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Voltage unbalance improvement in low voltage residential feeders with

rooftop PVs using custom power devices

Article  in  International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems · February 2014

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijepes.2013.09.018

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 Voltage Unbalance Improvement in Low Voltage Residential Feeders

with Rooftop PVs using Custom Power Devices

Farhad Shahnia1, Arindam Ghosh2, Gerard Ledwich2 and Firuz Zare3

1
Centre of Smart Grid and Sustainable Power Systems, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department,

Curtin University, Perth, Australia

2
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
3
Global Research and Development, Danfoss Power Electronics A/S, Graasten, Denmark

(Corresponding Author: farhad.shahnia@curtin.edu.au Tel: +61–432020732)

Abstract

Voltage unbalance is a major power quality problem in low voltage residential feeders due to the random location and

rating of single–phase rooftop photovoltaic cells (PV). In this paper, two different improvement methods based on the

application of series (DVR) and parallel (DSTATCOM) custom power devices are investigated to improve the voltage

unbalance problem in these feeders. First, based on the load flow analysis carried out in MATLAB, the effectiveness of these

two custom power devices is studied vis–à–vis the voltage unbalance reduction in urban and semi–urban/rural feeders

containing rooftop PVs. Their effectiveness is studied from the installation location and rating points of view. Later, a Monte

Carlo based stochastic analysis is carried out to investigate their efficacy for different uncertainties of load and PV rating and

location in the network. After the numerical analyses, a converter topology and control algorithm is proposed for the

DSTATCOM and DVR for balancing the network voltage at their point of common coupling. A state feedback control,

based on pole–shift technique, is developed to regulate the voltage in the output of the DSTATCOM and DVR converters

such that the voltage balancing is achieved in the network. The dynamic feasibility of voltage unbalance and profile

improvement in LV feeders, by the proposed structure and control algorithm for the DSTATCOM and DVR, is verified

through detailed PSCAD/EMTDC simulations.

Keywords– Low Voltage Feeder, Custom Power Device, DSTATCOM, DVR, Photovoltaic Cells, Voltage Unbalance.

I. INTRODUCTION

Voltage Unbalance (VU) and voltage drop/rise are the most severe power quality problems in low voltage (LV)

distribution feeders. Usually, the electric utilities try to distribute the residential loads equally among the three phases of

distribution feeders. Although voltages are well balanced at the supply side level, the voltages at the customer side can

become unbalanced due to the unequal system impedances, single–phase loads or large number of single–phase transformers

[1].

Page 1
 Nowadays, there is a growing interest in residential customers to install single–phase grid–connected rooftop

Photovoltaic cells (PV) due to incentive polices in several countries. The most important characteristic of these PVs is that

their output power, being fed to the grid, is not controlled and is dependent on the meteorological conditions. Several

technical problems of these systems such as harmonics, voltage profile and power losses are already studied and investigated

[2–5]. A guideline is provided in [6] for assessment of power quality problems, such as harmonics, flicker and unbalance,

imposed by PVs to distribution networks.

Customer–owned, single–phase and non–dispatchable PVs can be randomly distributed in a distribution feeder

depending on the motivation, preference and financial attitude of the residential customers. This randomness in the location

and rating of the PVs installed by the customers may increase VU in the network. VU due to random location and rating of

rooftop PVs is investigated through simulations and experimental measurements in [7–9]. In addition, a voltage and VU

sensitivity analysis is carried out in [10–11] versus location and rating of the PVs on a LV distribution feeder. In [10], it was

demonstrated that non–standard VU is more probable at feeder end compared to feeder beginning due to voltage rise and

reverse power flow probability in the network as a result of high PV penetration level.

For improving VU in such feeders, some improvement methods such as increasing feeder cross section, installation of

pole–mounted switching LV capacitors, new control algorithm for PV inverters and installation of energy storage devices are

discussed in [12–15].

In addition to VU, distribution networks always experience voltage drop and rise issues at different periods of the day

due to load variation, fixed tap changers of the distribution transformers and the penetration level of PVs in the network [2].

On the other hand, voltage sag can be observed in distribution networks due to different criteria such as temporary faults. For

example, a single–phase, line–to–line and three phase faults (with a probability of 81%, 10% and 9%) result in voltage sag in

distribution feeders in some or all the phases [16].

Parallel and series converter–based Custom Power Devices (CPD) are already used widely for power quality

improvement in electric networks [17–18]. Among different CPDs, Distribution Static Compensators (DSTATCOM) and

Dynamic Voltage Restorers (DVR) are already proven to be able to compensate reactive power, mitigate harmonics and

reduce voltage variations in a network [17]. A comprehensive survey on different topologies and control strategies of these

CPDs are presented in [19–20].

In this paper, the application of DSTATCOM and DVR are investigated for VU reduction and voltage profile correction

within LV residential distribution networks with unequal distribution of single–phase rooftop PVs among the network three

phases. Their installation location along the feeder, efficacy and ratings are also discussed. In addition, application of

multiple small–rated DVRs is considered in rural long LV feeders. These studies are carried out based on load flow and

numerical analyses in MATLAB. However, due to uncertainty in load demand and PV generation in addition to PV ratings

and locations along the feeder, deterministic load flow results are not very reliable. For this reason, a Monte Carlo–based

Page 2
stochastic analysis is carried out later. This analysis is to investigate the efficacy of the proposed CPDs for many different

uncertainties within the network. After the numerical analyses, a converter topology and control algorithm is proposed for

the DSTATCOM and DVR for balancing the network voltage at their point of common coupling. A state feedback control,

based on pole–shift technique, is developed to regulate the voltage in the output of the DSTATCOM and DVR converters

such that the desired voltage balancing is achieved. The dynamic feasibility of voltage unbalance and profile improvement in

the network, by the proposed structure and control algorithm for the DSTATCOM and DVR, is verified through simulations

in PSCAD/EMTDC. The application of these CPDs for voltage balancing in LV feeders and the developed and proposed

converter control technique are the main contributions of this paper.

II. VOLTAGE PROFILE AND UNBALANCE

The Electricity supplies are nominally 110 or 220–240 V single–phase to ground RMS for residential customers.

National standards specify that the nominal voltage at the source should be in a narrow tolerance range. Based on Australian

Standard Voltages (AS60038), Australian LV network is 230 V with a tolerance between +10% and –6% [21].

VU in three–phase systems is a condition in which the three phase voltages differ in magnitude and/or do not have 120

phase difference. Based on different standards, various definitions of VU are explored and compared in [22] and their proper

applications are examined. VU can be defined based on IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality

[23] as

V
VU %   100 (1)
V

where V– and V+ are respectively the negative and positive sequences of the network line voltage. This will be referred to as

VU percentage in the paper. According to IEEE Std. 1159 [23], IEC 61000 [24] and EN 50160 [25] standards, the allowable

limit for VU is limited to 2% in LV networks for 95% of the data measured over a 7–day period in 10–minute RMS values.

Engineering Recommendation P29 in UK not only limits VU of the network to 2%, but also limits the VU to 1.3% at the

load point [26]. In this paper, VU standard limit is assumed as to be 2%.

