discuss these different types of data in detail.
3.2.1 On the basis of content

Here, the word content is used to denote the content of data. You can
receive data in either statement form or numerical form. For example, when
you specify the cost incurred in production, you will bring the data in
numerical form. On the other hand, if you want to identify why people like a
particular product, you will find the data in the statement or descriptive form.
So, on the basis of content, data can be categorised into the following types:
Categorical data
This data is non-numerical and normally descriptive in nature. Put
differently, the collected data is in the form of words or sentences. Mostly
this data has fixed category responses. Categorical data is also known as
qualitative data. As this type of data cannot be subjected to mathematical
calculation, other techniques such as scaling and coding are used for its
analysis.
Let us consider some of the techniques that can be applied to the
categorical data:

Scaling involving the use of Likert method: This method consists of a

number of statements that express either positive or adverse feeling toward
any topic or idea. The user has to select a particular response from the
given statements. This type of method is commonly employed in
understanding social attitudes and behaviour of an individual.
Figure 3.2 depicts an example of Likert scale:
Figure 3.2: Example of Likert Scale

Figure 3.2 represents 16 questions that need to be answered by the

employees of an organisation by ranking them on a 7-pointer scale, which is
categorised as strongly disagree, neither, and strongly agree. The employee
needs to put a check mark in the block, which he/she prefers. These
questions would help in determining the perception of an employee about
his/her organisation, which will further identify the effectiveness of an
organisation.
Rank order scaling: In this particular method, the respondents are asked to
rank their choices according to their preferences.
Table 3.1 depicts a case of rank order scaling.
Table 3.1: Example of Rank Order Scaling
Items Choices
A 3
B 6
C 1
D 4
E 2
F 5
In the preceding example, 6 items are shown. The respondent was asked to
rank the items as per his/her preference. On the basis of the responses
given, item C is most preferred and item B is least preferred by the
respondent.
Rating Scale: According to this method, only one qualitative aspect is
evaluated in absolute terms. This method judges qualitative aspect of a
person or object on a rating scale. The rating scale indicates ratings as
above average, average, below average, excellent, and good.
An example of the rating scale method is given below.
How do you rate the new model of Dell laptop? Please select an option from
the choices below.

Excellent
Good
Neutral
Dislike Somewhat
Dislike too Much
Numerical data
This data is numerical in nature, and hence can be measured and
computed. Numerical data is also known as quantitative data. Examples of
numeric data can be population of a country, number of persons living
below the poverty line, or the production target for the quarter of a company,
etc. This type of data can be subjected to statistical calculations, such as
finding the average age of students, the percentage of the population living
below the poverty line, etc.
Some of the statistical techniques that can be applied on the quantitative

data are:
 Descriptive statistics
 Analysis of variance
A detailed explanation of all the aforesaid methods is provided in the

subsequent units.
3.2.2 On the basis of data collection methods

Data can be collected through different methods like observation,
questionnaire, and interviews and so on. Hence, on the basis of collection
methods, data can be categorised into the two major types, which are:
Primary data
It is the type of data that is collected for a specific purpose directly from the
respondents. This data does not have any prior existence and is collected

through personal interactions, surveys, questionnaires and other methods.

Primary data can be quantitative as well as qualitative.
For example, if you want to determine the changing tastes and preferences
of customers regarding a newly launched product, you can gather data
through surveys and interviews. This is because you would not find any
published data on this topic since the product is newly launched.
Some of the advantages of the primary data collection method are:
 It provides updated information about a topic.
 In primary data collection, the researcher has greater control over the
research and the type of method they used for data collection.
 In this method, the errors and defects can be rectified at the point of
origin.
Some of the disadvantages of the primary data collection method are:

 The collection of primary data is a time consuming process.
 An organisation has to incur the high cost and efforts in this method.
 The data collected is not free from bias.
Secondary data
The data collected from the sources such as government reports,
newspapers, magazines, internet, journals, etc. is called secondary data.
For example, if you want to determine the effectiveness of the selling

process of an organisation, you can identify this by capturing and analysing
data from sales records of the organisation.
Some of the advantages of the secondary data collection method are:
 It requires lesser time, cost, and resources.
 This data can be used even by people who did not collect this data
initially.

