Audio Engineering Society

Convention Paper 6520

Presented at the 118th Convention
2005 May 28–31 Barcelona, Spain
This convention paper has been reproduced from the author's advance manuscript, without editing, corrections, or consideration
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Journal of the Audio Engineering Society.

Active Acoustic Absorption and Reflection

Peter A. Swarte
P.A.S. Electro-acoustics,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands
e-mail: paswarte@cs.com

Abstract
The subject called "Active Absorption and Reflection" has already been theoretically discussed during one of the
scientific sessions in 1986 of the Dutch Acoustical Society (NAG) in Delft, The Netherlands. The idea behind the
subject was led down in a pending US patent. The patent has been granted to Philips in Dec.1987.
The principle with the possible applications is described in publication nr 84 of the NAG d.d. April 1987.
Many others have investigated the phenomenon: a search on the Internet delivered in 2001 all publications of the
Drittes Physikalisches Institut of the University of Göttingen, Germany. A lot of these publications had underwater
acoustics as application field.

It was not an easy matter to give proof of the feasibility of the idea at that time. Nowadays, the technical possibilities
to do investigations and to gather convincing results have dramatically improved.
With the help of adequate software implemented on a high quality personal computer and a special acoustical set up,
the measurements can be performed in order to collect results that give a convincing support to the theoretical
background. Two types of transducers i.c. a dynamic and an electrostatic (electret) transducer have been
investigated.
The transducers are an element of an electronic positive or a negative feed back circuit.

The feed back circuit has to adapt the reflecting or absorbing nature of the diaphragms of the transducers to the
desired degree of acoustic absorption or reflection. It is obvious that, at the same time, the transmitting properties of
the diaphragms are also influenced. This phenomenon was in fact not a subject of this feasibility study. But a quick
investigation has shown that the transmission of sound is indeed influenced by the feed back control circuit.
In this feasibility study, the measurement set up and the results are explained and discussed.

The results are encouraging. But this is only the beginning; a couple of investigations must be executed in order to
arrive at a manageable product. The products are expected to cover a wide range of acoustic and electro-acoustic
applications.
Swarte Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection

1. INTRODUCTION 2. SET UP

The following text and the figures 1 and 9 are taken The idea behind the set up of the measuring device
from the original patent document nr. 4,712,247 dd. was to be able to do the measurements in
Dec. 8, 1987. independence of the acoustic environment.

The investigations are executed with a capacitive

(electret) and electro-dynamic transducer type, as
said before. One half of an electret headset has been
used. This kind of transducers has the advantage of
a resonance at high frequencies; they are stiffness
driven. The diaphragm has a very low moving mass
compared with the one of a dynamic transducer. The
analogue electrical circuit of the electret transducer
shows easy to apply properties below the resonance

Transducer
under test

Microphone

195
213,5*)
An
electro-acoustic arrangement comprises an
amplifier (4) having a first input terminal (5), a
second input terminal (5'), a first output terminal
(3), a second output terminal (3'), and a series
arrangement of a first impedance (1) and an
Excitation
electro-acoustic transducer unit (2) is coupled to the ø11
output terminals (3, 3'). At least the first impedance loudspeaker
(1) is also coupled to the input terminals (5, 5') of
the amplifier. The gain factor (A) of the amplifier Measures in cm
for a signal applied to the first and second input * depends on t.u.t coupler
terminals (5) and/or the impedance value Z1 of the
first impedance may be variable. This arrangement Fig. 2.1. Test set up (see text).
influences the acoustic properties of a space, such
frequency. The dynamic transducers, on the
as the reverberation time. By means of such an
contrary, have resonances at relatively low
arrangement (FIG. 1) and in particular by means of
frequencies; they are mass driven. The analogue
a system (FIG. 9) comprising a plurality of such
electrical circuit may be rather complicated,
arrangements, the acoustic properties of a space,
especially at higher frequencies.
such as the reverberation time, can be influenced.
Both transducers must be able to be acoustically
The goal of this study is to prove the feasibility of
coupled to a loudspeaker-microphone combination
this concept and to give push to further
in order to measure the quality and quantity of the
investigations and developments. The results of this
acoustic reflection and absorption. The mechanic-
study are an invitation to execute follow-up studies.

