NE495

Elements of
Nuclear Engineering

Chapter 9: Lecture 1

Radiation Doses
Origins
 Discovery
Discovery of
of X
X Rays
Rays S9.1

Roentgen discovers x rays Nov. 8

1895 from electrical discharges in
Crookes tubes.
Nobel 1901
3
 Discovery
Discovery of
of X
X Rays
Rays
Roentgen discovers x rays Nov. 8
1895, and found them to be very
penetrating neutral radiation.

Frau Roentgen’s hand Dec. 22 1895

Shultis 2005 4
 Discovery
Discovery of
of Radioactivity
Radioactivity
In 1896 Bequerel placed crystals
of sulfates of U and K on covered
film plates.
Discovers radioactivity!

Nobel 1903

Shultis 2005 5
Discovery
Discovery of
of Radioactive
Radioactive Elements
Elements

Marie and Pierre Curie extracted U

from ore & found the residue was
more “active” than the U. Thus, there
must be other radioactive elements

In (1898) they isolated two

radioactive elements: radium and
polonium

These and radon were later identified

As decay products of U

Nobel 1903, M1911 6

 Early
Early Medical
Medical Uses
Uses

X rays quickly were adapted

for medical diagnosis

Shultis 2005 7
 Early
Early Medical
Medical Uses
Uses
Also quickly discovered radiation killed
bacteria and could shrink tumors

radium
treatment
1911

Shultis 2005 8
 The supposed curative power of
radiation and radioactivity also
soon became a source of much
quackery

Shultis 2005 9
 Revigator
Revigator 1920-1935
1920-1935
This was probably the most
popular device developed in the
United States to add radon to
drinking water. Advertised by the
company as "an original radium ore
patented water crock," it sold in the
hundreds of thousands between
1920 and the mid-1930s.

1. Fill jar every night.

2. Use hydrant or any good water.
3. Drink freely when thirsty and
upon arising and retiring. Average
Shultis 2005 six or more glasses daily. 10
The Radium Emanator 1930-1935

Manufactured by Radium
Life, Inc. of Los Angeles

Placed overnight in water

Made from cement mixed

with uranium ore

Shultis 2005 11
 Quack
Quack Medicines
Medicines

ca. 1928
ca. 1940
triple distilled water guaranteed
uranium metallicum to contain at least 1 microcurie
homeopathic medication each of Ra-226 and Ra-228.
Shultis 2005 12
 Radioactive Toothpaste
ca. 1940-1945 Berlin

Vita Radium Suppositories

ca. 1930 13
Radium Bread ca. 1920
 Even today quackery is still with us

Elbow Supporter (2005)

Stayer's, a fabric
developed by the Fuji
Spinning Company, Ltd.
of Japan (aka Fujibo),
employs a thread
impregnated with
microscopic thorium-
bearing ceramic particles.

Shultis 2005 14
 Radiation
Radiation Hazards
Hazards

Fatal lung cancers plagued miners for centuries

Uranium and thorium widely traded and used

in ceramics and glass ware

Quickly found radiation could

Cause skin burns (erythema)

Because of long latency period,

later found it could also cause
cancers

Shultis 2005 15
 Development
Development of
of Radiation
Radiation Protection
Protection

1913-1916 first efforts to protect against radiation in

Europe and the United Sates
1925 London Intl. Congress on Radiology Æ
Intl. Comm. On Rad. Units & Meas. (ICRU)
1938 Stockholm Intl. Congress on Radiology Æ
Intl. Comm. On Rad. Protection (ICRP)
1929 Advisory. Comm. On X-Ray and Radium Prot. Æ
U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Æ
National Inst. Of Science & Tech. (NIST)
1946 U.S. Nat. Council on Rad. Prot. And Meas. (NCRP)

Shultis 2005 16
Dosimetry
 Early
Early Radiation
Radiation Dosimetry
Dosimetry
To measure degree of radiation “exposure”:

(1)fluorescence, (2) film darkening,

(3) threshold erythema (skin reddening)

1906 Villard proposed air ionization but not

used for another 20 years

Until 1928 threshold erythema dose (TED)

was used
Shultis 2005 18
 Purpose
Purpose of
of Dosimetry
Dosimetry S9.2

Seek some property of a radiation field that

correlates well with biological effect

Fluence is a poor measure of hazards

Energy fluence is better since, generally, the

greater a particle’s energy, the greater potential
it has to damage cells

Need to understand how biological damage occurs

Shultis 2005 19
 Steps
Steps in
in Radiation
Radiation Damage
Damage
1. Uncharged primary radiation interacts with atoms
2. Secondary charged particles are produced
3. Secondary charged particles ionize and excite
atoms/molecules along their paths
4. Chemical radials (e.g. OH-) interact with other
molecules (e.g. DNA) changing and breaking
molecular bonds.
5. Changes in DNA affect a cell’s function
6. Changed cells can eventually lead to disease
(e.g. cancer, hereditary illness, etc.)
Shultis 2005 20
 The
The Local
Local Dose
Dose Concept
Concept