References [23–26] indicate that VU is to be calculated from network line voltages in 10 minute time intervals where

only the data with confidence level of 95% are to be used in this calculation. This time and confidence level based

calculation method is to remove the load transient and intermittency effects from VU calculation since VU in general

represents the steady–state condition of the network.

III. NETWORK UNDER CONSIDERATION AND NETWORK ANALYSES

A typical Australian radial urban LV residential distribution feeder is considered in this paper, with the single line

diagram shown in Fig. 1(a). For analyzing this network, the neutral conductor that creates a path for the return current is

taken into consideration.

Page 3
 First, a load flow analysis is to be carried out in steady–state condition. From the load flow analysis, the voltages at the

desired nodes along the feeder will be calculated. The KCL equation for the kth node of phase–A can be described as

 VA, PV , k  VA, k  VA, k 1  VA, k VA, k 1  VA, k VN , k  V A , k

   0 (2)
X A, PV , k Zf Zf Z A, L , k

where Zf is the feeder impedance between two adjacent nodes in each phase, VA,i, (i =1,…,n) is the single–phase voltage of

the ith node of phase–A, ZA,L,k is the load impedance connected to the kth node of phase–A and VN,k is the voltage of the neutral

wire connected to kth node. VA,PV,k and XA,PV,k are the PV voltage and impedance connected to the kth node of phase–A. In (2),

 = 1 when a PV is connectd to the kth node, otherwise, it is zero. Similar equations are valid for phases B and C and the

neutral line.

The simplified diagram of the PV connection to the grid is shown in Fig. 1(b). Based on this figure, the output power of

the PV inverter, at its grid connection point, is calculated as

sin  PV , k   k 
VPV , k Vk (3)
PPV , k 
X PV , k

QPV , k 
Vk
X PV , k

VPV , k cos  PV , k   k   Vk  (4)

where PPV,k and QPV,k are respectively the active and reactive power output of the PV connected to the kth node and V = |V|

is the phasor representation. Assuming PPV,k and QPV,k to be constant and |Vk| and k are known, |VPV,k| and PV,k can be

calculated. Based on IEEE Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of PV systems [27], the PV inverters operate in a

power factor close to unity when their output active power is above the 10% of their nominal rating. For unity power factor

operation mode, QPV,k in (4) is zero.

It is to be noted that most PV inverters may not operate at unity power factor when their output power is in the low range

of their nominal rating. This study did not investigate the effect of non–unity power factor operation of rooftop PVs, mainly

due to unavailability of well–developed research reports on this subject, and can be a future research topic by itself.

However, if such information is available, the relevant value of QPV,k is to be updated in (4) accordingly.

To calculate Vk from (2)–(4), an iterative method is required. Starting with a set of initial values, the entire network is

solved to determine Vk. Once the solution converges, the sequence components are calculated. These sequence components

are later used for VU calculation given in (1).

It is to be noted that since in general, VU is a steady–state parameter of the network and is to be measured at 10 minute

time intervals, the transient and intermittent characteristic of PVs and loads are not of interest in VU studies.

The distribution network load and PV output power generation are time variant. They vary within the 24–hour period as

well as different months and seasons. Therefore, for a specific network, there might be hundreds of different load demand

and PV output power generation patterns throughout the year. In addition to this, the number of PVs installed by

Page 4
householders within the network, their nominal ratings and locations have random values. Therefore, a stochastic analysis is

necessary to consider all these different random data for a network [28].

For investigating the efficacy of the proposed CPDs for VU improvement in the LV feeder for any combination of loads

and PVs, a stochastic analysis based on Monte Carlo method is carried out. The four uncertainties in this study are:

residential loads demand, number of householders with installed rooftop PVs, active power output of PVs and the location of

PVs in different phases and along the feeder. This study utilizes the stochastic analysis method presented in [12] and the

flowchart of the study is shown in Fig. 2.

It is to be noted that PV output power can be defined based on the probabilistic PV model developed in [29], if a

generalized PV model representing different meteorological conditions is required. However, as the main target of the

stochastic analysis in this paper is to investigate the performance of CPDs, a simple model is utilized for representing the

rooftop PVs. In this regard, a Time parameter is considered which represents the time of the analysis over the 24–hr period

and is normalized in [0 1] range. Time is utilized to select correlated random numbers among load demand as well as the

instantaneous PV output power based on the percentage of their nominal capacities. On the other hand, assuming distribution

of rooftop PVs in one small geographic area and similar meteorological conditions for all of them, the uncertainties for all

PVs were assumed to be the same. Therefore, for simplicity, only a Cloud parameter, represented by a normal distribution,

was utilized to resemble the effect of clouds. Cloud was considered in this study only in defining the PV output power

generation. Modeling details of the uncertainties are given in Table III, in the Appendix. These data are assumed to be the

VU measurement data at 10 min time intervals as needed in [22].

The expected VU at the calculation node, VU j , from each Monte Carlo trial 1 ≤ k ≤ N, is calculated by

VU
1
VU j  k (5)
N k 1

The standard deviation (STD) of VU at the studied nodes (i.e. beginning or end of feeder) is calculated as

   
1 N 2
STD VU j  VU k  VU j (6)
N  1 k 1

The stopping rule of the Monte Carlo method is chosen based on achieving an acceptable convergence for VU and STD(VU).

For this, the Monte Carlo simulation is deemed to have converged when a confidence degree of 95% is achieved. However, a

minimum of N = 20,000 trials was also utilized to avoid premature convergence [12]. The VU results as the output of the

Monte Carlo simulations are used to calculate the Probability Density Function (PDF) of VU.

IV. CUSTOM POWER DEVICES

Converter–based CPDs, in particular DSTATCOMs and DVRs are shown to be effective in compensating reactive

power, mitigating harmonics and reducing voltage variations in electric networks [30–33]. In this paper, two different
Page 5
improvement methods based on CPDs are applied to correct the voltage at their Point of Common Coupling (PCC) by

forcing the three phase voltages to be of the same desired magnitude, while their phases are separated by 120°. The first

method is utilizing a DSTATCOM with the proposed structure and developed control objective. The second method is

application of a DVR with a different proposed structure and control objective. A similar converter switching control

technique is proposed for both of them. It is to be noted that either of these methods can successfully minimize VU in the

feeder and they are not required to be utilized simultaneously in a feeder.

A. DSTATCOM

A DSTATCOM is to be connected in parallel to the network, as shown in Fig. 3(a). It will adjust the voltage magnitude

at its PCC to the desired value of EDSTAT (e.g. 0.94 ≤ EDSTAT ≤ 1 pu). This will be achieved if the DSTATCOM exchanges a

required amount of reactive power with its PCC.

