Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
the movement of other dislocations. As the dislocation density increases there is an increase in
the flow stress of the material. The dislocations can be either strong or weak obstacles to the
movement of other dislocations, depending upon the types of interactions that occurs between
moving dislocations. Work hardening or strain hardening can de described as the strengthening
of the material by low temperature plastic deformation.
2 Percent cold work = %CW = A o A d x100 A o Yield Stress Work Hardening Why? Cell
Structures Pattern Formation
3 Effect of Cold Working Yield strength (σ YS ) increases. Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases. n ~ 0.5 (FCC) n ~ 0.2 (BCC) σ = T n ~ 0.05 (HCP) K ε n T
n = strain hardening exponent measures the ability of a metal to harden τ = τ + k ρ flow 0 disl
Where r disl : dislocation density
4 DISLOCATION DENSITY Dislocation density: total dislocation length per unit volume of
material or, the number of dislocations that intersect a unit area of a random section The
dislocation density typically determines the strength of a material Metals (carefully solidified):
10 3 mm 2 Metals (heavily deformed): mm 2 Metals (heat treated): mm 2 Ceramics: mm 2
Single crystal silicon for ICs: mm 2
6 Critical Resolved Shear Stress vs Dislocation Density Schmidt s Law: slip initiates when M τ =
tensile test single crystal oriented so that different values (cosφ sin λ) max are generated in most
favored slip system. Measure σ ys are different. But, σ ys /m are invariant! CRSS σ ys slope =
1/2 CRSS increases with dislocation density: higher YS
8 IMPACT OF COLD WORK Yield strength increases. Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases (dramatically). Stress Adapted from Fig. 7.18, Callister 6e.
(Fig is from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B.
Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 221.) % cold work Strain
9 The importance of strain hardening is because in deformation processes one requires high
percentage of strain.
10 BCC BCC systems do not exhibit easy glide. As the SFE of the FCC alloy decreases, cross
slip is more difficult. A typical shear stress shear strain curve for a single crystal shows three
stages of work hardening: Stage I = easy glide single slip system; Stage II with high, constant
hardening rate, multiple slip systems, nearly independent of temperature or strain rate; Stage III
with decreasing hardening rate, cross slip, and very sensitive to temperature and strain rate.
15 The effects of plastically deformed polycrystalline metal at temperature less than T m are: (a)
change in grain shape; (b) strain hardening; (c) increased dislocation density and (d) stored
energy. When metals are plastically deformed about 5% of deformation energy is retained
internally associated with dislocations. Most of the applied load that results in plastic
deformation is not uniform across the material. Certain amount of stresses is retained in the
material even when the load has been eliminated (residual stresses). These stresses are less than
the material yield stress. The properties of the cold worked metal (partially or totally) can be
restored by: Recovery Recrystallization and Grain Growth
16 Recovery Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation motion
as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion at elevated temperature. Effects of recovery in cold
worked metals: Ductility increases Yield and tensile strength decreases slightly Hardness
decreases slightly. Metal toughness increases. Electrical and thermal conductivity of the metal is
recovered to their precold worked states. There is no apparent change in the microstructure of the
deformed material.
17 Recrystallization Cold worked material high dislocation density lot of stored energy very
strong not very ductile process Recrystallized material low dislocation density no stored energy
weak ductile After recovery grains remain at relatively high energy states Recrystallization
formation of a new set of strain free and equiaxed grains, low dislocation densities Driving force
difference in internal energy between strained and unstrained material New grains form as small
nuclei grow and replace parent material short range diffusion The process is a heat treating
process called annealing. Annealing requires high temperature.
18 4s at 580 o C 8s at 580 o C 33%CW Brass Grain Growth after 15 min; and after 10min at 700
oC
20
21 Notes on Recrystallization: The amount of cold work controls the initial recrystallized grain
size. More cold work more stored energy easier nucleation more nucleation sites smaller grain
size. The temperature and time of annealing controls the final grain size, if there is substantial
growth after recrystallization. Grain growth requires diffusion, and diffusion is faster at higher
temperatures. The time at temperature controls the total amount of diffusion. A fine grain size
has many benefits beyond strength. In general, finer grain sizes are more resistant to fatigue and
fracture failures, and have more reproducible and homogeneous mechanical properties. Finally,
in general, metals with fine grain size are also more easily formed in metalworking operations
than metals with coarse grain sizes.