Expect physical or biological damage to be

proportional to the energy the radiation field
deposited to the medium
Seek a measure, called a dose, of how
much energy is transferred to a unit mass
of the medium

Shultis 2005 S9.2.1 21

 Kerma and
Absorbed Dose
 Energy
Energy Imparted
Imparted to
to aa Medium
Medium (cont.)
(cont.)

Δε = average energy imparted to (or

deposited in) Δm through ionization
and excitation.
Hard to calculate -- easy to measure
into T jout
Ti
Δε = ∑ Tiinto − ∑ T jout − δ mc 2
i j
Δm

Shultis 2005 S9.2.1 23

 Energy
Energy Imparted
Imparted to
to aa Medium
Medium (cont.)
(cont.)

ΔEtr = average initial kinetic energy of all

charged particles created in Δm by
incident neutrons and photons.
Easy to calculate -- hard to measure
T jo
ΔEtr = ∑ T jo radiation secondary
j
charged
particles
Δm

Shultis 2005 S9.2.2 24

Energy
Energy Imparted/Transferred
Imparted/Transferred to
to aa Medium
Medium

Δε = average energy imparted to (or

deposited in) Δm through ionization
and excitation.
Hard to calculate -- easy to measure

ΔEtr = average initial kinetic energy of all

charged particles created in Δm by
incident neutrons and photons.
Easy to calculate -- hard to measure

Shultis 2005 25
 Dosimetric
Dosimetric Quantities
Quantities
• Kerma ΔEtr
K = Δlim
m→0 Δm

• Absorbed Dose D ≡ Δlim Δε

m → 0 Δm

In most situations (CPE) K  D

Shultis 2005 S 9.2.2-3 26

 Concept
Concept of
of Charged
Charged Particle
Particle Equilibrium
Equilibrium

S 9.2.3

K = ad
a" a'
D = ab + b’c’+c”d” b" b'
c" c'
= ad = K d" d'

a
b
c
With CPE d

K≈D

Shultis 2005 27
 Fluence
Fluence and
and Flux
Flux Density
Density

cm path
Flux density ϕ = = cm -2s-1
cm 3 s

t cm path
Fluence Φ (t ) ≡ ∫ ϕ (t ) dt =
′ ′ = cm -2
to 3
cm
dΦ
ϕ= = fluence rate
S 7.2.4
dt
Shultis 2005 28
 Interaction
Interaction Density
Density

interaction probability
μ=
cm path

interactions = μΦ
Φ= cm path cm 3
cm 3
interactions = μ Φ
g ρ
Shultis 2005 29
 Calculation
Calculation of
of Kerma
Kerma
⎡ cm ⎤ ⎡ interactions ⎤ 1 ⎡ cm3 ⎤ ⎡ interactions ⎤
Φ⎢ 3⎥×μ ⎢ ⎥ × ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ cm ⎦ ⎣ cm ⎦ ρ ⎣ g ⎦ ⎣ g ⎦

E = particle energy
f = fraction of E transferred to initial
K.E. of secondary charged particles

⎡ μ(E ) ⎤
kerma = K = E f ( E ) ⎢ ⎥ Φ(E )
⎣ ρ ⎦
≅ absorbed dose (under CPE)
S9.2.4
Shultis 2005 30
 Photon
Photon Kerma
Kerma and
and
Absorbed
Absorbed Dose
Dose

μ ( E) μtr
Thus K = Ef ( E) Φ≡E Φ≈D
ρ ρ
To correct for brems. losses mult. by (1 − G ) where
G=frac. of CP's KE radiated away as bremsstrahlung
μ ( E) μen
Then D = Ef ( E) (1 − G( E) ) Φ≡E Φ
ρ ρ
μen / ρ
Shultis 2005 S 9.2.4 31
 Special
Special Dose
Dose Units
Units
SI unit is the gray (Gy)
1 Gy = 1 J/kg

Louis Gray
Older unit is the rad 1905-65

1 rad = 100 ergs/gram = 1 cGy

Shultis 2005 32
 Formula
Formula for
for Photon
Photon Kerma
Kerma
Seek K = E (μtr /ρ ) Φ in Gy, where E is in (MeV)
and (μtr /ρ ) is in (cm2 /g) and Φ is in (cm-2 )

