CHAPTER-1

OVERVIEW

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The ground-breaking invention of robotics has become a milestone in the field

of science & technology. This field is being upgraded rapidly and is being used in
many applications, for which the infrared proximity detection system has become a
paramount. With the increasing traffic the people are prone to accidents. Therefore
there is a serious necessity of a technology which helps us to avoid accidents. One
such systems is the infrared detection system which when embedded in a real time
application, alerts the user when nearing an obstacle.

After setting up your robot’s motors and letting it run, one of the first things
you’ll realize, is that most likely it will run straight into a wall. How do get your robot
to detect obstacles, you may wonder. Well, there are a number of different solutions
for this problem, such as radar, sonar (sometimes SODAR in air), bump switches, and
one of the most widely used solutions, Infrared obstacle detection. This type of
sensor is called a proximity sensor, because it can only detect if an obstacle is within
or without a set range. If your application needs an actual distance returned, then you
probably should use sonar or DIRRS (digital infrared range finding system). An
infrared proximity detector (IRPD), works by illuminating in front of the robot with
infrared light, this type of light is invisible to the human eye, but your home
camcorder can see this type of light quite well. When the light is reflected by an
obstacle in front of the robot, the IR detectors will register that light, and, an obstacle.

Variables such as texture, surface, color , and reflectivity affect reliability. The
type of infrared light used is called near infrared, and operates at 800 - 1000 nm, as
opposed to the IR light used in security systems or night vision goggles, which is
called the far infrared type of light, and operates from 2000 - 10,000 nm. The type of
detectors used in this type of IRPD only allows a certain frequency of light to pass,
usually from 35 to 40 kHz. Since there are very few sources of IR light at these
frequencies there is very little interference. In the system we will us a 555 timer to

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produce the desired frequency. There are many other types of frequency generating
circuits, but the 555 is the easiest.

1.2 OBJECTIVE

Our main objective is to construct an Infra Red Proximity Detector which is

used for detecting obstacles and to run the device connected at the output for a
particular time period using NE555 timer in monostable mode in the receiver section.

1.3 METHODOLOGY

The circuit we developed is basically a hardware circuit consisting of resistors,

capacitors, transistors, IRled’s, photodiode and NE555 timer. Here the transmitter and
receiver of the detector are mounted on a PCB.

1.4 APPLICATIONS

Infrared proximity detector is used in a wide range of applications. Some of

them are wheel-encoder, contactless tachometer, burglar alarm, automatic door
opening systems.

1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

The report mainly consists of the description of various components used in

the circuit along with the applications of the detector circuit, its limitations, future
scope for development and bibliography.

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 CHAPTER-2

DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS

2.1 IC555

The 8-pin 555 timer is one of the most useful ICs ever made and it is used in
many projects. With just a few external components it can be used to build many
circuits, not all of them involve timing.

Fig(2.1) IC 555

A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases where a '555
timer' is specified. Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555,
but these should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their
maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V supply) is too low for many
standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a standard 555.

The circuit symbol for a 555 is a box with the pins arranged to suit the circuit
diagram. for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555 pin 3 output on the
right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are not labeled with their
function.

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The 555 can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute
maximum). Standard 555 ICs create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when their
output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other ICs, but
in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (eg 100µF) should be connected
across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555.

Fig(2.2) pin diagram of IC 555

The input and output pin functions are described briefly below:

Table(2.1)-functions of IC555 pins

Nr. Name Purpose

1 GND……… Ground, low level (0V)

2 TRIG……… A short pulse high-to-low on the trigger starts the timer

3 OUT………. During a timing interval, the output stays at +VCC

4 RESET……. A timing interval can be interrupted by applying a reset pulse to

low (0V)

5 CTRL……… Control voltage allows access to the internal voltage divider

(2/3 VCC)

6 THR……….. The threshold at which the interval ends (it ends if U.thr → 2/3
VCC)

7 DIS………… Connected to a capacitor whose discharge time will influence

the timing interval

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8 V+, VCC…… The positive supply voltage which must be between 3 and 15 V

2.1.1 SPECIFICATIONS

These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have better
specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc).

Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA

Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA

Output current (maximum) 200 mA

Power dissipation 600 mW

Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C

2.2 IC7805

The 7805 fixed voltage regulator is a monolithic integrated circuit in a TO220

type package designed for use in a wide variety of applications including local,
onboard regulation. This regulator employs internal current limiting, thermal
shutdown, and safe area compensation. With adequate heat-sinking it can deliver
output currents in excess of 1.0 ampere. Although designed primarily as a fixed
voltage regulator, this device can be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltages and currents.

Fig(2.3) IC7805

2.2.1 FEATURES

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 1. Output Current Nominal -1.5 Ampere
2. No External Components Required
3. Internal Thermal Overload Protection
4. Internal Short–Circuit Current Limiting
5. Output Transistor Safe–Area Compensation

Table(2.2) Absolute Maximum Ratings: (TA = +25°C unless otherwise specified)

Input Voltage, Vin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Vdc

Power Dissipation (TA = +25°C), PD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internally Limited

Derate above +25°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4mW/°C

Power Dissipation (TC = +25°C Pd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Internally Limited

Derate above +75°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200mW/°C

Thermal Resistance, Junction–to–Ambient, RthJa . . . . . . . . . . . 65°C/W

Thermal Resistance, Junction–to–Case, RthJc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5°C/W

Operating Junction Temperature Range Tj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . –55° to +150°C

Storage Junction Temperature Range, Tstg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .–65° to +150°C

2.3 PHOTODIODES

Fig(2.4) photodiodes

Photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either

current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to

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regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect
vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fibre connection to
allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use
specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN
junction

2.3.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient

energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a mobile electron
and a positively charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's
depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from
the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward
the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.