23
25
26 Particle Cutting For particle, surface areas is created and Stacking Faults For chemically
ordered particle, also creates APBs. Meyers and Chawla, Mechanical Metallurgy
27 Particle Hardening: bowing versus cutting If the particle is harder than matrix, dislocation can
avoid cutting by bowing around particle, or traversing around particle at interphase boundary (a
complex process). Harder to cut stiffer, larger particles. Easy to bow around stiffer, larger
particles. Crossover L L 2r L 2r
30 Strain accommodation for a non deforming particle by shear loops and bypassing (edge and
screws). Shear loop Edge: I loop + V Screw: I + V b loop b interstitial Leave behind atoms
vacancies Cross slip b
31 L L 2r L 2r
32 SIMULATION: PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING View onto slip plane of Nimonic
PE16 Precipitate volume fraction: 10% Simulation courtesy of Volker Mohles, Institut für
Materialphysik der Universitåt, Münster, Germany ( munster.de/physik /MP/mohles/). Used with
permission.
33 Particle Size and Volume Fraction The interparticle spacing, Λ, is of little practical use as it is
has to measured, more useful are relationships between the mean particle size, d, and the volume
fraction, f, of particles present. The definition of interparticle spacing in terms of the centre to
centre spacing of particles, L, is: Λ =L d But, from quantitative metallography: Where N a is the
number of particles in unit area. Also, from quantitative metallography, if there are N V spherical
particles in unit volume: N a =N v.d And from the definition of volume fraction, f:
34 π Manipulation of these expressions gives the result: Λ = d 1 6 f If f is less than 0.01 (1%
volume fraction) then the first term is very large compared to 1 and thus we have: From this
expression, knowing the mean particle size and the volume fraction of particles we can calculate
the mean interparticle spacing and, therefore, from Orowan's expression the increase in strength.
Using the information below, estimate the increase in strength of a steel with a dispersion of Fe 3
C particles with a volume fraction of 1%. The data you require is G = 80 GPa. Δτ = Lattice
parameter of α Fe = nm. d = 100 nm. Answer: 13.7MPa Gb Λ
35 of the Orowan equation is: Gb Δτ = α Λ where Δτ is the increase in flow or critical resolved
shear stress caused by the particles with a spacing, Λ, α is a constant, value ~0.5, b the Burgers
vector and G is the shear modulus. Precipitation Hardening Precipitation hardening process in
which small particles of a new phase precipitate in matrix which harden material by forming
impediments to dislocation motion. Also known as Age Hardening because hardness often
increases with time (even at room temperature!) Requirements: System must have: an
appreciable maximum solubility of one component in the other (several percent) a solubility
limit that rapidly decreases in concentration of major
36 can heat it up, without melting, to one phase at high temperature two phases at low
temperature Solvus - solubility limit of B in α. Beyond this concentration second phase β will
form.
37 Precipitation hardening is accomplished with two separate heat treatments Step I :Solution
heat treatment: heating composition C o to T o until all B atoms dissolved into a ( i.e. b phase is
removed) and one phase is obtained. Then the alloy is quenched (rapidly cooled) to T 1 so as to
prevent precipitation of any b phase. A metastable situation occurs but diffusion rates are often
too slow at T 1 to allow b phase precipitation for long periods of time. Step II : Precipitation heat
treatment: Supersaturated a solid (i.e. has more B in it that it should have) heated to T 2 where
kinetics allow for controlled diffusion of B to form b phase. Forms finely divided b phase.
Finally, alloy is cooled to stop precipitation.