K = E (MeV) × 106 (eV/MeV) × 1.602 × 10−19 (J/eV)

× (μtr /ρ )(cm 2 /g) × 1000(g/kg) × 1(Gy/(J/kg))
×Φ (cm-2 )

⎛ μtr ⎞
K (Gy) = 1.602 × 10 -10
E (MeV) ⎜ ⎟ (cm 2
/g) Φ (cm -2
)
⎝ ρ ⎠
E9.5
Shultis 2005 33
 Formula
Formula for
for Photon
Photon
Absorbed
Absorbed Dose
Dose
Seek D = E (μen /ρ ) Φ in Gy, where E is in (MeV)
and (μtr /ρ ) is in (cm2 /g) and Φ is in (cm-2 )

D = E (MeV) × 106 (eV/MeV) × 1.602 × 10−19 (J/eV)

× (μen /ρ )(cm2 /g) × 1000(g/kg) × 1(Gy/(J/kg))
×Φ (cm-2 )

⎛ μen ⎞
D (Gy) = 1.602 × 10 -10
E (MeV) ⎜ ⎟ (cm 2
/g) Φ (cm -2
)
⎝ ρ ⎠
E9.6
Shultis 2005 34
 Exposure
Exposure S9.2.5

Exposure X applies only to photons and is very similar

to the kerma and is a measure of how much ionizing
in air is produced by the secondary charged particles.

SI unit is the roengten (R): 1 R produces 2.58 × 10-4C/kg

X = E (MeV) × 106 (eV/MeV) × (1 ion-pair/33.85 eV)

× 1.602 × 10−19 (C/ion-pair) × 1000(g/kg)
× (μen /ρ )(cm 2 /g) ÷ (2.58 × 10-4 C/R) ×Φ (cm-2 )
air
⎛ μen ⎞
X (R) = 1.835 × 10 E (MeV) ⎜
-8
⎟ (cm 2
/g) Φ (cm -2
)
⎝ ρ ⎠
E9.9
Shultis 2005 35
Dose Equivalent

36
 Relative
Relative Biological
Biological
Effectiveness,
Effectiveness, RBE
RBE

abs. dose of 250 kV x rays to produce the effect

RBE =
abs. dose of other radiation to produce same effect

RBE depends on: (1) dose

(2) dose rate
(3) type of radiation
(4) biological endpoint

RBE is too complex for routine radiation safety purposes

Shultis 2005 S 9.2.6 - 8 37

 Quality
Quality Factor,
Factor, QF
QF

• QF introduced in 1964
• based on RBE data for low-level doses
related to cancer and hereditary illness
• defined as function of linear energy
transfer, LET (-dE/ds)

S9.2.6 - 8
Shultis 2005 38
 Mean quality factors adopted by the
ICRPa (1991) and NCRPb (1993).
Radiation QF
Gamma and x rays of all energies 1
Electrons and muons of all energies 1
Protons (>2 MeV, other than recoil) 5 a, 2 b
Neutrons
< 10 keV 5
10–100 keV 10
100 keV–2 MeV 20
2–20 MeV 10
> 20 MeV 5
Alpha particles, fission fragments, heavy 20
nuclei
T 9.1
Shultis 2005 39
 The
The Dose
Dose Equivalent
Equivalent

Observe: the same absorbed dose from different

radiations leads to different biological
consequences

Thus need a new “dose” unit that is is proportional

to the biological hazard (cancer and hereditary illness)
regardless of the type of radiation

Dose Equivalent: H = D × QF

Shultis 2005 S 9.2.7 40

 The
The Dose
Dose Equivalent
Equivalent
Absorbed Dose
D = K (charged part. equil.)
units: 1 Gy = 1 J/kg; 1 rad
= 100 erg/g
= 1cGy

Dose Equivalent
H = D × QF
Rolf Sievert
units: 1 sievert (Sv) = 1 Gy × QF = 100 rem
1896-1965
Shultis 2005 41
 Dose
Dose Equivalent
Equivalent for
for
Photons
Photons and
and Electrons
Electrons

Since Quality Factor for photons and electrons = 1

dose equivalent (Sv) = absorbed dose (Gy)

dose equivalent (rem) = absorbed dose (rad)