Let us assume that a three–phase DSTATCOM is installed at the kth node of the network in Fig. 1(a). This node will be

assumed as a voltage controlled node (i.e., with constant active power and voltage magnitude). The sum of active power

injected by DSTATCOM in three phases is set to be zero (PDSTAT,k = 0) and the voltage magnitude for all three phases is set

to be EDSTAT. The amount of reactive power to be injected/absorbed by DSTATCOM is given by

   2    Vk 1  Vk 1 VN , k  
 1  
QDSTAT , k   ImVk  Vk       

      (7)

   Z f Z L,k   Zf Z L,k  


Based on the calculated QDSTAT,k, PCC voltage (Vk) will be modified as

1  PDSTAT , k  jQDSTAT , k  V  V V 
Vk     k 1 k 1
 N ,k 
2 1  Vk  Zf Z L,k 
    (8)
Z f Z L,k

Equations (7)–(8) are used in the network analysis iterative method along with equations (2)–(4) for the node in which the

DSTATCOM is installed.

When a DSTATCOM is installed in a node, it will inject/absorb reactive power to adjust the voltage in that node to the

desired value. By changing the PCC voltage, the voltages of all nodes along the feeder will be improved accordingly. The

reactive power exchanged by the DSTATCOM depends on loads parameters, PV generations as well as the feeder

parameters. Based on the required reactive power to be exchanged by the DSTATCOM and the small active power loss in its

converter, the rating of the DSTATCOM will be defined.

B. DVR

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) are widely used for protecting electrical devices where an unexpected power

disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss [34]. Among their different topologies, on–

Page 6
line UPSs are used to continuously supply the equipment that is very sensitive to power fluctuations. A DVR has the same

functionality and structure of an on–line UPS system. However, its control objectives are modified so that not only it will

compensate voltage sag/swell but also will correct its PCC voltage to a balanced three–phase voltage.

A DVR is to be connected in series within the network as shown in Fig. 3(b), where the DVR terminals are indicated with

voltages of Vin and Vref. The DVR adds/subtracts a small amount of voltage in series with the network such that the

magnitude of Vref voltage becomes equal to a desired value of EDVR (e.g. 0.94 ≤ EDVR ≤ 1 pu). In Fig. 3(b), 0 ≤  ≤ 1

represents the location of DVR between two adjacent buses k and k + 1. Unlike a DSTSTCOM, a DVR needs to

inject/absorb both active and reactive power. However, as will be shown later, its rating is much smaller than that of a

DSTSTCOM for the same network.

The amount of necessary voltage to be added by the DVR to phase–A of the network is

VDVR , A  Vref , A  Vin , A (9)

The desired voltages at the output of DVR for all three phases are based on same desired magnitude (EDVR) and are displaced

120° from each other. These reference voltages are set based on the angle of one of the phases of the voltage Vin as

Vref , A  EDVR   in , A
Vref , B  EDVR   in , A  2 3 (10)
Vref , C  EDVR   in , A  2 3

For network analysis, equations (9)–(10) are used in the network analysis iterative method along with equations (2)–(4) at

the DVR connection point. Unlike a DSTSTCOM, which improves the voltages of all nodes along the feeder, a DVR only

improves the voltages of its downstream nodes.

As DVR is connected in series, its rating depends on the added/subtracted voltage as well as the current flowing through it

towards the downstream network. For a DVR installed closer to the beginning of the feeder, the voltage to be

added/subtracted is less compared to when it is installed at the far end of the feeder. However, higher current is passing

through the DVR when installed closer to beginning of the feeder compared to when installed at far end of the feeder.

Therefore, to reduce DVR rating while satisfying the voltage and VU conditions, EDVR needs to have a higher value when

installed closer to the beginning of the feeder and needs to have a lower value when installed at far end of the feeder. Hence,

selection of EDVR is based on DVR location along the feeder and has a significant effect on the DVR rating.

C. Structure and Connection Type

The proposed CPDs are consisted of three single–phase H–bridge Voltage Source Converters (VSC) with LC filter in the

output, as shown in Fig. 4. The VSCs are composed of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) and are connected to a

common DC capacitor. Each IGBT has proper anti-parallel diode, snubber and protection circuits. The output of each H–

bridge is connected to a single–phase transformer. In DSTATCOM structure, as shown in Fig 4(a), the three transformers are

Page 7
star–connected in the secondary side and are then connected in parallel to the network. In DVR structure, as shown in Fig

4(b), the secondary side of each transformer is connected in series with one of the phases of the feeder. The transformers

have a unity ratio and provide galvanic isolation. The transformers provide isolation between the converters and this prevents

the DC capacitor from being shorted through switches in different converters [17]. The switching losses in IGBTs and diodes

as well as the transformer core loss due to high frequency switching are the main reasons for power loss in the CPDs. In Fig.

4, Rf represents the switching losses for each VSC in addition to its transformer losses, while Lf represents the leakage

reactance of each transformer and the filter capacitor Cf is connected to the output of the transformers to bypass the

switching harmonics.

D. Converter Switching Control

For the dynamic studies, the CPDs and their VSC switching control are modeled in detail. The single–phase equivalent

circuit of VSC for DSTATCOM and DVR is shown in Fig. 4(c). Both DSTATCOM and DVR are designed to operate in

voltage control mode. In this figure, Vdc is the DC voltage across the converter DC capacitor and uVdc represents the

converter output voltage, where u is the switching function. For a 2–level (bipolar) control, u can take 1 value, which will

subsequently turn ON/OFF the relevant pair of IGBTs in the VSC. The main aim of the converter switching control is to

generate u.

The bilinear differential equations that describe dynamic behavior of converter and filter of Fig. 4(c) are given by

di f (t )
u.Vdc  R f i f (t )  L f  vcf (t )
dt
(11)
dvcf (t )
i f (t )  C f  iT (t )
dt

where vcf (t) is the instantaneous voltage across AC filter capacitor Cf and if (t) is the current passing through the filter

inductor Lf. Let us assume the state vector x(t) for the system of converter and filter be defined as

x(t ) [vcf (t ) i f (t )]T (12)

where T is the transpose operator. Then, the linear invariant time model of converter and filter is represented in state space

representation as

x (t )  A x(t )  B1 uc (t )  B2 iT (t )
(13)
y (t )  C x(t )

where

 1 
 0   0   1 
Cf 
A  , B1  Vdc  , B2   C f  , C  1 0
 1 Rf     
 L 
Lf   L f   0 
 f 

Page 8
are system matrices, uc(t) is the continuous–time version of switching function u and iT(t) represents the network loads effect

on the converter control and hence is assumed as a disturbance parameter for the control system and will be neglected when

designing the controller. In (13), the system output is defined as y = x1 (t) = vcf (t), since a voltage control mode is desired for

the CPDs.

As the system behavior is governed by the poles of its transfer function (i.e. the eigenvalues of matrix A), it is often

desirable to modify the poles of the system in order to obtain certain properties such as rise/settling time, damping, overshoot

and stability. In this paper, the system of converter and filter operate by a state feedback control based on pole–shift

technique, which is a modification of pole–placement technique. In pole–placement technique, the desired closed–loop poles

of the system are specified by the user. However, in pole–shift technique, the open–loop poles are shifted radially towards

the origin (i.e. more stable locations) to form the closed–loop poles.