 Similar data can be used by several people at a given time, as the data
is publically available.
Some of the disadvantages of the secondary data collection method are:

 In this method, there is no privacy of data.
 The accuracy of secondary data cannot be guaranteed.
Self Assessment Questions:

1. Data is raw facts and figures. (True/False)
2. Information is unprocessed data. (True/False)
3. Data has to be valid in order to generate some useful information.
(True/False)
4. The data that has been collected from data published in the past is
known as __________.
5. The data that has been obtained from government reports is a
__________.
6. Secondary data can be used even by people who did not collect this
data initially. (True/False)
7. __________ data is the data that is collected for a specific purpose
directly from the respondents.
3.3 Data Collection

There are various methods to collect data, depending on one’s study
conducted, and procedures applied. Let us look at these methods in detail in
the following section.
Methods to collect primary data

The following are some of the commonly used methods for collecting
primary data, as depicted in Figure 3.3:

Figure 3.3: Methods to Collect Primary Data

Now let us study each of these methods of primary data collection in detail.
Observation method
The observation method helps in studying the behaviour of individuals in a
situation, the reason for their behaviour, and the impact of their behaviour
on other individuals and society.
For example, you observe that in a retail showroom some people are buying
products while some people are not buying anything. In this case, you would
try to find out the reasons behind why and how some people buy products
and why some people do not buy anything. You may also notice the
behaviour of a shopkeeper with people.
The advantages of using an observation method are as follows:
 It helps in getting unbiased responses from the respondents in most of
the cases.
 It provides accurate data for research.
 It helps in getting the relevant data.
The disadvantages of using an observation method are as follows:

 This method can only be used to study present scenarios and not past
data.
 Difficult to judge the attitudes of respondents.

Face-to-face interviews
In this method, the data is collected by directly meeting respondents in
person. In this approach, the interviewer sits in front of the person to whom
he/she is meeting and asks questions, as depicted in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Face-to-Face Interview

The advantages of this method of data collection are:
 Greater confidentiality of data.
 Greater accuracy of data.
 Generally provides a true picture of an on-going scenario.
The disadvantages of this method of data collection are:

 Greater chances of biasness from the interviewer.
 The chances of collecting inappropriate data in the case, the interviewee

or the interviewer are not in a relaxed frame of mind.
 It is a time consuming process.

Indirect interviews
Indirect interview is a method adopted by organisations when they are
unable to produce the correct responses through face-to-face interview.
Such a situation may arise due to several factors, such as:
 Large size of population
 Incorrect responses from the respondents
In indirect interview, the respondents are asked to describe an ambiguous

situation, which helps in analysing the attitude and behaviour of a
respondent.
For example, the interviewer may ask the respondent to describe the
feature of a person who rides bike on a daily basis. While describing the
features of a biker, the respondent would involve a projection of his/her own
personality, attitudes, values, and beliefs.
The techniques used in indirect interviews are called projective techniques,
which include word association technique and a sentence or picture
completion. In the word association technique, a list of well-known words
relating to quality characteristics under study is given, and the respondents
have to associate these words with the different brands. Similarly in the
story, a sentence or picture completion, an incomplete story, sentence, or
picture is given and the respondents have to complete it.
The advantages of indirect interview are as follows:
 It reduces biases in the data.
 It can be applied to collect additional data apart from the data required
for the main purpose.
 It can be used to collect data that is of varied nature.
The disadvantages of indirect interview are as follows:

 It takes an expert to make inferences from the collected data.
 There is no technique to cross-check the validity of the data.