Shultis 2005 42
Anthropomorphic
Phantoms

43
 Dose
Dose Conversion
Conversion
For
For aa Human
Human Target
Target
anthropomorphic phantom

free-field ⎯⎯
→
fluence ⎯⎯
→
⎯⎯
→
Calculate HT to
each organ and
⎯⎯
→
tissue ⎯⎯
→
S 9.2.9
⎯⎯
→
Shultis 2005 44
 Doses
Doses Associated
Associated With
With
Anthropomorphic
Anthropomorphic Phantoms
Phantoms
Effective Dose Equivalent (1977)
HE = ∑ wT DT QT = ∑ wT H T
T T

DT = mean absorbed dose in tissue T

wT = weight factor for tissue T (from Table 9.2)
QT = average quality factor for tissue T

Shultis 2005 S 9.2.9 45

Tissue weight factors wT adopted by the
ICRP (1977) for use in determination of
the effective dose equivalent.
Tissue wT
G onads 0.25
B reast 0.15
R ed bone m arrow 0.12
Lung 0.12
Thyroid 0.03
B one surface 0.03
R em ainder 0.30
Note: these sum to unity T 9.2
Shultis 2005 46
 Doses
Doses Associated
Associated With
With
Anthropomorphic
Anthropomorphic Phantoms
Phantoms
Effective Dose (1991) S9.2.10

ε = ∑ wT HT
T

wT = weight factor for tissue T (from Table 9.3)

HT = equivalent dose in tissue T = ∑ wR DT ,R
R
DT ,R = mean dose in tissue T from radiation R
wR = QF or radiation weighting factor (indep. of T )
(based on incident radiation)
Shultis 2005 47
Tissue weighting factors wT adopted by the ICRP
(1991) and the NCRP (1993) for use in the
determination of the effective dose.

0.01 0.05 0.12 0.20

Bone surface Bladder Bone marrow Gonads
Skin Breast Colon
Liver Lung
Esophagus Stomach
Thyroid
Remainder
T 9.3

Shultis 2005 48
 Summary
– Absorbed dose
– Kerma
– Exposure
– RBE
– Dose equivalent (1964) H = QF × D
– Effective dose equivalent (1977) H E = ∑ wT QFT DT
T
– Effective dose 1991 (1993 in US)
ε = ∑ wT H T , where H T = ∑ wR DT , R
T T

wR, called the radiation weighting factor,

is the old quality factor
Shultis 2005 49
 Biological Effects
of
Ionizing Radiation

Shultis 2005 50
 The Human Cell
10 μm diameter nucleus chromosome
25,000 genes
23 chromosome pairs golgi
apparatus

2 x 1012 cells mitochrondrion

in an adult

ribosomes

endoplastic
recticulum
Shultis 2005 51
The DNA Molecule

Shultis 2005 52
 DNA Forms
Chromosomes
base pair length = 0.34 nm
helix width = 2 nm
helix period = 3.4 nm
nucleosome dia. = 11 nm
supercoil dia. = 30 nm
chrom. arm dia. = 700 nm
23 pairs of chromosomes
no. base pairs = 6x109

If human DNA were

stretch out, length=
(0.34 nm/bp)(6x109 bp)
= 2 meters!

Shultis 2005 53
 Human
Chromosomes

22 homologous pairs
plus X & Y chomosomes

Shultis 2006
Chromosomes

22 homologous pairs
plus X & Y chomosomes

Y Chromosome X Chromosome
Shultis 2005 55
 Human
Human Reproduction
Reproduction

Shultis 2005 56
 Biological
Biological Effects
Effects of
of
Ionizing
Ionizing Radiation
Radiation
• Exposure Factors
– dose
– dose rate
– fractionation
– acute vs. chronic
– high level vs. low level
Shultis 2005 57
 Biological
Biological Effects
Effects of
of
Ionizing
Ionizing Radiation
Radiation
• Radiation Factors
– type
– energy
– high-LET vs. low-LET

Shultis 2005 58
High vs low LET
effect

Shultis 2005 59
 Biological
Biological Effects
Effects of
of
Ionizing
Ionizing Radiation
Radiation
• Two Types of Effect
– Deterministic: no effect below a threshold and severity
a function of dose

– Stochastic: probabilistic effects (hereditary illness and

radiogenic cancer)

Shultis 2005 60
Global
Global Average
Average Annual
Annual Background
Background Dose
Dose (mSv)
(mSv)

Source World Average Range

External exposure
cosmic rays 0.4 0.3-1.0
terrestrial gammas 0.5 0.3-0.6

Internal exposure
ingestion 0.3 0.2-0.8
inhaled RNs 1.2 0.2-10

Total 2.4 1-10

T9.4
Shultis 2005 61
Average
Average Annual
Annual US
US Background
Background Dose
Dose (mSv)
(mSv)

source bronchial soft bone bone HE

epithelium tissue surfaces marrow (mSv/y)

cosmic rays 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27

cosmogenic RN 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01
external RN 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28
inhaled RNs 24 2.00
RN in body 0.36 0.36 1.10 0.50 0.39