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Swarte
acoustic set up is shown in figure 2.1. and consists
of a tube of approximately 2 meter length and 0,11
m inner diameter.
The excitation loudspeaker sends the acoustical test
signal into the tube. This signal is firstly received by
the microphone.
After a while the microphone receives the reflected
signal from the transducer under test (t.u.t.).
The distance between the transducer under test and
the microphone depends on the mechanical structure
of the t.u.t. and the set up.
The microphone output is connected to the line
input of the measurement device (see below).
The set up is tested with a closed end and open end
at the place of the t.u.t.. The workability of this
approach is proven in chapter 6.
This process is repeated with and without t.u.t. and
under several conditions of electronic control of the
t.u.t..
Due to the fact that the distance between the
microphone and the t.u.t. is short, a computer is used
to analyze and compare the signals taken under the
indicated conditions. The computer compares the
incident sound wave with the reflected sound wave.
The test signals used are of the wellknown MLS or
e-sweep type. In chapter 3 the ratio of the incident
and reflected magnitudes is given.
Fig. 2.2. Test set up equipment with
Figure 2.2. offers pictures of the parts of the set up.
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Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection
3. THE COMPARISON OF TWO IMPULSE
RESPONSES
For perpendicular incidence of the sound, the
following expression is valid for determining the
ratio between the reflected sound component and the
incident sound component per one-third octave
band:
F [t.hr (t ).wr (t )] df
2
∫
∆f
R( I ) = [-]
∫ F [t.hi (t ).wi (t )] df
2
∆f
Where:
- R(I)
is the Reflection Index as a function of
frequency in a one-third octave band
- hr(t) is the reflected component of the
impulse response with t.u.t.
- wr(t) is the reflected component time
window
- hi(t) is the reference free-field component
of the impulse response taken in the open
pipe situation, so without t.u.t.
- wi(t) is the incident reference free-field
component time window
- F is the symbol of the Fourier transform
- df is the width of the one-third octave
frequency band under consideration
- t is the onset time of the impulse response
acquired by the measurement set up
The computer executes a numerical operation on
this relationship. This process offers the opportunity
to derive a magnitude diagram of the impulse
response per 1/3, 1/1 octave or a broader band. The
magnitude is taken from the FFT frequency
characteristic. Within the relevant frequency band
the samples are squared and summed. The
proportion of both magnitudes results in the
reflection index.
This technique opens the possibility to analyse the
impulse responses taken under the different control
conditions of the transducer under test. In chapters 7
and 8, this process is used for the derivation of the
reflection figures.
Swarte Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection

4. THE BASIC CONTROL CIRCUIT The resistor R is the element about what the voltage
drop is realised when the diaphragm of the t.u.t. is
hit by the incident sound wave. This voltage is
The principle of the control circuit is already shown filtered and fed to the positive or negative input of
in the introduction and to be more specific in the the amplifier. For this feasibility study the resistor R
abstract of the described patent document. In order was chosen as the feed back element. With the
to reach a better stability, a filter section has been positive c.q. negative input, only a 180o phase shift
added (see fig. 4.1.). could be realised. In section 7.3., this circuit will be
A filter is implemented in order to avoid undesired discussed.
oscillations.
The limiting factors for this study are consequently
Amplifier the resistor, the filter setting, the positive and
negative input setting and the amplification factor.
?+/- These four settings are too rough in order to achieve
the intended properties of the transducer. With the
R help of signal processing hardware more degrees of
Transd. freedom may be achieved.

Filte
Fig. 4.1. The basic control circuit.

Fig. 5.1.1. Impedance curve of the electret transducer taken with constant current. Horizontal
axis: frequency, vertical axis: 30 dB scale.