Third-party agencies
In this method, the entire research process is outsourced to agencies.
These agencies are entirely responsible for the complete process of data
collection, evaluation, and output determination.
For example, an organisation hires a consultancy firm to optimise its
production process. In such an example, the consultancy firm will first
understand the scope of work and study the process utilised for performing
it. After that, the firm will have to collect data related to the number of inputs
required for producing a particular number of outputs. This would assist the
firm to know the productivity of the organisation. Based on this data, the
consultancy firm will take the necessary steps to optimise the production
process of the organisation.
The advantages of this method are as follows:
 The data is highly secure as the third-party agency would ensure that
the collected data should not be misused or leaked as it would directly
affect its goodwill in the market and results in loss of customers.
 The gathered data can be used to outline strategies to gain competitive

advantages.
The disadvantages of this method are as follows:

 Hiring a third-party agency would involve the high cost of the
organisation.
 If the third-party agency’s team comprises inexperienced individuals,

then the process results in a waste of time and money.
Questionnaire
In this method, data is collected through a questionnaire, which consists of
open-ended, closed-ended, dichotomous, and multiple-choice questions.
The questionnaires are either mailed or directly supplied to the respondent.
The respondent is required to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire to the researcher. It is very important to design a
questionnaire appropriately to produce the desired results.

The designing of the questionnaire goes through several phases, which are
shown in Figure 3.5:
Defining the Deciding the Writing a Evaluating a

objectives of a type of questionnaire questionnaire
questionnaire questions
Figure 3.5: Phases of Designing a Questionnaire

Let us look at the phases of designing a questionnaire in detail:
Defining objectives of the questionnaire: Refers to specify the purpose of
a questionnaire. It is important to define the objectives of a questionnaire to
get relevant information from the respondents. The objectives should be
realistic and achievable in a given period. In this phase, the manager
identifies the target respondents based on the objective of the research.
Deciding types of questions: Refers to the phase that determines the kind
of questions to be included in a questionnaire. The questions are broadly
separated into two categories: open-ended and closed-ended. Open-ended
questions do not have fixed responses; therefore, the respondents are free
to answer as they feel. These questions help in judging the beliefs,
behaviour, and motivations of the respondents. An example of an open-
ended question is, “Do you think training is important for an organisation?
Give reasons for your answer.” In close-ended questions, responses are
already provided for and the respondents need to select the most
appropriate response.
Following is an example of close-ended questions:

1. Working with PERT technique is easier than working with Gantt chart.
 Strongly Agree
 Agree
 Neutral

 Disagree
 Strongly Disagree
These questions are easy to code that is why preferred by the managers.
However, for getting in-depth knowledge, open-ended questions are
preferred. In this phase, it needs to be decided that how the questionnaire
should be segmented to make the processing and analysis of data easier. In
addition, segmenting reduces the chances of skipping any topic, which has
to be included in the questionnaire.
Drafting the questionnaire: Refers to the third phase in which the

questionnaire is set up. While setting up a questionnaire following points
should be observed:
 A questionnaire should include a limited number of questions. Ensure

that the wording and format of the questionnaire should be
uncomplicated.
 Do not use any technical words in the questionnaire.
 Provide a ranking description in every question of ranking order scale.
 Provide a ranking description in every question of ranking order scale.
For example, rate the following tools of process control on a scale of 1–

5 according to your viewpoint.
(5 stand for excellent, 4 for good, 3 for fine, 2 for fair, and 1 for poor.)
i. a
ii. b
iii. c
iv. d
v. e
 Use as many scaling questions as possible because such questions can
be quantified easily and help in coding and analysing the questionnaire
effectively.

 Find out whether the questions would be able to fulfill the research
objective or not.
 Start the questionnaire from simple questions and then move on to the
complex questions.
Evaluating questionnaire: Refers to assess the effectiveness of the

questionnaire. One of the ways to evaluate a questionnaire is to do a pilot
test by distributing the questionnaire to a group of people and analyse their
responses. Then, check whether their responses are meeting the objectives
of the questionnaire or not. If the responses meet the objective, then the
questionnaire is fit to be used. Otherwise, the questionnaire needs to be re-
fitted and the questions need to be rectified.
The advantages of a questionnaire are as follows:

 They give a fair amount of time to the respondent to answer the
questions.
 The quality of response from the respondent is of very high quality.
 Questions can be of varied types and the response can generate even
greater or new insight.
The disadvantages of a questionnaire are as follows:

 The questions can be interpreted incorrectly and hence wrong or
inadequate response may be given by the respondent.
 This method is applicable over a longer time frame.
 This method is applicable exclusively to users who understand the

language in which questions are put.
An illustration of the questionnaire is shown in Figure 3.6:

Figure 3.6: Example of Questionnaire

Figure 3.6 represents the example of a questionnaire for assessing the
customer service of an organisation. This would assist in improving the
quality of service of an organisation.
Surveys
Surveys are another means of data collection. In a survey method, a group
of prospective respondents is selected from the population on which
research is conducted. This group of people is either provided with a
questionnaire on which they fill up their responses or they are interviewed
as a group or at individual basis to get their opinion on the topic under
research study. On the basis of these responses, the manager draws
inferences about the population.

Figure 3.7 shows an example of a survey:
Topic: Studying the Gap between the

Consumption and Availability of Electricity
The government hired about 100 enumerators in a state to know the
problem of electricity at the grass root level. These enumerators are
divided into 10 equal groups and each group made separate questionnaire
and then discussed and selected a single questionnaire after some
modifications. The selected questionnaire is presented as follows:
State government project related to electricity
This is a project by the state government to study the requirement of
electricity in different parts of the state. All the details filled in the
questionnaire would be used for the research purpose only. Please tick (√)
in the given boxes according to your choice.
Name………………………………………………………………………………
Age……………………………………………………………….…………………
Address……………………………………………………………………………
…
Q1. Do you have electricity in your home/office?
Yes No
Please Specify…………...…………………………………………………
(If No, then go to Q7)
Q2. Is there any electricity cut at your home/office?
Yes No
Please Specify……………………………………………………………….
Q3. What is the duration of electricity cut?
½ an hour 1 hour 2 hour Other specify………..………
……………………………………………………………………………….

Q4. How much time the government officers take to address the problem
of electricity failure in your area?
Same day
Two days
One week
No action is taken (even in a month)
Q5. Do you think certain areas in your city always have electricity?
Yes No
Q6. Can you give reasons why there is electricity in certain parts of the city
for a longer time, as compared to other parts?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Q7. Some people steal/waste electricity. Do you agree with this point?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Q8. Do you think the government should organise some programs to
encourage people to save electricity?
Yes No
Q9. Can you suggest some measures for preserving electricity?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Figure 3.7: Example of Survey

Respondents need to fill up the survey form given in Figure 3.7. In Figure
3.7, the first four questions provide knowledge about the parts of the state
that have electricity and the electricity consumption rate of these parts.
Enumerators have also studied the frequency of power cuts and the time
taken to address this problem. The final five questions help the enumerators
in knowing the availability of electricity, its misuse by some people, and
ways to conserve electricity.
The advantages of surveys are:
 Large sample size of data available with surveys.
 A single survey may focus on various topics.
The disadvantages of surveys are:

 The entire process is time consuming.
 If the questions are set incorrectly, the results are erroneous.
Sources of secondary data

Secondary data is obtained from secondary sources. Various means of
obtaining secondary data are shown in Figure 3.8:
Sources of
Secondary
Data
Published Unpublished
Sources Sources
Figure 3.8: Sources of Secondary Data

Now let us look at these sources in brief.
Published sources: These are resources which are published under some
official agency like government publications, and research reports supported
by various recognised bodies.
Unpublished sources: These are the reports, which are published by
various private bodies. For example, research reports published by private
agencies.