Total (rounded) 25 0.90 1.70 1.10 3.00

T9.5
Shultis 2005 62
 Quantification
Quantification of
of
Deterministic
Deterministic Risk
Risk
Risk

0.5

Absorbed Dose
0
D50
Shultis 2005 63
 Examples
Examples of
of Deterministic
Deterministic Risk
Risk
Organ/Tissue Endpoint D50 (Gy) Dth (Gy)
skin erythema 6 ±1 3 ±1
2nd deg. burn 30 ± 6 10 ± 2
eye lens cataract 3 ±1 0.6 ± 0.4
lung death 70 ± 30 40 ± 20
GI system vomiting 2 ± 0.5 0.5
diarrhea 3 ± 0.8 1
death 15 ± 5 8
bone marrow death 3.8 ± 0.6 1.8 ± 0.3

T9.6
Shultis 2005 64
 Examples
Examples of
of Deterministic
Deterministic Risk
Risk
•Skin
Epidermis: 0.005 to 0.010 cm deep
basal cells rapidly dividing
Low dose risk: cancer
Dermis: >0.010 cm deep
High dose risk: burns
•Lens
Cataracts
Cumulative damage S9.4.2
Shultis 2005 65
Examples
Examples of
of Deterministic
Deterministic Risk
Risk
•Blood-Forming Organs [active (red) marrow]
Low-dose risk: leukemia
High-dose risk:
Damage to stem cells
Inability to produce both red and white cells
Red cells long lived (slow depression)
White cells short lived (rapid depression)
•GI System
Lining cells very sensitive
Destruction allows passage of bacteria and
toxins out of GI system and passage of
Shultis 2005 fluids to GI system (dehydration) 66
 Examples
Examples of
of Deterministic
Deterministic Risk
Risk
•Ovaries
Ova, as oocytes, present before birth, radiation resistant
Monthly maturation, ova are radiation sensitive
•Testes
1st stage spermatogonia very sensitive (46-day delay)
Other stages much less sensitive
•Fetus
Natural risk of cancer, deformation, retardation = 0.06
Overall radiation risk = 0.2/Sv (9 month)
Childhood cancer risk = 0.02/Sv (9 month)
Mental retardation risk = 0.4/Sv (8-15 week)
Shultis 2005 67
 Potentially
Potentially Lethal
Lethal Doses
Doses
LDm / n = fatal dose to m % of population
within n days T 9.7
Lethality M/L Dose (Gy)
LD5/ 60 2.0 − 2.5
LD10/ 60 2.5 − 3.0
NOTE: mid-line dose LD50/ 60 3.0 − 3.5
in rads ∼ 2/3 free-field LD90/ 60 3.5 − 4.5
exposure in roentgens LD99 / 60 4.5 − 5.5
Shultis 2005 68
Stochastic Effects of
Ionizing Radiation

Primary Concerns for

Low-Level Exposures:
• Hereditary Illness
• Radiogenic Cancer
 Hereditary
Illness
Low-LET radiation at relatively low dose rates
 Classification
Classification of
of S9.5

Hereditary
Hereditary Risk
Risk
• Autosomal dominant (retinoblastoma)
• X-linked (hemophilia, color blindness)
• Recessive (cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell)
• Chromosomal (Down’s syndrome)
– structural abnormalities (more frequent from
radiation)
– numerical abnormalities
• Congenital abnormalities (multifactorial)
Shultis 2005 71
 Structural
Structural Abnormalities
Abnormalities
Repairing damaged DNA can lead to several types
of structural chromosomal abnormalities

inversion

translocation

Shultis 2005
 Hereditary
Hereditary Risk
Risk

Gonad Dose:
For whole body exposure effective dose and gonad dose
are equal
Tissue weighting factor wT = 0.2 for gonads.
For an effective dose of 1 Sv, gonad dose ranges from
0 (if gonads not exposed) to 5 (if only gonads exposed).

Shultis 2005 73
Genetic
Genetic Risks
Risks (per
(per thousand
thousand live
live births)
births)

Disorder Baseline Cases/Gy* Cases/Gy*

1st gen. 2nd gen.