Eq. (13) can be represented in discrete–time domain as [35]

x(k  1)  Fx(k )  G1uc (k )  G2iT (k )

(14)
y (k )  Cx(k )

where

Ts Ts

F e 
G1  e B1 dt 
G2  e At B2 dt
A.Ts At
, ,
0 0

and Ts is the sampling time. Assuming the feedback control has the form of Fig. 5 [36], the considered system of converter

and filter is represented as

y k  G1 z 1

 
uc k  F z 1   (15)

where F and G are polynomials given by

 
F z 1  1  f1 z 1  f 2 z 2  f 3 z 3  ...
G z   g z
1 1
(16)
1 1  g 2 z  2  g3 z 3  ...

and z–1 is the delay operator. Now, let the control law be given by [18]

uc k  
 
S z 1
yref k   y k  
 
R z 1
(17)

where yref is the desired (reference) output. From Fig. 5, the closed–loop characteristic equation of the system T (z1) is given

as

        
T z 1  F z 1 R z 1  G z 1 S z 1 (18)

Unlike the pole–placement technique where T (z1) is pre–defined by the user, pole–shift technique takes the form of

   
T z 1  F z 1 (19)

Page 9
where the poles are shifted by  towards origin. In this technique, the closed–loop poles are obtained by multiplying the

open–loop eigenvalues by 0 <  < 1. This shifting results in the characteristic equation of the desired closed–loop system in

the form of

 
T z 1  1   f1 z 1  2 f 2 z 2  3 f 3 z 3  ... (20)

where  is a scalar close to one (e.g.  = 0.8) that is called the pole–shift factor. The pole–shift factor is the only parameter to

be defined in the controller and its value determines the control gain. It is adjusted such that the controller is limited only for

the first few swings following a large impact on the system. Given β is the absolute of the largest characteristic root of F

(z1), for guaranteeing the closed–loop system stability,  is limited as [36]

1 1
   (21)
 

Since the penalty on control action can be easily adjusted by  as in (21), the closed–loop system will unlikely be instable.

This is an advantage of the pole–shift technique compared to other techniques such as deadbeat control which forces all the

closed–loop poles to the origin and requires excessive control effort. Note that the adaptive mechanism introduced in [36]

can also be used in defining  to further improve the response characteristics of the closed–loop system. More details on the

stability of pole–shift technique based controls are provided in [17].

By replacing (20) in (18) and equating the coefficients of z–1, z–2,…, the controller coefficients in R (z1) and S (z1) can be

retrieved as discussed in [37]. For the system of converter and filter under consideration in this paper, based on the system

order in (12)–(13), S (z–1) and R (z–1) in (17) are simplified as

uc k 

 
S z 1

s0  s1 z 1
 
yref k   y k  R z 1 1  r1 z 1
(22)

and the final objective of the controller design is to calculate proper values for s0, s1 and r1. Based on these calculated values,

the reference tracking error, uc (k) is defined from (17). To achieve a zero reference tracking error, the switching function u is

generated through a hysteresis control of uc (k) within a very small bandwidth of h (e.g. h = 10–4) as

If uc (k) > + h then u = +1

If – h ≤ uc (k) ≤ + h then u = previous u (23)

If uc (k) < – h then u = –1

If u = 1, then S1 pair of IGBTs turn ON and if u = –1, then S2 pair of IGBTs turn ON. This switching control was considering

only one phase. Similar switching action is also employed for the other two phases, separately.

Note that, the switching frequency of IGBTs depend on the value of h. Although reducing h to smaller values improves

the reference tracking in the converter output, it might lead to very high and impractical switching frequencies in the

converter. On the other hand, the power loss in the IGBTs and diodes depend on their switching frequency and therefore on

h. Although reducing h to very small values improve the reference tracking by the DSTATCOM and DVR, it may lead to
Page 10
higher power losses in their VSCs. Therefore, h is to be defined such that a proper reference tracking is achieved while the

switching frequency and power losses in the VSC are acceptable.

As the DSTATCOM and DVR are both connected to a DC capacitor, instead of a DC source, it is required that the voltage

across the DC capacitors is regulated to a constant reference value. The DSTATCOM and DVR will perform as expected

(i.e. generating the desired reference voltages in their outputs) as far as the voltage across their DC capacitor (Vdc) is kept

constant to its reference (Vdc,ref). This is valid when the AC system does not exchange any power with the DC capacitors

[17]. This can be reassured if the AC system replenishes the converter losses for both DSTATCOM and DVR. For this, the

angle of the voltage across the AC filter capacitor ( cf) is varied with respect to the DC capacitor voltage variations as

 K 

 cf   K P  I  Vdc2 , ref  Vdc2  (24)
 s 

where KP and KI are PI controller parameters. In (24), the square of the DC capacitor voltage is utilized to improve the

settling time of cf in respect to the DC capacitor voltage variations [38].

This converter switching control strategy is used in Section VI for dynamic simulation studies, to generate the desired

EDSTAT (for DSTATCOM) and EDVR (for DVR) in their converter outputs.

E. Protection System

There are two protection systems for the proposed DSTATCOM and DVR. The first one is the protection circuit of the

IGBTs in H–bridges. This protection circuit is mainly to protect the IGBTs from short-circuit, overloading and voltage

variations. This protection is either included within the Intelligent Power Modules (IPM) or should be developed separately

according to the IGBTs datasheet.

The second one is the CPD module protection. Distribution network operators, who are obliged to connect these CPDs to

their respective distribution networks, need a coherent set of electrical protection requirements for network safe operation.

For this, the converters of DSTATCOM and DVR are expected to operate within a specific range of voltage, similar to those

of rooftop PV inverters [39]. Therefore, protection logic needs to be developed within the CPD controller such that it shuts

down the converters if the voltage in the PCC of DSTATCOM and DVR is beyond these limits. Defining this limit is beyond

the research scope of this paper and should be studied separately based on network conditions and protection requirements.

It is also to be noted that DSTATCOM and DVR effects is to be considered for protection settings and coordination in the

distribution network, as they may modify the short–circuit level and fault impedance, seen by overcurrent and distance

relays, during fault periods in the network [40].

V. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Let us assume that one 11 kV overhead line is feeding several 11 kV/415 V distribution transformers. Only one radial LV

(415 V) residential feeder is considered with a total load demand of 120 kW. The feeder length is taken as 400 meters. The

poles are located at a distance of 40 meters from each other. At each pole, 2 houses are supplied from each phase. Other
Page 11
distribution transformers with their loads in the 11 kV network are considered as one single lumped load. The feeders and

their cross–section are designed appropriately based on the nominal power drawn and voltage drop. The network data are for

a typical LV urban residential network in Brisbane, Australia and are given in Table IV, in the Appendix.

It is assumed that during the period of study, the loads of phase A, B and C are 20, 40 and 60 kW, respectively. The

rooftop PVs installed by the householders have an output power in the range of 1–5 kW working in UPF. Non–unity power

factor operation mode is not considered in the following analyses. Several studies are performed, some of which are

discussed below.

A. Nominal Case

Let us first assume there is no rooftop PV installed in the network. The voltage magnitude at the beginning of the feeder is

0.98, 0.97 and 0.97 pu for phases A, B and C, respectively. However, these values decrease to 0.96, 0.94 and 0.92 pu,

respectively, at the end of the feeder. VU along the feeder has increased from 0.32 % at the beginning of feeder to 1.31% at

the end.