11 What is the tensile strength & ductility after cold working? Copper Cold work ----->
Do=15.2mm Dd=12.2mm Cold Working Analysis %CW = πr o 2 πr d 2 σ TS σ δ y y from πr o 2
from 150MPa to from 220 tends to TS to 45% to x100 = 35.6% 320MPa 7% 280MPa
41 Particle Hardening: coherent, incoherent, and intermediate Small particles of second phase (1
10%) resist dislocation penetration, especially more so than single solute particles. Degree of
strengthening depends on size, volume fraction, shape, nature of boundary (coherency
hardening). Smaller a bigger a interphase boundaries that is incoherent, which has no coherency
strains. But the interphase boundaries are coherent (1 1 match) Intermediate interphase
boundaries coherency strain are relieved by edge dislocation (not quite1 1 match)
42 Coherency hardening Differences in density between the particle and the matrix give rise to
elastic stresses in the vicinity of the particle. This has been analyzed on the basis of the elastic
stresses that exist in the matrix adjacent to a particle that has a different lattice parameter than the
matrix. Ignoring differences in modulus for now, and setting a parameter, ε, that approximates a
strain to characterize the magnitude of the effect. For ε coh = a particle a a matrix matrix τ coh =
7 ε coh 3/ 2 G rf b 1/ 2
43 Particle Hardening: coherent, incoherent, modulus, Stress fields from coherent solute particle:
coherency hardening ε coh = a p a m a m τ coh = 7 ε coh 3/ 2 G rf b 1/ 2 Chemical Hardening
Cutting through a particle with a dislocation displaces one half relative to the other by b, thereby
creating new interfacial energy of 2πrbγ, where γ is the interfacial energy between the matrix and
the particle. The distance over which this energy has to be created occurs at the entry and exit
points and so the characteristic distance is of order b. Thus the force is δε/δx, or, F = 2πrbγ/2b =
πrγ
44 If the dislocations are straight, we can approximate the spacing between particles as L=2r/f.
Dividing the force by bl to find the stress, τ = πfγ/2b. A more realistic approach produces the
following relationship. τ = 2G{γ/Gr} 3/2 (fr/b) 1/2 Courtney defines a chemical hardening
parameter, ε χη = γ/gr, related to the interfacial energy, modulus and particle size. This parameter
is precisely analogous to the same parameter used, e.g. in APB hardening.
45 Order Hardening The hardening depends on the product of the antiphase boundary energy
(APBE) and the area swept by a dislocation in a particle. Thus the increase in flow stress is given
by: τ = πf{apbe}/2b In general, low values of the APBE not only predict small increments in
hardness, but also the result that the dislocations can move through the particles independently of
one another. A more detailed analysis, not presented here, shows a square root dependence on
volume fraction, with particle size,τ = 0.7 Gε 3/2 (fr/b) ε ord = APBE/Gb Important for Ni based
superalloys
46 Modulus hardening The line length in the particle is 2r and the change in tension is (G particle
G matrix )b 2 /2, assuming the same Burgers vector in matrix and particle. Multiplying the two
together and dividing by the distance, i.e. the radius, we get: F= b 2 (G particle -G matrix ) = G
matrix b 2 ε, where ε = (G particle -G matrix )/G matrix, a measure similar to that used in
solution hardening. More realistic estimates of modulus hardening lead to the following formula:
τ = 10-2 G ε 3/2 {fr/b} Think of modulus hardening as being caused by a temporary increase in
dislocation line energy while it resides within a particle.
47 Dislocations cutting particle: modulus hardening G As dislocation cuts particle and goes
halfway G p Max change in E : (G p G m )b2 2 (2r) = (G p G m )b 2 r ε Gp = G p G m G m τ Gp
= 1/ 2 3 / 2 rf 0.2ε Gp G b
48 The explanation of age hardening depends on understanding the metastable phases that can
appear.
50 Example: Precipitation Hardening & Overaging in Al alloys Aluminum low density, high
ductility, high reserves (8% of earth crust), easily recycled, high corrosion resistance, high luster,
high conductivity, but low strength for a metal. Applications include automotive, aerospace,
whenever low weight is desirable. Strengthened by precipitation hardening! Example Al(ss) (i.e.
α phase) matrix with CuAl 2 (i.e. θ phase) precipitates
52 The most quoted age hardening curve is that for Al Cu alloys performed in the late 40s. Keep
in mind that age hardening was known empirically (Alfred Wilm) as a technologically useful
treatment from the early days of aluminum alloys. Higher Cu contents result in higher maximum
hardness because larger volume fractions of precipitate are possible.