Fig.5.1.2. Impedance curve of the dynamic loudspeaker taken with constant current.
Horizontal axis: frequency and the vertical axis has a 15 dB scale.
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Swarte
5. THE ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
All measurements are executed with the help of the
B&K Dirac software type 7841. This software is
implemented on a computer with a high quality bi-
directional soundcard. Two types of measurement
are executed: impedance and reflection
measurements.
5.1. The impedance measurements
These measurements are done in order to investigate
the frequency dependency of the internal impedance
of the transducers used. The (unbalanced) electret
transducer with a diameter of 6 cm is one half of a
headphone set and the electro-dynamic transducer is
a normal 4 inch loudspeaker.
The impedance curve (Fig. 5.1.1.) of the electret
transducer has been taken with constant current by
means of a 22 kΩ series resistor connected to a low
ohmic amplifier. The -3 dB point lies at a frequency
of 2445 Hz. From these data the capacity of the
transducer can be calculated:
1 1
C= = = 2,96nF.
2π.f .R 2.π.2445.22.10 3
Below this frequency the transducer is merely
capacitive without resonances. Above this
frequency, a series resonance can be observed at
7000 Hz. In order to avoid complicated networks for
the correction of the transducer elements, the study
is executed at frequencies between 50 Hz and 1
kHz.
The impedance curve of the above mentioned
dynamic loudspeaker is shown in fig. 5.1.2.
The resonance of the compliance and mass of the
diaphragm lies at a frequency of 91 Hz. At a
frequency of 360 Hz the impedance of the
loudspeaker amounts to 4 Ω. Since the voltage over
the tags of the loudspeaker is proportional to the
impedance, the impedance may be calculated at
each frequency.
At 360 Hz the level of the impedance curve amounts
to -11 dB. At 91 Hz the level of the curve amounts
to -1,3 dB. So the absolute value of the impedance
(resistance) at 91 Hz will be:
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Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection
(L360 L 91 ) ( 1, 3+11)
20 20
Z91 = 10 Z 360 = 10 x4 =
12,2 Ω
Since the impedance curve is not flat, a frequency
region in the curve shall be used where hardly any
resonances occur. The region above 1 kHz shows a
positive slope of 1dB per octave. This is not the
consequence of the pure self-induction of the voice
coil. The voice coil is probably magnetically "short-
circuited" by the eddy current in the central pole of
the magnet system. The frequency region between
50 and 1000 Hz is chosen as being the most
adequate for the experiments in this study.
6. THE ACOUSTICAL MEASUREMENTS
As said before, the software generates a so-called
MLS or a sweep signal. The response of the system
is calculated by cross correlation of the received
signal by the internal generated signal.
The test set up (fig 2.1.) shows a distance between
the dynamic transducer under test and the measuring
microphone of 21 cm. This means that the reflected
sound travels 42 cm extra after passing by the
measuring microphone for the first time. This
primary sound and the reflected sound are of interest
for this study.
The reflected sound wave passes by ∆ seconds after
the primary sound wave:
2d
∆= sec .
c
where d = 0,21 m
c = 340 m/sec at 20o and 76 cmHg
So ∆ = 1,24 msec.
This means that the window starts 1,24 milliseconds
after the primary sound wave has passed by the
measuring microphone (equation in section 3.).
As the construction of the electret transducer and its
coupler differ from that of the dynamic transducer,
∆ has an adapted value.
Swarte Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection

6.1. The open and closed pipe
measurements
In order to check the acoustic properties of the test
set up and to get data to refer to, open and closed
pipe measurements are executed. This is done to
check if the earlier described test set up would
produce satisfying results for the use in this
feasibility study.
fact that all measurements are taken under the same
conditions and that the results are compared with
each other, the imperfections don't harm the
conclusions in this report.
The software offers the possibility to calculate the
reflection index (R(I) [-]) from both responses as
shown in chapter 3. The result is shown in fig.
6.1.2..

This delivers a
measure for the
reflection index for
the closing plane of
the pipe being 1 as
expected and offers
an excellent
opportunity to relate
further
measurements to the
open end situation.
In the following
chapters the
preparations and the
results will be
presented and
discussed.

Fig.6.1.1. Upper curve: closed pipe reflections, lower curve: open pipe
Two impulses have been taken in the closed
respectively the open pipe configuration (fig. 6.1.1.).
The measuring microphone is situated at a distance
of 21 cm from the open end. These impulses contain
information about the maximum (closed pipe)
respectively the minimum reflection (open pipe).
Nevertheless these impulses don't have a smooth
shape but show a lot of reflections. The first sound
wave passes at a distance of 1,95 meters from the
source, which is in fact the distance between the
source and the microphone. The reflected sound
wave comes 1,24 milliseconds later which agrees a
total distance of 2,37 meters. From this point the
comparison of the reflected impulses starts.