Let us now consider the case in which rooftop PVs are installed in such a way that a high VU is observed at the end of the

feeder. For this purpose, the total power generation of rooftop PVs are assumed to be 40, 5 and 1 kW in phases A, B and C,

respectively. The PV locations and ratings are given in Table IV, in the Appendix. Now, in phase A, the power generation of

PVs is 40 kW while the load demand is 20 kW. This results in reverse active power flow in phase A from PVs to the

transformer. Therefore, the voltage profile of phase A increases from the beginning of the feeder towards the end of the

feeder. Hence, VU increases to 2.56 % at the end of the feeder due to unequal distribution of PVs in the network.

B. DSTATCOM Application

Now, let us now assume a DSTATCOM is installed at 280 m (2/3rd) from the beginning of the feeder. The DSTATCOM

is controlled to adjust the PCC voltage magnitude to EDSTAT = 0.98 pu. The voltage profile of the three phases of the network

before and after DSTATCOM installation is shown in Fig. 6(a). In this figure, the dashed lines show the voltage profile

before DSTATCOM installation, while the solid lines show the voltage profile after DSTATCOM installation. It is clearly

evident that the DSTATCOM is capable of adjusting the magnitude of all three phases to EDSTAT by injecting reactive power

to phases B and C and absorbing reactive power from phase A. In this case, the DSTATCOM has a rating of 80 kVA.

For investigating the effect of DSTATCOM location in VU reduction, another study is carried out. In this study, the

DSTATCOM is installed in different nodes along the feeder and the VU profiles are compared. In Fig. 6(b), VU profile

along the feeder is shown before and after DSTATCOM installation in 4 different locations along the feeder: at 1/3rd of

feeder from the transformer, midpoint, 2/3 rd of feeder and at the end. Comparing the VU profiles for these four cases, it can

be concluded that DSTATCOM installation is not effective near the beginning of the feeder. When the DSTATCOM is

installed at the end of the feeder, the nodes around the midpoint observe higher VU. If the DSTATCOM is installed

Page 12
somewhere around 2/3rd of feeder, it has the best VU reduction effect along the feeder. From this figure, it can be concluded

that DSTATCOM will have better results when installed anywhere between the midpoint and 2/3rd of the feeder. Maximum

value of VU in the network after DSTATCOM installation at 2/3 rd of the feeder is 0.55 %, observed at the end of the feeder.

This value is even smaller than the case when no PVs were installed in the network. This verifies the high effectiveness of

DSTATCOM application for VU reduction and voltage profile improvement in these networks.

C. DVR Application

Instead of a DSTATCOM, let us now assume a DVR is installed in series with the LV feeder, at 120 m (1/3rd) from the

feeder beginning. The DVR is used to adjust its output voltage (Vref) magnitude to EDVR = 0.975 pu. For this case, the DVR

adds some positive voltage to phases B and C and some negative voltage to phase A.

For investigating the effect of DVR installation and its location in VU reduction, another study is carried out. In this study,

the DVR is installed at different locations along the feeder and the VU profiles are compared. In Fig. 7, VU profile along the

feeder is shown when the DVR is installed in series at very beginning, 1/3rd of feeder, middle and 2/3rd of feeder. Comparing

the VU profiles for these four cases, it can be concluded that DVR installation is not effective at the very beginning or far

end of the feeder. Also, when the DVR is installed exactly at the middle of the feeder, a high VU is observed in the middle of

feeder (DVR input side). However, when the DVR is installed at 1/3 rd of feeder beginning, VU is smaller all along the

feeder compared to other locations. Maximum VU in the network after DVR installation at 1/3rd of feeder is 1.21 %,

observed at the end of the feeder. Although DVR has reduced VU even at the end of the feeder; it is not as successful as

DSTATCOM. Nevertheless, it must be noted that the applied DVR has a rating of 3 kVA which is much smaller compared

to the DSTATCOM rating.

D. Stochastic Analysis Results

Now, the stochastic analysis explained in Section III is carried out. In this case, first, let us assume that a DSTATCOM is

installed at 2/3rd distance of feeder beginning. VU is only calculated at the end of the feeder since it was seen that highest

VU is observed at this point. The PDF of VU at feeder end is shown in Fig. 8(a). In this figure, the dashed line represents

PDF before DSTATOM installation and the solid line represents PDF after DSTATCOM installation. The average value of

VU at feeder end is reduced from 1.71 % to 0.23 %. On the other hand, the probability of VU at feeder end to be more than

2% standard limit is reduced from 33.5% to zero after DSTATCOM installation.

Now, let us assume that instead of DSTATCOM, a DVR is installed at 1/3 rd distance of feeder beginning. Maximum of

VU is calculated all along the feeder. PDF of highest VU is shown in Fig. 8(b). In this figure, the dashed line represents PDF

before DVR installation and the solid line represents PDF after DVR installation. The average value of highest VU along the

feeder is reduced from 1.71 % to 1.04 %. On the other hand, the probability of VU at feeder end to be more than 2%

Page 13
standard limit is reduced from 33.5% to zero after DVR installation. Comparing this figure with Fig. 8(a), it is shown that

DSTATCOM has better results in VU reduction compared to DVR.

E. Semi–Urban/Rural LV Feeder

LV networks are usually designed to satisfy voltage drop standards. Urban LV lines are not very long (typically 400

meters in length). However, geographical issues in addition to cost analysis might lead some utilities to install longer LV

networks. This happens more frequently in rural/semi–urban/low load density areas. To investigate this, a feeder with a

length of 800 m is considered. Four different cases are studied as follows:

1. A DSTATCOM is installed at 2/3rd of the feeder,

2. A DVR is installed at 1/3rd of the feeder,

3. Two DVRs installed at 1/4th and midpoint of the feeder.

4. Three DVRs installed at 1/10th, 1/4th and midpoint of the feeder.

The VU profiles of the four cases are shown in Fig. 9. The VU at the feeder end in nominal case without either

DSTATCOM or DVR reaches 4.5%. However it reduces to 0.68 % by using the DSTATCOM (case 1). When a DVR is used

(case 2), the VU has a maximum of 2.3 % just before DVR location and 2.58 % at the feeder end. This is beyond the VU

standard limit. By installing two DVRs (case 3), the VU is 1.9 % and 1.51 % just before the first and second DVR locations,

and reaches 1.45 % at the end of feeder. If three DVRs are installed, maximum VU is 1.45 % at the end of the feeder and it

less than 1.2 % before all the DVR locations along the feeder. It can be seen that VU for cases (1), (3) and (4) are within the

standard limit. From Fig. 9, it is obvious that a DSTATCOM is capable of adjusting voltage even in longer LV lines, but

may require higher rating. It is also seen that a single DVR is not capable of adjusting the voltage in longer LV lines.

However, when multiple DVRs are installed with proper ratings at proper locations, VU along the line can be kept within the

standard limit even in longer LV lines. Utilizing multiple DVRs in rural/semi–urban or low load density areas can help the

utilities to install much longer LV feeders, while satisfying the voltage profile standards at the end of the feeder.