8. Unpublished reports are an example of primary data. (True/False)
9. The survey is an example of secondary data. (True/False)
10. The questionnaire is advantageous when there are a large number of
people participating. (True/False)
11. Primary data collection is a time-consuming activity. (True/False)
Activity 1:
Identify the methods used by an organisation for data collection in order to
determine the effectiveness of the procurement process of a
manufacturing organisation.
3.4 Bar Charts and Histograms

After collecting the data, it needs to be represented in a tabular form to
make the further analysis of data easier. The process of representing data
in the form of a table is called tabulation. For tabulation, you should define
the frequencies of the collected data.
Frequency is the number of times a particular value or the attribute has
occurred in the entire data set.
There are three types of frequencies:
Absolute frequency: It is the exact frequency given by respondents.
Relative frequency: It is calculated with relation to the frequency of the
other class interval. It is the percentage of all respondents who have given a
particular response. Relative frequency can be computed by the following
formula:
Relative frequency = Absolute frequency/Total frequency
Cumulative frequency: It is the percentage of all respondents who have
given a response equal or less than a particular value. Cumulative
frequency can be calculated by adding up the relative frequency of the
present class interval (whose cumulative frequency we are calculating) and
the relative frequency for the following class interval.

A tabular representation of data that describes the number of times a

particular attribute has occurred in the data set is called frequency
distribution.
There are two types of frequency distribution, namely:
One-way frequency distribution
In this type of frequency distribution, a single variable is analysed.
Table 3.2 depicts an example of one-way frequency distribution:
Table 3.2: One-Way Frequency Distribution
Age Groups Number of Persons Relative Cumulative
(Class (Frequency or Frequency (%) Relative
Interval) Absolute Frequency (%)
Frequency)
20–30 10 17.86 17.86
30–40 14 25.00 42.86
40–50 20 35.71 78.57
50 and above 12 21.43 100.00
Total 56 100 100
In Table 3.2, age group is taken as a variable and different types of

frequencies are calculated. For instance, in Table 3.2, different types of
frequencies for the age group 30-40 can be determined as follows:
Given,
Absolute frequency = 14
Total frequency = 56
So, relative frequency = 25.00 (14/56x100)
To calculate the cumulative frequency for 30–40 age groups, the relative
frequency of 20–30 age groups is required, which is 17.86.
Thus, the cumulative frequency in case of 30–40 age group
= 42.86 (17.86+25.00).

Multi-way frequency distribution

In this type of frequency distribution, multiple variables are analysed. It is
also known as cross tabulation.
Now, let us look at an example multi- way frequency distribution.
An organisation conducted an inspection experiment by using two
machining operations for deciding whether to accept material 1 or material
2. Table 3.3 shows the number of items of material 1 and material 2 are
rejected after conducting the operations on a sample of 548 separately on
the two machines:
Table 3.3: Data for Cross Tabulation
Material Rejected during the
Inspection
Treatment Number of Number of Total
(Machining Rejected Items Rejected Items
Operations) of Material 1 of Material 2
(Kgs.) (Kgs.)
Machine 1 100 98 198
Machine 2 200 150 350
Total 300 248 548
Table 3.4 shows the frequency distribution of the data (cross tabulation)
shown in Table 3.3:
Table 3.4: Frequency Distribution of Two Variables
Frequencies Number of Number of Total
Rejected Rejected
Items of Items of
Material 1 Material 2
(Kgs.) (Kgs.)
Machine 1 Absolute 100 98 198
Frequency
Percentage 18.25% 17.88% 36.13%
(Relative

Frequencies Number of Number of Total

Rejected Rejected
Items of Items of
Material 1 Material 2
(Kgs.) (Kgs.)
Frequency)
Row 50.50% 49.49% 100%
Percentage
Column 33.33% 39.52%
Percentage
Machine 2 Absolute 200 150 350
Frequency
Percentage 36.50% 27.37% 63.87%
(Relative
Frequency)
Row 57.14% 42.86% 100%
Percentage
Column 66.66% 60.48%
Percentage
Total Frequency 300 248 548
Row 54.74% 45.25% 100%
Percentage
Column 100% 100%
Percentage
Table 3.4 shows the absolute and relative frequency of material 1 and
material 2 on the two machines. Relative frequency is calculated by dividing
the absolute frequency by the grand total.
For example, on machine 1, the absolute frequency for the number of
rejected items of material 1 is 100 and the grand total frequency is 548.
Thus, the relative frequency is 18.25% (100/548x100).