Note. The imperfections in the time and frequency

Fig. 6.1.2. The reflection index taken
domain are inherent to the test set up. Due to the
from both the impulses in fig. 6.1.1.

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Swarte
7. UNDERSTANDING THE TRANSDUCERS
AND THE CONTROL
This study has the intention to obtain reproducible
results. Therefor it is needed to create a stable feed
back circuit. The Niquist criteria for stability which
find their representation in the Bode diagrams help
to create stable feedback circuits. A controllable
amplifier and a correction filter yield adequate
stability. It must be kept in mind that filters
influence the phase behaviour. So, utmost prudence
is needed! In this study an attempt will be
undertaken to develop an insight in this problematic
nature by the analysis of the transducers in sections
7.1 through 7.4.
7.1. The dynamic transducer
Fig. 7.1.1. Transducer
As said before, the dynamic transducer is a mass
controlled system. The transducer for this study was
a 4 inch Philips type 44401/x4. In figure 5.1.2. the
impedance characteristic is given. The resonance
frequency of this loudspeaker lies at 91 Hz. A rather
'flat' but sloped part of this curve lies between 250
Hz and 1 kHz. This will be the frequency range for
the investigations. The loudspeaker's mechanical
Ls
Rel L C
I Ls of the voice coil; the resonance is the
Rs
U resistors Rs, Rel and the real part of Zel limit
R the input resistance on a value of 4 Ω at a
Fig. 7.1.2. the electrical replacement circuit.
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Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection
construction is shown in figure 7.1.1.
Several important parts are to be distinguished: the
diaphragm with mass Mm, the diaphragm support
with compliance Bm, the electro-mechanical
transformer with the factor (Bl)2 where B is the
magnetic flux density and l the total length of the
wire of the voice coil. The mechanical losses are
neglected here for simplicity reasons.
This leads to an analogue electrical circuit, in its
simplest form, as shown in figure 7.1.2. where I is
the input current, U is the input voltage, Rs is the
voice coil resistance, Ls is the voice coil inductance,
Rel is the transformed mechanical loss, L is the
transformed diaphragm compliance Bm, C is the
transformed diaphragm mass Mm and Zel is the by
the diaphragm and transducer transformed
acoustical load of the diaphragm. From figure 5.1.2
must be concluded that Ls is not a "real" self-
inductance but a more or less short circuited coil. RL
is representing this "short circuit" caused by the
eddy currents in the central magnetic pole. In this
study the analogue electrical circuit is not analysed
in detail. The relationship between the voltage and
the current as a function of the frequency and the
phase are subjects for continuing study.
Note: In this consideration the voltage-force and the
current-velocity analogy has been applied. The
electro-mechanical transducer reflects a mechanical
impedance as an electrical admittance and vice
versa! A series circuit is reflected a parallel circuit
and v.v..
The input quotient U/I represents the electrical
impedance Z1 of the transducer.
The impedance curve as shown in fig. 5.1.2 can
rather easily be explained with the help of fig.
7.1.2.. The vertical axis is logarithmic, the divisions
are in dB's. The faint slope in the frequency
region above 250 Hz is the consequence of
Zel the (partly short circuited) self inductance
consequence of the parallel circuit of the
self inductance L and the capacity C. The
frequency of 400 Hz.
The control circuit for active absorption or
reflection must be based on this electrical
scheme. The purpose of that control circuit
Swarte Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection

is to eliminate the influence of the transducers' that the only moving mechanical part in this
inherent elements in such a way that only Zel
22 k
remains. Zel is the transformed acoustical impedance Ω
Zac. Zel is inversely proportional to Zac.