Mendelian autosomal
dominant or X-linked 16.5 0.75-1.5 1.3-2.5
recessive 7.5 0 0
Chromosomal 4.0
Chronic multifactorial 650 0.25-1.2 0.25-1.2
Congenital abnormalities 60 2.0 2.4-3.0

TOTAL 738 3.0-4.7 3.93-6.7

Risk (% baseline) 0.41-0.64 0.53-0.91

*1 Gy gonad dose of low LET T 9.10

Shultis 2005 74
 Estimates
Estimates of
of Hereditary
Hereditary Risk
Risk
3000-4700 cases of hereditary illness
per 106 live births per Gy gonad dose to
reproductive population.
For a reproductive population to receive 104 person-Sv,
gonad dose is 0-5 × 104 person-Sv(gonad). Thus expect

3000 to 4700 cases

6
10 person-Sv(gonad)
× 0-5(× 10 4
person-Sv(gonad) )
 0 to 235 hereditary illness cases in 1st generation

Shultis 2005 S9.5.2 75

 Estimates
Estimates of
of Hereditary
Hereditary Risk
Risk
However, if the entire population receives a collective
104 person-Sv, the collective gonad dose to the
reproductive population is less.
For a life expectancy of 75 years and reproductive period
of 35 years, expect

3000 to 4700 cases ⎛ 30 y ⎞

6
×
10 person-Sv(gonad) ⎝
⎜ 75 y ⎟
⎠
× 0-5(× 1 0 4
person-Sv )
 0 to 94 hereditary illness cases in 1st generation

Shultis 2005 S9.5.2 76

Stochastic Effects of
Ionizing Radiation

Radiation Induced
Cancer
 Radiation
Radiation Induced
Induced Cancers
Cancers

• Features • Evidence
– none observed < 20 rad – atom-bomb casualties
– no unique types – radium dial painters
– multi-step genesis – miners
– differing latent periods – patients of radiation
therapy
Need to extrapolate from high dose data
to estimate cancer risk below 20 rad

Shultis 2005 S9.6 78

 Natural
Natural Cancer
Cancer Incidence/Mortality
Incidence/Mortality
per 10 55 population per year
per 10 population per year
incidence mortality
site males female males female

Leukemia 14.6 8.8 10.1 5.7

Lymphoma 25.1 17.9 10.2 6.5
Respiratory 94.7 55.8 76.2 42.2
Digestive 106.9 71.4 59.1 35.9
Breast 124.9 25.5
Genital 167.3 48.9 28.6 16.7
Urinary 56.3 19.1 13.9 5.3
Other 80.6 58.2 41.8 24.9
TOTAL 545.5 405.0 239.9 162.7 T 9.11

Shultis 2005 79
“1 in 6 will die of cancer”
 The
The No-Threshold,
No-Threshold, Linear-
Linear-
Quadratic
Quadratic Model
Model
D = absorbed dose
E(D) = effect of absorbed dose

E = αD + βD 2

Shultis 2005 S9.6.1 80

Response high dose & Note differences
dose rate data from the book

E = α 1 D +β D 2

Low dose
true rate data
extrapolated
slope = α L slope = α ex

true linear resp.

slope = α1

Absorbed dose
Shultis 2005 81
 Dose
Dose Rate
Rate Effectiveness
Effectiveness Factor
Factor
α L = slope of E vs. D, extrapolated from high dose,
at high dose rate
α ex = slope of E vs. D, from measurements at high
dose, but at low dose rate
α1 = true linear term in linear-quadratic response
αL αL
DREF = ≈
α ex α1
Shultis 2005 82
 Dose
Dose Rate
Rate Effectiveness
Effectiveness Factor
Factor

DREF = α L / α1
α L / α1 = slope of E vs D at high/low dose rates.

NCRP(1980): DREF  2 − 10 ( D <20 rads or

D <5 rad/y) for mutogenesis and
tumors
BEIR III: DREF = 2.5 for leukemia
BEIR IV: DREF = 2 for carcinogenesis
Shultis 2005 83
 Quantification
Quantification of
of Cancer
Cancer Risks
Risks
Factors in cancer risk:
• age at exposure, ao
• age at expression, a, and t = a – ao (latency)
• dose, D
• site (e.g., lung, breast, etc.)
• sex, s (male or female)
• mortality vs. incidence
• ERR(D,s,ao,a) = excess relative risk
• Ro(s,a) = natural incidence or mortality

risk = Ro (a, s ) × ERR( D, s, ao , a )

Shultis 2005 84
Example
Example Cancer
Cancer Dose-Mortality
Dose-Mortality Model
Model
Leukemia: - no sex dependence
- 2 year latency period