In cross tabulation, we also need to compute the row and column

percentages of absolute frequencies.
For example, on machine 1, the frequency for the number of rejected items
of material 2 is 98 and the total row frequency is 198. Therefore, the row
percentage would be 49.49% (98/198x100). If we calculate the column
percentage of material 2 on machine 1, then it would be 39.52%
(98/248x100), where 98 is the frequency of the number of rejected items of
material 2 and 248 is the total column frequency.
Using the frequency distributions, you can represent data in various other
forms so that it can be easily understood by the audience (includes
customers, subordinates, colleagues, top management, or other employees
of an organisation) and the respective actions can be taken.
The following are some of the other means in which the data may be
presented:
Bar diagrams
A bar chart is a way of condensing a set category of data. It uses
rectangular bars of the same width representing a particular item. The
height of each bar is proportional to the value of data that is being
presented. A bar graph may be horizontal or vertical. There can be various
types of bar diagram, such as compound bar diagrams, multiple bar
diagram, two dimensional bar diagram, etc.
Figure 3.9 shows an example of a bar diagram:
Figure 3.9: An Example of Bar Diagram

In Figure 3.9, data show different commodity production in the year 2007 by
UK. For example, 14000 metric tons of cow milk was produced in the year
2007 for UK whereas the barley production was less than 6000 metric tons.
Histogram
A histogram is a way of displaying data graphically using bars of different
heights. Though it is similar to a bar graph, a histogram groups number into
ranges. It represents data by plotting a graph. A histogram represents the
distribution of grouped data. A grouped data is a series of data that is
constructed when the quantity of data is very large.
Figure 3.10 shows an example of a histogram:
Figure 3.10: An Example of Histogram

In Figure 3.10, a range of scores of students is displayed in bar in
comparison to their number. Hence in the range of 0-20 marks, there are 5
students. Similarly in the range of 80-100 marks, there are 22 students.

12. ___________ is a simple form of representation of data when the
data values are to be compared on a single parameter or a single
characteristic.
13. A histogram represents the distribution of grouped data. (True/False)

Activity 2:
Prepare a one-way frequency distribution table and a histogram of the
following data:
3.5 Charts and Graphs

From the above discussion, you can read that there are various ways in
which a data can be represented. In addition to this, data can also be
presented in tabular or graphical forms. The following are some more ways
in which the data can be represented:
Pie chart
It is a graphical representation of data in which the percentage of
contribution of the individual source is depicted on the whole.
Figure 3.11 shows an example of a pie chart:
Figure 3.11: An Example of Pie Chart

Figure 3.11 depicts the individual percentage contribution of each aspect

like renewable energy, emission reduction, recycling waste management of
the environment as a whole.
Frequency polygon
It is a line graph made by joining the mid-points of the top of the bars in a
histogram.
Figure 3.12 depicts an example of frequency polygon, where a line linking
all the mid-points of the bars has been drawn:
Figure 3.12: An Example of Frequency Polygon

Ogive
An Ogive is a distribution curve depicting continuous cumulative data in a
frequency polygon. Normally an Ogive curve has a shape of an extended
“S”.
Figure 3.13 depicts an example of Ogive curve which is the S-shaped line
made by connecting the data points:

Figure 3.13: An Example of Ogive

14. __________ is a graphical representation of data in which the
percentage of contribution of the individual source is depicted on the
whole.
15. Ogive is a distribution curve in which the frequencies represented are
in cumulative form. (True/False)
3.6 Summary
Let us recapitulate the main points discussed in the unit:
 Data are raw facts or figures that are processed for determining
meaningful information.
 There can be two types of data on the basis of content and methods
used to collect data.
 On the basis of content, data can be of two types, namely categorical

data and numerical data.
 On the basis of data collection methods, data is classified as primary

and secondary data.
 Primary data is collected for a specific purpose directly from the

respondents.