VI. DYNAMIC SIMULATION RESULTS

The efficacy of the two different proposed CPDs in VU reduction and voltage profile improvement was verified through

steady–state load flow and stochastic analyses in the previous section. Although VU and voltage regulation are

predominantly steady–state (or quasi steady–state) issues, the dynamic characteristics of the proposed methods need to be

investigated. For the analyses of this section, the PV cells are modelled based on their current-voltage characteristics and

connected to the grid through a single–phase inverter, as discussed in [41], to represent dynamic characteristics of PVs.

Through the dynamic analyses, the effectiveness of the proposed CPDs and their control strategies in voltage unbalance and

profile improvement as well as their effective and prompt responses to variations in load demand and PV output power are

investigated. Several case studies are performed in PSCAD/EMTDC, some of which discussed below.

Page 14
 Let us assume that initially the total power generation of rooftop PVs are 40, 5 and 1 kW in phases A, B and C,

respectively, while the total loads in these phases are respectively 20, 40 and 60 kW.

A. DSTATCOM Dynamic Performance

Now, let us assume a DSTATCOM is installed at the 2/3rd point of the feeder. At t = 1 s, the DSTATCOM is connected to

the network. The DSTATCOM PCC instantaneous and RMS voltages are shown in Fig. 10(a) and (b). It can be seen from

these figures that the three–phase voltage waveform seems more balanced and the RMS values of the three phases are shifted

up close to the desired value (EDSTAT = 0.98 pu), after DSTATCOM connection.

With the system operating in the steady state, with the DSATCOM being connected, the PV generation is increased by 13

kW and 1 kW in phases A and B, respectively at t1 = 0.05 s. Subsequently at t2 = 0.35 s, a load change is created in the

network. A total 4 kW load is reduced from phase–A, 8 kW increased in Phase–B and 12 kW increased in phase–C.

Furthermore at t3=0.55 s, another PV generation and load variation occur. A total 8 kW of PV output is reduced from phase–

A while 2 kW and 6 kW PV output is increased in phases B and C, respectively. At the same time, the load in phase–A in

increased by 2 kW while the load in phases B and C is decreased by 4 kW and 6 kW, respectively. The power flow from the

transformer to the LV network is shown for each phase separately in Fig. 10(c). This variation is due to load demand or PV

output changes explained above.

The variation in VU at the end of the feeder, before and after DSTATCOM installation, is shown in Fig. 10(d). Comparing

the VU results in this figure, the efficacy of DSTATCOM application is verified. The DSTATCOM exchanges reactive

power with its PCC in order to correct its PCC voltage to a balanced three–phase voltage. Fig. 10(e) shows the output

reactive power of the DSTATCOM. As seen from this figure, the DSTATCOM varies the amount of its injected reactive

power to the network, based on network load and PV generation variations, so that the PCC voltage magnitude is regulated

to the desired value. The DSTATCOM power requirements for different time periods are given in Table I.

Another study is carried out to investigate the performance of DSTATCOM in voltage regulation during voltage sags in

upstream network. Let us assume the network is in steady–state condition at t = 0. For analysing a worst case scenario, it is

assumed a three–phase voltage sag of 85% is observed in the upstream 11 kV network at t = 0.05 s with a duration of 0.1 s,

as shown in Fig. 11(a). Before DSTATCOM connection, this voltage sag is consequently observed in the DSTATCOM

PCC, as shown in Fig. 11(b). However, if the DSTATCOM is connected and operates based on the proposed voltage

regulation algorithm, the voltage sag is compensated by the DSTATCOM and no voltage sag is observed, as shown in Fig.

11(c). This verifies the efficacy of the dynamic performance of the proposed DSTATCOM for voltage sag compensation in

its PCC.

As the LV distribution network may be supplying several harmonic loads, another case is studied to investigate the

performance of the proposed DSTATCOM for voltage regulation and unbalance improvement in such cases. For this, let us

assume the network is in steady–state condition at t = 0 with several single–phase harmonic loads with a total of 53 kW load
Page 15
demand (i.e. 33% of total demand of the network) are connected to the LV distribution feeder and the DSTATCOM is

disconnected. This causes a voltage total harmonic distortion of 4.85% at DSTATCOM PCC. Now, let us assume the

DSTATCOM connects at t = 0.035 s. As soon as the DSTATCOM is connected, it regulates its PCC voltage to a three–phase

balanced source, as shown in Fig. 12. Accordingly, the PCC voltage total harmonic distortion is decreased to below 0.8%

(i.e. more than 6 times reduction). This verifies the efficacy of the proposed DSTATCOM for voltage regulation and

unbalance improvement even in the presence of harmonic loads in the network.

B. DVR Dynamic Performance

Another study is carried out to investigate DVR dynamic performance. Now, let us assume a DVR is installed at 1/3rd

point along the feeder in the network of case–A, instead of the DSTATCOM. In Fig. 13(a) and (b), the PCC instantaneous

and RMS voltages are shown for cases before and after DVR installation. As it can be seen from these figures, the three–

phase voltage waveform seems more balanced and the RMS values of the three phases are shifted up to the desired value of

EDVR = 0.975 pu, after DVR installation.

The VU at the end of the feeder before and after DVR installation is shown in Fig. 13(c) for the same PV generation and

load variation discussed in Case–A. The RMS of the injected voltage by DVR to each phase of the LV feeder is shown in

Fig. 13(d). As seen from this figure, the DVR will vary the amount of its injected voltage to each phase based on network

load and power parameters to adjust its output voltage to the desired value. Comparing the VU in Fig. 13(c) with those of

Fig. 10(d), it is obvious that the DSTATCOM reduces the VU more than DVR. The DVR power requirements for different

time periods are given in Table I.

C. Multi–DVRs in Semi–Urban/Rural Feeders

For studying the dynamic characteristics of multiple DVRs in series for semi–urban/rural networks, another study is

carried out. The network of Case–A with the same PV power generation and residential load pattern is assumed to have a

length of 1000 m. The VU at the end of the feeder varies between 4 % and 5 % at different time intervals. Let us assume now

that 3 DVRs are installed at 1/10th, 1/4th and midpoint of the feeder. These points were shown to have the best result on VU

reduction all along the feeder in Section V(E). The VU at the end of the feeder and before the location of each DVR (DVR

input) is shown in Fig. 14. From this figure, it can be seen that VU along the feeder is kept below 2% at all periods. The

voltage RMS injected by each DVR to each phase in addition to the total power requirement of each DVR for each period is

given in Table II. The results from this table illustrate that 3 DVRs each with a rating of less than 8 kVA connected in series

at right locations can successfully reduce a 5 % VU to below the standard level. The studied case not only shows the

effectiveness of the proposed method in voltage unbalance reduction along a long LV feeder but also demonstrates the

dynamic feasibility of installing several series connected DVRs in one feeder.