γ ( ao ,t )
ERR( D, ao , t ) = (0.234 D + 0.271D )e
2

γ = 4.885, t ≤ 15, ao ≤ 15
γ = 2.380, 15 < t ≤ 25, ao ≤ 20
γ = 2.367, t ≤ 25, ao > 20
γ = 1.638, 25 < t ≤ 30, ao > 20
γ = 0, otherwise
Shultis 2005 85
 Radiation Cancer Risk per 10 55males per 10 rads
Radiation Cancer Risk per 10 males per 10 rads
Delivered
Delivered at
at Low
Low Dose
Dose and
and Dose
Dose Rates
Rates

age at exposure (y)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Incidence
leukemia 237 120 96 84 84 84 82 73 48
all solid 2326 1325 881 602 564 507 407 270 126

Mortality
leukemia 71 71 67 64 67 71 73 69 51
all solid 1028 641 444 317 310 289 246 181 102

Shultis 2005 see T 9.12 for female risks 86

 NOTE: Scale table values to find risk at different dose
age at exposure (y)
0 10 20 … risk per
10 rad
Incidence per 105
leukemia 237 120 96 … males
all solid 2326 1325 881 …

Boy aged 20, receives a dose of 1 rad over one year. What
is probability he will develop a solid radiogenic cancer?

1 rad 881 −4
risk = × 5 = 8.8 × 10 or 1 chance in 1100
10 rad 10
If dose received accidentally, risk = 1.5 above risk
Shultis 2005 87
Cancer
Cancer Mortality
Mortality per
per 100,000
100,000 Males
Males or
or Females
Females

Case 1: Single exposure to 10 rad (0.1 Gy) T 9.13

cases deaths
males females males females
Radiation Induced:
leukemia 100 70 70 50
nonleukemia 800 1300 410 610
total 900 1370 480 660

Natural Expectation:
leukemia 830 590 710 530
nonleukemia 45500 36900 22100 17500
total 46330 37490 22810 18030

Shultis 2005 88
Cancer
Cancer Mortality
Mortality per
per 100,000
100,000 Males
Males or
or Females
Females
Case 2: Continuous Lifetime at 1 mGy/y
(100 mrad/y)

cases deaths
males females males females
Radiation Induced:
leukemia 67 51 47 38
nonleukemia 554 968 285 459
total 621 1019 332 497

Shultis 2005 T 9.13 89

Cancer
Cancer Mortality
Mortality per
per 100,000
100,000 Males
Males or
or Females
Females

Case 3: Continuous Exposure to 10 mGy (1 rad)

per year from age 18 to 65:

cases deaths
males females males females
Radiation Induced:
leukemia 360 270 290 220
nonleukemia 2699 4025 1410 2169
total 3059 4295 1700 2389

Shultis 2005 T 9.13 90

Average
Average Annual
Annual US
US Background
Background Dose
Dose (mSv)
(mSv)
Effective Dose Equivalent

source bronchial soft bone bone HE

epithelium tissue surfaces marrow (mSv/y)

cosmic rays 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27

cosmogenic RN 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01
external RN 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28
inhaled RNs 24 2.00
RN in body 0.36 0.36 1.10 0.50 0.39

Total (rounded) 25 0.90 1.70 1.10 3.00

T9.5
Shultis 2005 91
The Radon
Problem
 The Radon Problem S9.7

− −
α 218 α 214 β β 214 α 210
→ → → → →
222 214
86 Rn 84 Po 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 82 Pb (22 y)
3.82 d 3.05 m 26.8 m 19.9 m 164 μ s

Two more beta decays and one alpha decay lead to stable 206Pb but with long half life
breath in
222 daughters
86 Rn daughters on dust
from and aerosols
ground

222
86 Rn ← ••• ← 238
92 U
Shultis 2005 93
 The Radon Problem

• 222
Rn (3.82 d) more important than 220
Rn (55.6 s)
• 222
Rn global annual dose equiv. 1 mSv (100 mrem)
• 220
Rn global annual dose equiv. 0.2 mSv (20 mrem)
• 222
Rn US annual dose equiv. 2 mSv (200 mrem)

Shultis 2005 94
 Potential Alpha Energy Concentration

-3
act. conc. C1 C2 C3 C4 (Bq m )
α 218 α 214 β − 214 β − 214 α 210
→ 84 Po→ → → → 82 Pb
222
86 Rn 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po
α − energy E1 E4
Units of C are Bq m-3 or decays s-1 m-3
Energy ultimately released in lung tissues
C1 ⎡ C2 C3 C4 ⎤
Etot = ( E1 + E4 ) + E4 ⎢ + + ⎥
-3
λ1 ⎣ λ2 λ3 λ4⎦
(MeV m )
Shultis 2005 95
 Potential Alpha Energy Concentration