 Secondary data is collected for purposes other than research and is

reused by the researchers.
 The methods for collecting primary data include face-to-face interviews,

indirect interviews, third-party agencies, questionnaire, etc.
 The sources of collecting secondary data are published sources like

government publications and unpublished sources like reports published
by private agencies.
 Frequency is the number of times a particular value or the attribute has

occurred in the entire data set. There are three types of frequencies
absolute, relative, and cumulative.
 The frequency distribution is the tabular representation of frequency.

There are two types of frequency distribution one-way frequency
distribution and multi-way frequency distribution.
 Various tools for data representation are bar diagrams, histograms, pie
charts, frequency polygons, etc.
3.7 Glossary
Let us have an overview of the important terms mentioned in the unit:
Frequency: It represents the number of times a particular value or the
attribute has occurred in the entire set.
Frequency Distribution: It is a tabular representation of data that
describes the number of times a particular attribute has occurred in the
whole.
Respondent: A person who assists in collecting primary data by providing
his/her responses.
Primary Data: It is the data which is obtained from the first-hand account
meaning on the basis of first-hand history.
Secondary Data: It is the data which has already been collected and which
is now being employed for some other purpose.

3.8 Terminal Questions

1. Compare between primary and secondary data.
2. What are indirect interviews? Briefly describe.
3. Explain the role of third-party agencies in data collection. Support your
answer with an example.
4. Prepare a questionnaire for the customers, to judge the performance of
a newly launched skin cream.
5. Prepare a bar diagram for representing the quality of material in a
sample of 150 items using the following data:
Quality of Material Market Share

High 50
Moderate 60
Low 25
Defectives 15
6. Prepare a pie chart for the following data:
Automobile Organisations Market Share

A 60%
B 25%
C 10%
D 5%
3.9 Answers
Self Assessment Questions

1. True
2. False
3. True
4. Secondary data

5. Secondary data
6. True
7. Primary
8. False
9. False
10. True
11. True
12. Bar diagram
13. Histogram
14. Pie chart
15. True
Terminal Questions
1. Primary data is collected directly from the respondents. Secondary data
is collected for purposes other than research and is reused by
researchers. Refer Section 3.2 Types of Data, which defines primary
data.
2. Indirect interviews are utilized when the researcher is not able to obtain
the right answers from the face-to-face interviews. Refer Section 3.3
Data Collection, which elaborates on indirect interviews.
3. Third-party agencies are hired by organisations to collect data for

conducting research when the population under study is very large.
Refer Section 3.3 Data Collection, which sheds light on third-party
agencies.
4. In questionnaire method data is gathered through a series of questions-

open ended, close ended, multiple choice etc. Refer Section 3.3 Data
Collection, which elaborates on the questionnaire method and
designing.

5. Bar charts involve the use of rectangular bars of the same width for
representing a particular point. Refer Section 3.4 Bar Charts and
Histograms, which explains bar diagrams.
6. Pie charts are the graphical representation of data in which the

percentage of contribution of the individual source is rendered to the
whole. Refer Section 3.5 Charts and Graphs, which discusses pie
charts.
3.10 Case Study

Problem of Flow of Information
PR Pvt. Ltd. was facing a problem of rejection of materials by buyers, due to
which, the organisation was incurring losses because its sales were
declining. Regarding the ongoing situation, PR Pvt. Ltd hired a research
agency to determine the reasons behind the problem. The research agency
started the research work. Since PR was a big organisation and the reason
for failure could be anything; therefore, the research agency could not rely
upon a single method of data collection. The research team started
observing employees of the production department to analyse their
behaviour. They also interviewed their supervisors to know the interpersonal
relations of the production team members. The researchers did not see
anything wrong with the production team. The product dispatched was also
of good quality. Then, they applied psychometric tests on the heads of every
department. Simultaneously, they distributed questionnaires to their buyers
to detect the exact problem.
The findings of the research agency were as follows:

 A communication gap existed among the heads of the department.
 Lack of smooth flow of information between the organisation and its

buyers.
 The longest time taken for dispatching material, which created

unnecessary delays in the delivery of materials.