53
54 After solution annealing, Al Cu alloy is at its softest. Immediately after quenching, final
shaping and machining are conducted before age hardening begins. Age hardening may require
heating (artificial aging) although many Al Cu alloys age harden at room temperature (natural
aging). Some alloys experience precipitation hardening at room T. These have to be refrigerated
to prevent hardening. Example: Al 2024 Al Cu rivets and wing plates for aircraft construction.
solution treated, quenched and refrigerated at suppliers plant, shipped in dry ice. rivets are driven
(deformed) in cold state. Wing sections shaped (deformed) in cold state
55 Sample Problem (From Dieter, p219 (adapted) Question: Al 4%Cu (by wt.) has a yield stress
of 600MPa. Estimate the particle size and spacing. Solution: recognize that this stress relates to
age hardening beyond the peak hardness. Therefore use the Orowan bowing stress to estimate the
stress. σ = <M> τ crss = <M> Gb/Λ G=27.6GPa; b=0.25nm; <M>=3.1: spacing = 3.1*27,600* /
600= 35.7 nm Now we must estimate the volume fraction of particles for which we use the phase
diagram, assuming that we are dealing with the equilibrium phase, θ, which is 54 w/o Cu, and the
α in equilibrium with it, 0.5 w/o Cu. Wt. % Al = (54 4)/(54 0.5) = 93.5; wt. % θ = 4 0.5/(54
0.5)=6.5 Volume of α = 93.5gm/2.7 gm/cm 3 =34.6 cm 3 Volume of θ = 6.5/ gm/cm 3 = 1.5 cm
3 Volume fraction of α = 0.96; volume fraction of θ = Use Λ=4r(1 f)/3f : r =3*0.04*35.7/4/(1
0.04) = 1.12 nm.
57 20 Natural aging curve for 6061 Al alloy Yield strength, ksi 10 1 day 1 month 1 week 1 year
Aging time (after quench), hrs (log scale)
60
61 Strengthening of Aluminum Material Yield Strength ksi %elongation Pure annealed Al Solid
solution Strengthened with 1% Mn 6 45 Highly cold worked pure Al Precipitation hardened
alloy
11 Apa kekuatan tarik & keuletan setelah bekerja dingin? Copper Cold work -----> Do =
15.2mm Dd = 12.2mm Analisis Kerja Dingin% CW = or o 2 πr d 2 σ TS σ δ yy dari πr o 2 dari
150MPa ke dari 220 cenderung TS hingga 45% ke x100 = 35,6% 320MPa 7% 280MPa
41 Partikel Hardening: coherent, incoherent, dan intermediate Partikel-partikel kecil fase kedua
(1 10%) menahan penetrasi dislokasi, terutama lebih dari partikel terlarut tunggal. Tingkat
penguatan tergantung pada ukuran, fraksi volume, bentuk, sifat batas (pengerasan koherensi).
Semakin kecil batas antarfase yang lebih besar yang tidak koheren, yang tidak memiliki strain
koherensi. Tetapi batas-batas antarfase adalah koheren (pertandingan 1 1) Interphate batas batas-
batas regangan koherensi dibebaskan oleh dislokasi tepi (tidak cukup 1 1 pertandingan)
42 Pengerasan koherensi Perbedaan dalam kepadatan antara partikel dan matriks menimbulkan
tekanan elastis di sekitar partikel. Ini telah dianalisis berdasarkan tekanan elastis yang ada dalam
matriks yang berdekatan dengan partikel yang memiliki parameter kisi yang berbeda dari
matriks. Mengabaikan perbedaan dalam modulus untuk saat ini, dan mengatur parameter, ε, yang
mendekati suatu regangan untuk mengkarakterisasi besarnya efek. Untuk ε coh = partikel aa
matriks matriks τ coh = 7 ε coh 3/2 G rf b 1/2
43 Pengerasan Partikel: koheren, tidak koheren, modulus, bidang tegangan dari partikel terlarut
koheren: pengerasan koherensi ε coh = apamam τ coh = 7 ε coh 3/2 G rf b 1/2 Pengerasan Kimia
Memotong partikel dengan dislokasi memindahkan satu setengah relatif terhadap yang lain oleh
b, dengan demikian menciptakan energi antarmuka baru 2πrbγ, di mana γ adalah energi
antarmuka antara matriks dan partikel. Jarak di mana energi ini harus dibuat terjadi pada titik
masuk dan keluar dan sehingga jarak karakteristiknya teratur. B. Dengan demikian gaya adalah
δε / δx, atau, F = 2πrbγ / 2b = πrγ
44 Jika dislokasi lurus, kita dapat memperkirakan jarak antar partikel sebagai L = 2r / f.
Membagi gaya dengan bl untuk menemukan tegangan, τ = πfγ / 2b. Pendekatan yang lebih
realistis menghasilkan hubungan berikut. τ = 2G {γ / Gr} 3/2 (fr / b) 1/2 Courtney
mendefinisikan parameter pengerasan kimia, ε χη = γ / gr, terkait dengan energi antarmuka,
modulus dan ukuran partikel. Parameter ini persis analog dengan parameter yang sama yang
digunakan, misalnya dalam pengerasan APB.