In secular equilibrium C0 = C1 = C2 = C3 = C4
⎡ E1 + E4 ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞⎤
equil
Etot =⎢ + E4 ⎜ + + ⎟ ⎥ C0
⎢⎣ λ1 ⎝ λ2 λ3 λ4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Plate-out causes disequilibrium. Define an
equilibrium factor F ≡ Etot / Etot
equil
<1
Equilibrium equivalent concentration
EEC ≡ F × C0 (MeV m )
-3
Shultis 2005 96
Typical Radon Activity Concentrations
Outdoors :
(a) exhalation rates
rocks & soils: 0.2-70 mBq m-2s-1
-2 -1
continental average: 16 mBq m s
oceans: 1% of continental

(b) concentrations
-3
continental areas: 1-10 Bq m
Shultis 2005 97
Typical Radon Activity Concentrations

Indoors:
• highly variable, often many times
outdoor concentrations
• US average: 46 Bq m-3 (1.25 pCi/L)
• equilibrium factor F = 0.52 ± 0.12
• 6.3% US homes >150 Bq m-3 (4 pCi/L)
• EPA remediation level: 4 pCi/L
Shultis 2005 98
 Annual Radon Exposure

-3
Annual radon exposure (Bq h m ) :
= annual average equilibrium equivalent concen.
(Bq m ) that an individual breathes × number
-3

of hours per year (8766 h)

Working Level Month (WLM) : (older unit)

-3
1 WLM = 0.629 MBq h m (EEC basis)

Shultis 2005 99
Radon life excess risk
Population expect. per annaul EEC
Risks (y) MBq h m-3/y
General
male 69.7 0.055
female 76.4 0.022
mixed 73.1 0.039
Nonsmoker
male 70.5 0.016
female 76.7 0.0088
T 9.14 Smokers
male 69.0 0.16
Source: female 75.9 0.081
NAS 1988
Shultis 2005 100
 Radon Risk Example
106 static population exposed to lifetime 222 Rn
activity concentration of 20 Bq m −3. How many
lung-cancer fatalities occur each year from radon?

Assuming an equilibrium factor F = 0.5, annual

radon exposure = (0.5 × 20 Bq m −3 )(8766 h/y)
= 0.0876 MBq h m −3.
Excess risk for mixed population is 0.039 per
MBq h m −3. Thus no. radon caused deaths in
106 population = (0.039)(0.0876)(106 ) = 3116.
For an average lifespan of 73 y, no. of radon
related deaths per year = 3116/73=47.
Shultis 2005 101
Radiation
Protection
Standards
 Radiation Protection Standards

• Early standards based on concept

of tolerable dose (no ill effects below
this limit)
• 1948 introduced the concept of
permissible dose (no appreciable
effects during lifetime)
• 1977 limits based on comparable
risk concept (acceptable risks)
Shultis 2005 S9.8 103
 Rationale for 5 rem/y Worker Limit
S9.7
• "safe" industries: ≤ 100 deaths/y per 106 workers
• "acceptable" risk taken as 50 deaths/y per 106 workers
• max 40y death risk is 2000 per 106 workers ⇒ risk = 0.002
• radiation risk = 0.0001 radiogenic cancer deaths per rem
• observe av. annual dose = 0.1 max dose: thus to ensure av.
lifetime risk of 0.002, set lifetime risk limit as 10 × 0.002
10 × 0.002
• [ dose/y ]max = = 5 rem = 5 cSv
40y × 0.0001(risk/rem)

Shultis 2005 S9.8.1 104

 Rationale for 0.5 rem/y Population Limit

• unavoidable risk  5 deaths/y per 106 people,

or 70y risk of 350 deaths/106 people ⇒ risk  0.0004
• some ("small critical group") accept lifetime risk of 0.004
• set limit for this group: then av. public risk << 0.0004
• radiation risk = 0.0001 radiogenic cancer deaths per rem
0.004
• [ dose/y ]
public
= ≈ 0.5 rem = 0.5 cSv
max 70y × 0.0001(risk/rem)

Shultis 2005 S9.8.1 105

 1987 NCRP Exposure Limits
Dose type mSV rem
Occupational
1. Stochstic effects 50 5
2. Non-stochastic
lens of eyes 150 15
other organs 500 50
3. Cumulative age x 10 1
Public
1. Frequent 1 0.1
2. Infrequent 5 0.5
Embryo/fetus
1. Dose /month 0.5 0.05 T9.16
Shultis 2005 106