Note: With the linear control circuit as applied for

this study, the elimination of the transducers' Dirac MLS
inherent elements is not possible. The quality of the
absorption or reflection is expected to be relatively
poor but this study is only intended to prove the
feasibility of the concept. 220 kΩ

7.2. The electret transducer

Electret
The construction of an unbalanced electret Transducer
transducer is much simpler. In fig. 7.2.1. a cross
section is shown. The transducer for this study is
taken from a Dirac
headset. The terminals are connected with the
conducting layer of the diaphragm and the back
plate. Fig.7.2.2. Impedance
measuring circuit.
Airslit Diaphragm with
Support ring for diafragm a conducting layer transducer is the diaphragm and the coupled air.
and el. charge Q In the diagram of fig. 7.2.2. is shown how the
Housing and surface A impedance curve has been measured. The computer
generates the MLS signal and feeds this signal to the
transducer via a resistor with a value of 22 kΩ thus
forming a (semi-) constant current source. In order
to not loading this circuit too much, the resulting
voltage over the transducer is measured via a
resistor of 220 kΩ by the computer. In the computer
a FFT is calculated resulting in the curve of fig
5.1.1. From this curve is concluded the capacitance
70 mm of the transducer being 2,96 nF. A weak resonance
Conducting porous back plate occurs at a frequency of 7000 Hz. This resonance is
Acoustic resistance
the consequence of the construction of the housing:
Fig.7.2.1. The electret transducer The compliance of the room in front and rear of the

The diaphragm is made of a polymer Teflon. It is R Cd

loaded with a negative electric charge by a special
process. The mass of the diaphragm is very small I
related to the diaphragm of a dynamic transducer. Md
U Ctr
The diaphragm is glued on the isolating support ring
with such a mechanical tension that the diaphragm Ch Rh Mh
is enabled to make excursions without touching the
back plate for an acceptable sound level. The Fig.7.2.3. The electrical analogy circuit
electrical capacity C of this transducer is nearly 3 of the electret transducer
nano Farads (see also chapter 5). The advantage is diaphragm resonates with the air mass of the

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Swarte
opening. The acoustic resistance in the rear of the
housing controls the quality of this resonance.
From all this information, an analogue electrical
diagram can be concluded as shown in figure 7.2.3.
The mechanical and acoustical impedances are
directly and proportionally reflected to the electrical
input of the transducer by a transformation factor k2
where the dimension of k is [As/m]. So k can be
seen as the change in electrical charge per distance.
The value of k is one of the elements that strongly
determines the efficiency of the transducer. The
other elements in figure 7.2.3. are respectively Ctr is
the transducer inherent capacitance, Rd represents
the losses in the diaphragm, Md and Cd represent the
diaphragm mass and compliance. Ch, Rh and Mh
represent respectively the compliance, the losses and
the mass of opening of the housing. These elements
are responsible for the resonance at 7000 Hz. Zel
represents the to the diaphragm coupled acoustical
impedance. The mass Md is very small compared to
the other elements. The elements Ch, Rh and Mh are
only important in the frequency region above 5000
Hz. And also here, Zel is the transformed acoustical
impedance Zac. Zel is directly proportional to Zac.
7.3. The feedback circuit
Amplifier
Trans
+/
Filt
Fig.7.3.1. The feedback circuit.
The feedback circuit is shown in its simplest form in
fig .7.3.1. The central part is the transducer that can
be of a dynamic or electret type. The resistor R is
the element over which a voltage drop takes place
when the diaphragm is moved by sound. This
voltage is fed to the input of the amplifier +/- A,
where +/-A is a variable positive or negative
amplification factor. The amplifier has a small
output resistance of ca 10 mΩ. F is a parametric
filter meant for achieving the maximum feedback
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Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection
over a relatively wide bandwidth. In the final
solution, the feedback circuit will be controlled by a
signal processor that controls both the amplitude and
the phase as a function of the frequency, as has been
said before. After this feasibility test, the nature of
the processor must be investigated. This processor
will be programmed with the help of dedicated
instructions. The nature of this software is
determined by the accurate analysis of the detailed
analogue representation circuitry of the applied
transducer.
The idea is to eliminate the influence of the
mechanical parts of the transducer. This can be
achieved by replacing the feed back resistor R by an
electrical impedance Zcorr which contains all the
"translated" mechanical and acoustical elements of
the transducer. The amplification factor + or - A
should be set to a value in such a way that the
desired degree of reflection or absorption is created.
With the help of the filter F, the degree of reflection
or absorption can be made - in a certain degree -
dependent on the frequency.
Note: In the feed back circuit, an extra input
connection can be created to insert additional signals
like music. Special precautions must be taken to
avoid influencing the nature of the feed back circuit.
Doing this, the transducer will also behave as a
loudspeaker. This feature is beyond this feasibility
study but offers extra possibilities for the application
in e.g. wave field synthesis applications in cinema's,
theatres etc.
7.4. Coherence of the acoustical input and
electrical output of the transducers
Fig. 7.4.1. shows the electro-mechanical-acoustical
circuit of a transducer. It can be seen that the
transducer behaves like a four-pole.
The four-pole shows the relationship between the
current i and the voltage uo at one hand and the
volume velocity U and the sound pressure p at the
other hand where k and A are the transformation
factors: k for the electro-mechanical and A for the
mechano-acoustical circuits.
Note 1: For the electro-dynamic transducer the
transformation factor k is called the "force" factor
and equals Bl [N/A = Vs/m]. For the electro-static
transducer k represents also a "force" factor but with
a different dimension being [V/N = As/m].
Swarte Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection

Note 2: The mechano-acoustical transformation

factor A has the dimension of a surface [m2]. • The acousto-mechanical process:

Note 3: The electro-dynamic transducer reflects an 1

impedance as an admittance v.v. while the p= F + 0v1
electrostatic transducer reflects impedances A 1 
proportionally. U = 0F1 + Av1
Note 4: In the further discussion, the analogies of 1
0
the sound pressure p, force F and the voltage u and with the matrix: A
the analogy of the volume velocity U, the 0 A
mechanical velocity v and the current i are used.

A-M v2 M-E
v1
U Zm
2
i
2
k
Za p A F F or uo Ze
(Bl)2
Fig. 7.4.1. The acousto-mechanical-electrical circuit of a transducer.

Fig. 7.4.1. is a simplified representation of the

transducer with at the left hand side the acoustical • The mechano-mechanical process:
input. This simplification makes it possible to get an
insight how the acoustical impedance Za of the F1 = 1F2 + Z m v 2
diaphragm changes with a changing electrical load
Ze. v1 = 0F2 + 1v 2
All elements in the chain are considered as 4-poles.
This delivers simple equations for each element
from which a matrix can be developed. The matrices
1 Zm
with the matrix:
are multiplied with each other following the signal 0 1
as it may propagate through the chain. The result is
a matrix that indicates the coherence between the
acoustical input parameters and the electrical output • The mechano-electrical process:
parameters. The dynamic transducer differs from the
electret transducer due to the different nature of both
transducers. F2 = 0u + Bli
1
v2 = u + 0i
Bl
7.4.1. The electro-dynamic transducer
0 Bl
Following the chain in fig. 7.4.1., the next equations with the matrix: 1
can be found: 0
Bl

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Swarte Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection

Multiplication of the matrices delivers:  Sequentially multiplication of all matrices (as the
signal passes through the system) delivers:

Zm Bl zm Bl
p= u+ i 1 k.Zm
A.Bl A A.Bl A 1 k.Z m
p= u+ i
A A k.A A k.A A
0 U = u + 0i 0 k.A U = 0.u + k.A.i
Bl Bl
Which shows the relationship between the
acoustical input and electrical output parameters. Short circuiting the output (voltage u drops to 0)
shows an acoustic input impedance Za:
Short circuiting the output makes the voltage u drop
to 0 and increases the current i to a maximum and Za = p/U = Zm/A2 [Ns/m5]
thus the quotient p/U to a non-defined (high)
acoustical input impedance. Opening the output The open circuit (the current i drops to 0) delivers
gives for the acoustical impedance Za: an acoustic impedance Za:
p Zm
Za = = [Ns/m5] Za = p/U = ∞
U A2
In the ideal case, the induced electrical charge in the
This leads to the conclusion that the lowest possible back electrode counteracts the movement of the
acoustic impedance of the electronically non- diaphragm. Here, the same remarks as for the
controlled dynamic transducer is Zm/A2. The dynamic transducer must be made: practice shows
mechanical impedance is completely reflected to the less strict conclusions; losses play also here an
acoustical side. The highest acoustical impedance is important role.
in this consideration infinite or maximally
reflecting. NOTE: Zm shows in both cases - the dynamic and
electret transducer - a characteristic dependency
In practice, the transducer's properties will not be on the frequency. With the help of electronic
that strict; losses will influence the processes. It may control over the total chain i.c. the voltage uo and
be clear that the control over the mechanical the current i, the transducer's Za can be given a
elements of the transducer will play an important desired value with a wanted frequency
role as the Bl-factor does. behaviour.
7.4.2.The electret transducer.