45 Orde Pengerasan Pengerasan tergantung pada produk dari energi batas antiphase (APBE) dan
daerah disapu oleh dislokasi dalam suatu partikel. Dengan demikian peningkatan tegangan aliran
diberikan oleh: τ = πf {apbe} / 2b Secara umum, nilai rendah APBE tidak hanya memprediksi
kenaikan kecil dalam kekerasan, tetapi juga hasil bahwa dislokasi dapat bergerak melalui partikel
secara independen satu sama lain . Analisis yang lebih rinci, tidak disajikan di sini, menunjukkan
ketergantungan akar kuadrat pada fraksi volume, dengan ukuran partikel , τ = 0,7 Gε 3/2 (fr / b) ε
ord = APBE / Gb Penting untuk superalloy berbasis Ni
46 Modulus hardening Panjang garis dalam partikel adalah 2r dan perubahan tegangan adalah (G
partikel G matrix) b 2/2, dengan asumsi vektor Burgers yang sama dalam matriks dan partikel.
Mengalikan keduanya bersama dan membaginya dengan jarak, yaitu jari-jari, kita dapatkan: F =
b 2 (G partikel -G matrix) = G matrix b 2 ε, di mana ε = (G partikel -G matrix) / G matrix, a
Mengukur mirip dengan yang digunakan dalam pengerasan solusi. Perkiraan pengerasan
modulus yang lebih realistis mengarah pada rumus berikut: τ = 10-2 G ε 3/2 {fr / b} Pikirkan
pengerasan modulus disebabkan oleh peningkatan sementara dalam energi garis dislokasi
sementara itu berada di dalam partikel.
47 Dislokasi pemotongan partikel: pengerasan modulus G Saat dislokasi memotong partikel dan
berjalan separuh Gp Max perubahan dalam E: (G p G m) b2 2 (2r) = (G p G m) b 2 r ε Gp = G p
G m Gm τ Gp = 1/2 3/2 rf 0,2ε Gp G b
48 Penjelasan tentang pengerasan usia tergantung pada pemahaman fase-fase metastabil yang
bisa muncul.
49 Kekhawatiran: Curah hujan kadang-kadang terjadi pada suhu kamar. Overaging jika partikel
β dibiarkan tumbuh kekuatan paduan yang terlalu besar dapat berkurang saat partikel tumbuh.
Mengapa?
50 Contoh: Presipitasi Pengerasan & Penggunaan Berlebihan pada paduan Al Aluminium
kepadatan rendah, daktilitas tinggi, cadangan tinggi (8% dari kerak bumi), mudah didaur ulang,
ketahanan korosi tinggi, kilau tinggi, konduktivitas tinggi, tetapi kekuatan rendah untuk logam.
Aplikasi termasuk otomotif, aerospace, kapan pun berat badan rendah diinginkan. Diperkuat oleh
pengerasan presipitasi! Contoh Al (ss) (yaitu fase α) matriks dengan endapan CuAl 2 (yaitu
fase))
51 Presipitasi terjadi dalam dua tahap Larutan padat α jenuh. Pembentukan partikel θ fase kecil,
koheren, disebut Zona Guinier Preston. Medan stres yang terkait dengan regangan kisi
menghambat dislokasi lebih efektif daripada θ Kelebihan usia θ terus tumbuh dan menjadi tidak
koheren dengan matriks. Fasa sekarang menjadi fase q Kisi strain berkurang. Gerakan dislokasi
tidak dibatasi seperti pada fase θ
52 Kurva pengerasan usia yang paling banyak dikutip adalah untuk paduan Al Cu yang
dilakukan pada akhir 40-an. Perlu diingat bahwa pengerasan usia dikenal secara empiris (Alfred
Wilm) sebagai perawatan yang berguna secara teknologi sejak zaman awal paduan aluminium.