The findings made by the research team showed that the buyers were
rejecting the organisation’s materials due to various reasons. The findings
made by the research team showed that the buyers were rejecting the
organisation’s materials due to various reasons. For instance, they were not
getting the delivery of materials on time or their queries were taking a longer
time to get settled.
After receiving feedback from the researchers, the HR team of the

organisation started planning for some activities.
Firstly, to increase the interaction among the members of different

departments, they arranged some interactive games, and programmes
among the departments. The HR team also suggested holding monthly
meetings to know about the activities of different departments. These
measures proved helpful, and improved interaction and coordination among
different departments. This resulted in smooth flow of information among the
different departments and the different departments of the organisation start
working together to solve the problems of the customers and provide them
the best service, which thereby brings the system back on the growth track.
Questions:
1. Which are the different methods of data collection used in the case
study?
2. Discuss the different types of data.
References
 Montgomery, D. C. (2002), Introduction to Statistical Quality Control.
Daryaganj, New Delhi: Wiley India (P.) Ltd.
 Flood, R. B. (1993), Beyond TQM. West Sussex, England: John Wiley &
Sons Ltd.

E-References
 Types of data: Statistics. Retrieved from
http://arb.nzcer.org.nz/supportmaterials/maths/Types_of_data_statistics.
pdf
 Data Types. Retrieved from

http://pages.csam.montclair.edu/~mcdougal/SCP/D_types.htm
 Data Collection. Retrieved from

http://ori.hhs.gov/education/products/n_illinois_u/datamanagement/dctop
ic.html
 Data Collection. Retrieved from

http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/navy/bpi_manual/mod7-
datacoll.pdf

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Statistical Process Control Unit 3

Unit 3 Process Data Collection and Presentation

Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 45

 list the methods of data collection

 describe the use of bar charts and histograms

 discuss the importance of graphs, run charts, and diagrams

3.2 Types of Data

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Figure 3.1: Types of Data

3.2.1 On the basis of content

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Scaling involving the use of Likert method: This method consists of a

Figure 3.2: Example of Likert Scale

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Figure 3.2 represents 16 questions that need to be answered by the

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Dislike too Much

Some of the statistical techniques that can be applied on the quantitative

A detailed explanation of all the aforesaid methods is provided in the

3.2.2 On the basis of data collection methods

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through personal interactions, surveys, questionnaires and other methods.

Some of the advantages of the primary data collection method are:

 It provides updated information about a topic.

Some of the disadvantages of the primary data collection method are:

 The data collected is not free from bias.

For example, if you want to determine the effectiveness of the selling

Some of the advantages of the secondary data collection method are:

 It requires lesser time, cost, and resources.

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Some of the disadvantages of the secondary data collection method are:

 The accuracy of secondary data cannot be guaranteed.

Self Assessment Questions:

3.3 Data Collection

Methods to collect primary data

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Figure 3.3: Methods to Collect Primary Data

 It provides accurate data for research.

 It helps in getting the relevant data.

The disadvantages of using an observation method are as follows:

 Difficult to judge the attitudes of respondents.

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Figure 3.4: Face-to-Face Interview

 Greater accuracy of data.

 Generally provides a true picture of an on-going scenario.

The disadvantages of this method of data collection are:

 The chances of collecting inappropriate data in the case, the interviewee

 It is a time consuming process.

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 Incorrect responses from the respondents

In indirect interview, the respondents are asked to describe an ambiguous

 It can be used to collect data that is of varied nature.

The disadvantages of indirect interview are as follows:

 There is no technique to cross-check the validity of the data.

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 The gathered data can be used to outline strategies to gain competitive

The disadvantages of this method are as follows:

 If the third-party agency’s team comprises inexperienced individuals,

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Defining the Deciding the Writing a Evaluating a

Figure 3.5: Phases of Designing a Questionnaire

Following is an example of close-ended questions:

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