With the electret transducer, the first two matrices

are the same as for the dynamic transducer. The
matrix for the mechano-electrical transducer follows
from both the equations for the velocity v2 and the
force F2:
1
F2 = u + 0i
k 
v 2 = 0u + ki
1
0
with the matrix: k
0 k

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Swarte Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection

8. ELABORATION OF THE MEASURES section 7.4.1..

The curves are taken in a straight forward set up of
The procedure is shown in the table 8.1. below. the electronics. A simple filter has been used to
Table 8.1. achieve a larger feed back factor.
1. Dynamic transducer
1.1. t.u.t. open circuit and short circuit versus 8.2. Electret transducer under test under
open pipe different conditions versus open pipe
1.2. t.u.t. positive feedback circuit versus open
pipe
1.3. t.u.t. negative feedback circuit versus open
pipe

2 Electret transducer
2.1. t.u.t. open circuit and short circuit versus
open pipe
2.2. t.u.t. positive feedback circuit versus open
pipe
2.3. t.u.t. negative feedback circuit versus open
pipe

8.1. Dynamic transducer under different

conditions versus open pipe end Fig.8.2.1. Open and short circuit

In figure 8.1.1. the reflection index R(I) is shown for
the octave bands of 125 Hz to and with 1 kHz under
4 different conditions. The index is related to the
open ended pipe for all conditions.
The upper curve (blue) shows the negative feed
back situation, the upper mid curve (orange) shows
the short circuit, the lower mid curve (red) shows
the open circuit situation and the lower curve
(green) shows the positive feed back situation.
The figure fully supports the feasibility of the
concept and is accordance with the findings in
Figure 8.2.1. shows the intrinsic behaviour of the
transducer. When the leads of the transducer are
open-circuited (upper curve, green), the movement
of the diaphragm is being counteracted by the in the
back plate induced electric charges resulting in a
higher reflection factor (R(I)). With the short circuit,
the diaphragm can move more freely due to
exchange of the electric charges between the

Fig.8.2.2. Electret transducer, 3

conditions.
diaphragm and the back plate. This is in accordance
of the findings in section 7.4.2.; the open circuit
situation is more reflective than the short circuit
situation.
Fig.8.1.1. Dyn. Transducer, 4 conditions.