Page 16
VII. CONCLUSIONS

Random location and rating of single–phase rooftop PVs installed by householders may result in high VU in LV feeders,

especially at the end of the feeders. In this paper, applications of DSTATCOM and DVR were proposed and investigated for

VU reduction in LV residential feeders with unequal distribution of single–phase rooftop PVs among the three phases. Based

on numerical analyses for steady–state condition, it was shown a DSTATCOM has better results for voltage profile

improvement and VU reduction in comparison with a DVR. However, it was shown that a DVR requires a much smaller

rating than a DSTATCOM. It was also demonstrated that a DSTATCOM and DVR need to be installed respectively at 2/3 rd

and 1/3rd of the feeder beginning in order to have better results in VU reduction along the feeder. The Monte Carlo–based

stochastic analyses demonstrated that for a vast combination of random load and PV rating and location scenarios, the

proposed CPDs are successful in reducing VU to below the standard limits. Later, a converter and filter topology was

proposed for the DSTATCOM and DVR. A properly designed pole–shift based state feedback control was developed for

DSTATCOM and DVR converter switching control in order to achieve a desired voltage control mode in their output to

enhance voltage unbalance improvement at their PCC. Applications of multiple DVRs was also proposed and studied for

longer LV feeders in rural and low load density areas. Through extensive detailed modeling of the CPDs and their control

algorithms in PSCAD/EMTDC, their dynamic feasibility was investigated and it was proved that they respond effectively

and promptly to load demand and PV output variations in the network.

It is to be noted that the cost–related issues where not the focus of this paper. A techno–cost analysis was not carried out

for the proposed methods mainly due to the fact that currently these devices are not commercially available in high numbers

and in different ratings in the market. However, as the need for them increases and they become commercially available in

the market, their costs will drop significantly. In addition, as the proposed CPDs result in higher power quality in the

network, the utilities may apply different tariffs for the customers in the feeders with such power quality improvement

devices.

APPENDIX

Table III

Table IV

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distributed generation,” Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 89, pp. 85–99, August 2012.

[40] A. Kazemi, S. Jamali and H. Shateri, “Effects of DSTATCOM on measured impedance at source node of distribution

feeder,” IET–CIRED Seminar on Smart Grids for Distribution, pp. 1–4, June 2008.

[41] F. Shahnia, R. Majumder, A. Ghosh, G. Ledwich and F. Zare, “Operation and control of a hybrid microgrid containing

unbalanced and nonlinear loads,” Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 80, Issue 8, pp. 954–965, August 2010.

Page 20
Table I. Power Requirement of DSTATCOM and DVR for Case A and B.

Apparent Power [KVA] Between t1 and t2 Between t2 and t3 After t3

DSTATCOM 70.0 77.5 76.6

DVR 2.1 2.9 2.3

Table II. Power Requirement of DVRs and their injected power for Case–C.

Between t1and t2 Between t2and t3 After t3

1/10th of feeder 6.29 7.91 6.58

Apparent Power [KVA] for the DVR installed at 1/4th of feeder 6.56 8.09 6.81

midpoint 5.48 6.46 5.33

Phase A 0.004 0.003 0.004

1/10th of feeder on Phase B 0.025 0.029 0.024

Phase C 0.042 0.048 0.044

Phase A 0.014 0.013 0.014

Injected Voltage RMS [pu] for the DVR installed
1/4th of feeder on Phase B 0.033 0.037 0.032
at
Phase C 0.049 0.054 0.051

Phase A 0.017 0.017 0.018

Midpoint on Phase B 0.038 0.041 0.035

Phase C 0.051 0.061 0.056

Page 21
Table III. Parameters of the Stochastic Analysis

Time Random Number Utime given in [6]

Cloud Random Number Ucloud a mean of 10% and variance of 2%

Uncertainty 1 Random Number 0 < U1 < 5 kW with normal distribution for each load in each phase

(Load Demand ) according to Utime (i.e. the residential loads are larger in evening and less in morning & noon)

Uncertainty 2 Random Number U2 distributed uniformly under [0, 1]:

(Number of Householders with rooftop PVs ) if U2 < 0.33 then No. of installed PVs = 0.25 × No. of householders

if 0.33 ≤ U2 < 0.66 then No. of installed PVs = 0.50 × No. of householders

if U2 ≥ 0.66 then No. of installed PVs = 0.75 × No. of householders

Uncertainty 3 Equal probability of 20% each for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 kW chosen by random Number:

(Nominal Rating of rooftop PVs ) if U3 < 0.2 then PPV,k = 1 kW × Utime × Ucloud

if 0.2 ≤ U3 < 0.4 then PPV,k = 2 kW × Utime × Ucloud

if 0.4 ≤ U3 < 0.6 then PPV,k = 3 kW × Utime × Ucloud

if 0.6 ≤ U3 < 0.8 then PPV,k = 4 kW × Utime × Ucloud

if U3 ≥ 0.8 then PPV,k = 5 kW × Utime × Ucloud

Uncertainty 4 Random Number U4 distributed uniformly under [0, 400 m]

(Location of PVs along the feeder in each Phase )

Monte Carlo Stopping Rule A confidence degree of 95% for convergence of mean and variance of VU in studied nodes

after a minimum of N=20,000 trials.

Table IV. Technical Parameters of the Studied LV Distribution Network

Distribution Transformer 11 kV/ 415 V, 250 kVA, 50 Hz, /  grounded, ZI = 4%

Feeders 3×70+35 mm2AAC, 400 m overhead line for LV feeder, Zf = 0.452 + j×0.270 [/km]

3×50 mm2 ACSR, 2 km overhead line for MV line, Zf = 0.910 + j×0.285 [/km]

Residential Loads 1 kW, cos = 0.95, z = 51.9840 + j×17.0863 

2 kW, cos = 0.95, z = 25.9920 + j×8.5432 

3 kW, cos = 0.95, z = 17.3280 + j×5.6954 

Rooftop PV 1–5 kW, unity power factor, L=5mH with the PV cell and single-phase inverter data as modeled in [41]

Distribution of PV 1 kW PV at node 7 of phase A and node 9 of phase C

locations and ratings 2 kW PV at nodes 1 (2 PVs), 6 (2 PVs), 9 (2 PVs), 10 (2 PVs) of phase A and node 1of phase B

3 kW PV at nodes 2 (2 PVs), 3 (2 PVs), 5 (2 PVs), 8 of phase A and node 4 of phase B

Page 22
 Phase-A VA1 VA2 VAk VAn
Zf Zf Zf Zf

PV PV PV PV
ZL,1 ~ 1 ZL,2 ~ 2 ZL,k ~ k ZL,n ~ n
ZL,N
Distribution
Transformer
3 Phase-B VB1 VB2 VBk VBn
Zf Zf Zf Zf

PV PV PV PV
ZL,1 ~ 1 ZL,2 ~ 2 ZL,k ~ k ZL,n ~ n
ZL,N

VC1 VC2 VCk VCn

Zf Zf Zf Zf
Phase-C
PV PV PV PV
ZL,1 ~ 1 ZL,2 ~ 2 ZL,k ~ k ZL,n ~ n
ZL,N

Neutral
Zn Zn Zn Zn
VN1 VN2 VNk VNn

(a)

VPV,k=|VPV,k |δPV,k Vk=|Vk |δk

+ PPV,K
XPV,k Phase
VDC Converter QPV,K Grid
-
Neutral
PV Cell
(b)

Fig. 1. (a) Single line diagram of the studied LV distribution network,

(b) Single line diagram of PV connection to grid.