Kandungan Cu yang lebih tinggi menghasilkan kekerasan maksimum yang lebih tinggi karena
fraksi volume endapan yang lebih besar dimungkinkan.
53
54 Setelah anil larutan, paduan Al Cu paling lembut. Segera setelah pendinginan, pembentukan
akhir dan pemesinan dilakukan sebelum pengerasan usia dimulai. Pengerasan usia mungkin
membutuhkan pemanasan (penuaan buatan) meskipun banyak paduan Al Cu mengeras pada
suhu kamar (penuaan alami). Beberapa paduan mengalami pengerasan presipitasi di ruangan T.
Ini harus didinginkan untuk mencegah pengerasan. Contoh: Paku keling dan pelat sayap Al 2024
Al untuk konstruksi pesawat terbang. solusi dirawat, didinginkan dan didinginkan di pabrik
pemasok , dikirim dalam es kering. paku keling didorong (cacat) dalam keadaan dingin. Bagian
sayap berbentuk (cacat) dalam keadaan dingin
55 Contoh Masalah (Dari Dieter, p219 (diadaptasi) Pertanyaan: Al 4% Cu (berdasarkan berat)
memiliki tegangan leleh 600MPa. Perkirakan ukuran partikel dan jaraknya. Solusi: kenali bahwa
stres ini berkaitan dengan pengerasan usia di luar kekerasan puncak. . Oleh karena itu
menggunakan Orowan membungkuk stres untuk memperkirakan stres σ = <M> τ CRSS = <M>
Gb / Λ G = 27.6GPa; b = 0.25nm; <M> = 3.1. spacing = 3.1 * 27.600 * / 600 = 35,7 nm
Sekarang kita harus memperkirakan fraksi volume partikel yang kita gunakan diagram fase,
dengan asumsi bahwa kita berurusan dengan fase kesetimbangan, θ, yaitu 54 w / o Cu, dan α
dalam kesetimbangan dengan itu, 0,5 w / o Cu. Wt.% Al = (54 4) / (54 0,5) = 93,5; wt.% θ = 4
0,5 / (54 0,5) = 6,5 Volume α = 93,5gm / 2,7 gm / cm 3 = 34,6 cm 3 Volume θ = 6.5 / gm / cm 3
= 1.5 cm 3 Fraksi volume α = 0.96; fraksi volume θ = Gunakan Λ = 4r (1 f) / 3f: r = 3 * 0.04 *
35.7 / 4 / (1 0,04) = 1,12 nm.
56 Aplikasi Mikrograf presipitasi segmen sayap pesawat paduan Al mengeras. Zona GP biasanya
hanya setebal beberapa atom dan 25 atom
57 20 Kurva penuaan alami untuk 6061 Al alloy Yield strength, ksi 10 1 hari 1 bulan 1 minggu 1
tahun Waktu penuaan (setelah pendinginan), jam (skala log)
58 Al Cu dan Al Cu Mg paduan Al Cu model paduan, tidak banyak digunakan dalam praktik Al
Cu Mg Duralumin (Al 3.5Cu 0,5Mg 0,5Mn) pertama kali digunakan paduan pengerasan usia
(ditemukan secara tidak sengaja pada tahun 1906 oleh Alfred Wilm) Banyak digunakan untuk
pesawat konstruksi 2618 Al 2.2Cu 1.5Mg 1Ni 1Fe dikembangkan untuk kulit Concorde agar
tahan terhadap operasi suhu tinggi (T = 130 o C pada Mach 2) Biasanya roll yang dibalut dengan
Al atau Al Zn murni untuk melindungi dari korosi
59 Kekuatan dan daktilitas selama pengerasan presipitasi (Karakteristik pengerasan presipitasi
dari paduan aluminium 2014 (0,9% Si, 4,4% Cu, 0,8% Mn, 0,5% Mg}
60
61 Penguatan Bahan Aluminium Kekuatan Hasil ksi% elongasi Al anil murni Solusi padat
Diperkuat dengan 1% Mn 6 45 Sangat murni bekerja murni Al Presipitasi paduan mengeras
62 Aplikasi Penguatan Curah Hujan Aluminium diperkuat dengan endapan Al 3 Li yang dapat
dibentuk yang dibentuk dengan paduan.
63 1 totalys: σys = σpn + kc + ky + αgb d ρ SSGB SH