AES 118th Convention, Barcelona, Spain, 2005 May 28–31

Page 12 of 14
Swarte
Figure 8.2.2. shows three curves: the upper curve
(red) represents the reflection factor of the negative
feed back condition and the mid curve (black) the
same for the positive feedback circuit. The lower
curve (blue) represents the situation of the short
circuited leads of the electret transducer and is
added for reference.
The curves are taken in a straight forward set up of
the electronics (Fig 7.3.1. Feedback circuit). A
simple filter has been used to achieve a larger feed
back factor. For further conclusions see chapter 10.
9. TRANSMISSION OF SOUND UNDER
DIFFERENT CONDITIONS.
The transport of sound by a diaphragm under
different conditions is not thoroughly investigated.
Exploring transmission measurements have been
executed in order to get an insight into the
chances for success. In fig. 9.1. the results of the
measurements are shown with an electro-dynamic
loudspeaker. No extra measures are undertaken to
optimise the different conditions of the feedback
circuits. Nevertheless, the results are promising.
With controlled diaphragms, it seems to be possible
to construct transducers for a.o. sound transmission
control.
Transmission of sound
Octave bands [Hz]
63 125 250
Rel.levels [dB]
-115
-125
neg open
Fig. 9.1. The transmission of the
sound by the diaphragm under
different conditions.
The upper solid curve indicated by "open" (red
curve) shows the transmission of the sound on a
higher level than the transmission shown by the
lower solid curve (green curve) indicated by "short".
"Open" and "short" mean respectively a not
AES 118th Convention, Barcelona, Spain, 2005 May 28–31
Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection
connected (open leads) and a short circuited
loudspeaker. Because the diaphragm can move
freely in the open circuit, the transmission is on a
higher level than when the voice coil leads are short
circuited. The nature of the feedback circuit - and to
be specific the amplitude and the phase control of
that circuit - determine the degree of transmission as
this does with the absorption and reflection of
sound.
Note: Due to the construction of the electret
transducer no transmission measurements are made.
10. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDA-
TIONS.
From the foregoing, the conclusion must be drawn
that the concept of the technique is fully feasible. It
may be concluded that the dynamic transducer type
shows good results while the electret transducer type
seems to be less convincing. The reason is that the
used transducer is over 20 years old and thus has
lost most of its electrical charge. The couple factor
is consequently very low.
Nevertheless the electret transducer has the
advantage of a very low moving mass and a high
resonance frequency. It is expected that the
compensation of the mechanical part of the
impedance is easier to do in the desired frequency
band in comparison with the dynamic transducer.
500 1000
From the foregoing some recommendations are
made:
1. Improvement of the transducing factors: (Bl)2
and K2 ,
2. Improved construction of diaphragms,
3. Control over both the time and frequency
pos short
domain of the transducer's response,
4. Investigation of other transducer types, e.g.
piëzo-electric,
5. Investigation of other diaphragms like flat and
curved panels,
6. Combination of the transducer with the
electronics needed for the control,
7. Creation of an insertion point for "strange"
signals like music and speech.
Page 13 of 14
Swarte Active Acoustic Absorption and
Reflection

All this leads to a wide range of applications: Litt:

• Frequency dependent reflection and
absorption of sound for variable room Beranek McGraw-Hill
acoustics Acoustics
• Sound control Merhaut McGraw-Hill
• Sound imaging, 3 D acoustics Theory of Electroacoustics
• "Transportable" acoustics. Hermans/Hull Philips
Designing Hi-Fi speaker systems
The applications can be created by a multiple of Feldtkeller S.Hirzel Verlag
units that are controlled by a software loaded central Vierpoltheorie
control unit (CCU). The CCU has, amongst others, Olson/Preston/May JAES 1954
two main tasks: the distribution of instructions for Anthology 1978, Recent developments in Direct-
the frequency dependent amplitude and phase radiator High Fidelity loudspeakers
control per unit and the distribution of above Janszen JAES 1955
mentioned additional audio signals. Anthology 1978, An electrostatic loudspeaker
development.
These applications may be found in drama theatres, Werner/Carrell JAES 1958
music halls, cinema projection rooms, congress Anthology 1978, Application of negative impedance
rooms, stadiums, studio's etc. A wide range of amplifiers to loudspeaker systems.
acoustic and sound reproduction effects can be Heyser JAES 1969
realized e.g. in multipurpose rooms. Anthology 1978, Loudspeaker phase characteristics
and time delay distortion. (1 & 2)
Thiele JAES 1971
Anthology 1978, Loudspeakers in vented boxes,
11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. Part 1 & 2
Small JAES 1973
This work was supported by the Technical Anthology 1978, Vented-Box loudspeaker Systems,
Universities of Delft and Eindhoven, by Philips part 1, 2 & 3.
Research Eindhoven and Acoustics Engineering, US Patent Dec. 8, 1987
The Netherlands. Electro-acoustic system having a variable
4,712,247 reflection/absorption characteristic.
================== Swarte NAG publ 84
Aktieve absorptie en reflektie
Kim/Lee JASA sep 2002
Broadband transmission noise reduction of smart
panels featuring piëzoelectric shunt circuits and
sound absorbing materials.
Lafleur/Shields/ JASA sep 1991
Acoustically active surfaces using piëzorubber.
Hendrix, D.Guicking et al. Publications
Drittes Physikalisches Institut, University of
Goettingen, Germany (apr. 2001).
J.D.Appolito 2000 Segment
Luidspreker-meettechniek ISBN 90 5381 116 8
Original edition: Joseph .Appolito, Testing
Loudspeakers, USA.

AES 118th Convention, Barcelona, Spain, 2005 May 28–31

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