Page 23
 Input System Data

N = 20,000
i=0

i=i+1

Random Time and Cloud

Generation

Uncertainty 1 Uncertainty 2 Uncertainty 3 Uncertainty 4

Generation Generation Generation Generation

Power Flow
Analysis

Voltage unbalance
Calculation

VUj and STD (VUj )

Calculation

No i>N&
Converged?

Yes
Calculate PDF

Output

Fig. 2. Monte Carlo flowchart for stochastic analysis.

Vk  1 Vk = |Vk |δk Vk + 1 Vk VIn = |Vin |δin Vref Vk + 1

|Vk | = EDSTAT |Vref | = EDVR
Zf Zf .Zf 1.Zf
 +

VDVR
ZL,k QDSTAT,k
PDSTAT,k=0

(a) (b)

Fig. 3. (a) Single line diagram of DSTATCOM connection,

(b) Single line diagram of DVR connection.

Page 24
 Neutral
PCC Neutral PCC PCC
vPCCa Phase A PCC
Phase A vPCCb
Phase B Phase B
vPCCc Phase C
Phase C iT

Cf Cf Cf if
Cf Cf Cf
Rf
Lf Lf Lf Lf Lf Lf +
Cf vcf
Rf Rf Rf Rf Rf Rf Lf

S1 S2 S1 S2
1:1 1:1
Vdc Vdc uVdc +

S2 S1 S2 S1

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4. (a) Schematic structure of DSTATCOM,

(b) Schematic structure of DVR,

(c) Single–phase equivalent circuit of VSC at PCC.

Hysteresis Control VSC and Filter System

yref k   
S z 1 u c k  u y k 
+1 x(k  1)  Fx(k )  G1uc (k )  G2iT (k )
 
+
R z 1 1
h +h
y(k )  Hx(k )
Pole Shift Control
y k   
G z 1
 1 1
u c k  F z  

Fig. 5. Schematic block diagram of the closed–loop switching control for the converter system of DSTATCOM and DVR.

Page 25
 Voltage Profile

1
Phase A
0.99

0.98

Voltage (pu)
0.97 Phase B DSTATCOM
Installation Point
(a) 0.96

0.95

0.94 Phase C

0.93

0.92
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Feeder Length (m)
Voltage Unbalance Profile
2.8

2.4
No DSTATCOM
2

DSTATCOM
1.6
VU (%)

at 1/3 feeder
(b)
1.2
DSTATCOM DSTATCOM
at 2/3 feeder DSTATCOM
at feeder end
0.8 at 1/2 feeder

0.4

0
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Feeder Length (m)

Fig. 6. (a) LV feeder voltage profile before and after DSTATCOM installation at 2/3 rd of feeder beginning,

(b) LV feeder VU profile before and after DSTATCOM installation in four different locations along the feeder.

Voltage Unbalance Profile

3
No DVR

2.5
DVR
at feeder begining
2
VU (%)

DVR
1.5 at 1/3 feeder

1 DVR
at 1/2 feeder

0.5 DVR
at 2/3 feeder

0
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Feeder Length (m)

Fig. 7. LV feeder VU profile before and after DVR installation in four different locations along the feeder.

Page 26
 Probability Density Probability Density
0.23 %
0.14 0.14 1.04 %

0.12 0.12

1.71 %
0.1 0.10
1.71 %
After
0.08 After 0.08 DVR

PDF
PDF

DSTATCOM

0.06 0.06
Before Before
DSTATCOM DVR
0.04 0.04

0.02 0.02

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2
VU (%) VU (%)

(a) (b)

Fig. 8. (a) Comparing PDF of VU at feeder end before and after DSTATCOM installation,

(b) Comparing PDF of highest VU all along the feeder before and after DVR installation.

Voltage Unbalance Profile

3
1 DVR Installed
2.5

2 DVRs Installed
2

3 DVRs Installed
1.5
VU (%)

0.5
DSTATCOM
0 Installed
DVR Location DSTATCOM Location

40 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800

Feeder Length (m)

Fig. 9. LV feeder VU profile of a semi–urban feeder.

Page 27
 PCC Instantaneous Voltage

Voltage (pu)
1

0
(a)
-1
PCC Voltage RMS

Voltage (pu)
1

(b) 0.9
Before DSTATCOM After DSTATCOM
0.8
0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25
Time (s)

Power Demand Supplied by Transformer

60
t1 t2 t3
50 Phase C
Active Power (kW)

40 Phase B

Phase A
30
(c)

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Time (s)

Voltage Unbalance Variation

3
Before
VU (%)

2
After DSTATCOM
(d)
1 DSTATCOM

0
Reactive Power (kVAr)

DSTATCOM Injected Reactive Power

100

(e) 75

50
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Time (s)

Fig. 10. (a) PCC instantaneous voltage before and after DSTATCOM connection,

(b) RMS voltage of PCC before and after DSTATCOM connection,

(c) Power demand variation for three phases of studied LV network,

(d) Voltage unbalance variation at LV feeder end before and after DSTATCOM connection,

(e) Reactive power injected by DSTATCOM to its PCC.

Page 28
 Voltage Sag in Upstream Network

Voltage (pu)
1
(a)
0

-1
PCC Voltage Before DSTATCOM

Voltage (pu)
1

(b) 0

-1

PCC Voltage After DSTATCOM

Voltage (pu)

0
(c)
-1
0 0.1 0.2
Time (s)

Fig. 11. (a) Voltage sag of 85% is observed in upstream network at t = 0.05 s for a duration of 0.1 s,

(b) PCC instantaneous voltage before DSTATCOM connection, in presence of a voltage sag in upstream network,

(c) PCC instantaneous voltage after DSTATCOM connection, in presence of a voltage sag in upstream network.

PCC Instantaneous Voltage in Presence of Harmonic Loads

1
Voltage (pu)

-1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Time (s)

Fig. 12. PCC instantaneous voltage in the presence of harmonic loads in the network, before and after connection of

DSTATCOM at t = 0.035 s.

Page 29
 Before DVR After DVR

Voltage (pu)
1

0
(a)
-1
0.98

Voltage (pu)
0.96
(b) 0.94
0.92
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1
Time (s) Time (s)

Voltage Unbalance Variation

3

2 Before DVR
VU (%)

After DVR
1
(c)
0
DVR Injected Voltage
0.06
Voltage (pu)

Phase C
(d) 0.04

0.02 Phase B
Phase A
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Time (s)

Fig. 13. (a) PCC instantaneous voltage before and after DVR application,

(b) PCC voltage RMS before and after DVR application,

(c) Voltage unbalance variation at LV feeder end before and after DVR installation,

(d) DVR injected voltage to each phase of LV feeder.

Voltage Unbalance Variation

6

5
Before DVR
4
VU (%)

End of feeder
3 After 3 DVRs Installed

1
DVR-1 input DVR-2 input DVR-3 input
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Time (s)

Fig. 14. Voltage unbalance variation at the end of the feeder and before each DVR’s location in a semi–urban network with

three DVRs installed in series.

Page 30

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