2.3.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODE

When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out
of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes forward
biased and "dark current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction
opposite to the photocurrent. This mode is responsible for the photovoltaic effect,
which is the basis for solar cells—in fact, a solar cell is just a large area photodiode.

2.3.3 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE MODE

In this mode the diode is often reverse biased, dramatically reducing the
response time at the expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the
depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster
response times. The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current (known as
saturation or back current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains
virtually the same. The photocurrent is linearly proportional to the illuminance.

Although this mode is faster, the photovoltaic mode tends to exhibit less
electronic noise. The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (< 1nA) that the
Johnson–Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.

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2.3.4 OTHER MODES OF OPERATION

Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but

they are operated with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated
carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within
the photodiode, which increases the effective responsivity of the device.

Phototransistors also consist of a photodiode with internal gain. A

phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased
in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction. The
electrons that are generated by photons in the base-collector junction are injected
into the base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current
gain β (or hfe). while phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light they are
not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.Phototransistors
also have slower response times. A simple model of a phototransistor, would be a
forward biased LED (emitter–base) and a reverse biased photodiode (base–
collector) sharing an anode (base) in a single package such that 99% (α%) of the
light emitted by the led is absorbed by the photodiode. Each electron-hole
recombination in the LED produces one photon and each photon absorbed by the
photodiode produces one electron-hole pair.

2.3.5 MATERIALS USED IN PHOTODIODES

The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties,

because only photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's
bandgap will produce significant photocurrents.

Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes include:

Material Wavelength range (nm)

Silicon 190–1100

Germanium 400–1700

Indium gallium arsenide 800–2600

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Lead(II) sulfide <1000-3500

Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise

than germanium-based photodiodes, but germanium photodiodes must be used for
wavelengths longer than approximately 1 µm.

Since transistors and ICs are made of semiconductors, and contain P-N
junctions, almost every active component is potentially a photodiode. Many
components, especially those sensitive to small currents, will not work correctly if
illuminated, due to the induced photocurrents. In most components this is not
desired, so they are placed in an opaque housing. Since housings are not completely
opaque to X-rays or other high energy radiation, these can still cause many ICs to
malfunction due to induced photo-currents

2.3.6 APPLICATIONS

P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors,

such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players,
smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.

In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones
that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often
used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.

Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in

science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than
photoconductors. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such
as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to
analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters.

PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction
diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting
regulation. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light
intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified

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charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as
astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser range finding.

2.4USE OF INFRARED DETECTOR BASICS

Fig(2.5) IR emitter and IR phototransistor

An infrared emitter is an LED made from gallium arsenide, which emits near-
infrared energy at about 880nm. The infrared phototransistor acts as a transistor with
the base voltage determined by the amount of light hitting the transistor. Hence it acts
as a variable current source. Greater amount of IR light cause greater currents to flow
through the collector-emitter leads.
As shown in the diagram below, the phototransistor is wired in a similar
configuration to the voltage divider. The variable current traveling through the resistor
causes a voltage drop in the pull-up resistor.
This voltage is measured as the output of the device

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2.5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE-LED

Fig (2.6) light emitting diodes(led’s)

Blue, green, and red LEDs; these can be combined to produce most perceptible colors,
including white. Infrared and ultraviolet (UVA) LEDs are also available.

Fig(2.7) LED
schematic symbol
A light-emitting-diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when
an electric current is applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple
LED circuit. The effect is a form of electroluminescence where incoherent and
narrow-spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction in a solid state material.

LEDs are widely used as indicator lights on electronic devices and

increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area lighting. An
LED is usually a small area (less than 1 mm2) light source, often with optics added
directly on top of the chip to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. The
color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semi
conducting material used, and can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. Besides lighting,
interesting applications include using UV-LEDs for sterilization of water and
disinfection of devices, and as a grow light to enhance photosynthesis in plants.

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2.5.1 TYPES OF LED’S

Fig(2.8) Different led’s

As shown in the above figure LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes.
The 5 mm cylindrical package (red, fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated
at 80% of world production.The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used
for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in
SMT packages, such as those found on blinkies and on cell phone keypads (not shown
in figure).
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such
as alphanumeric or multi-color.

2.5.1.1 MINIATURE LED’S

Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm, with a wooden match-stick for
scale. These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-
sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They are
usually simple in design, not requiring any separate cooling body. Typical current
ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small scale sets a natural
upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density
and need for heat sinking.

2.5.1.2 HIGH POWER LED’S

High power LEDs from Philips Lumileds Lighting Company are mounted on a
21 mm star shaped base metal core PCB. High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven
at hundreds of mA (vs. tens of mA for other LEDs), some with more than one ampere
of current, and give out large amounts of light. Since overheating is destructive, the

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HPLEDs must be highly efficient to minimize excess heat. Furthermore, they are
often mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED
is not removed, the device will burn out in seconds. A single HPLED can often
replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful
LED lamp.
Some well-known HPLED's in this category are the Lumileds Rebel Led,
Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon and Cree X-lamp. As of November 2008
some HPLEDs manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 95 lm/W (e.g. the XLamp
MC-E LED chip emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to
replace incandescent, halogen, and even fluorescent style lights as LEDs become
more cost competitive.
LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC
power without the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle, part of the LED emits
light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half cycle. The efficacy of
this type of HPLED is typically 40 lm/W. A large number of LED elements in series
may be able to operate directly from line voltage.

2.5.2 APPLICATIONS OF LED’S

Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring

external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an
integrated multivibrator circuit inside which causes the LED to flash with a typical
period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most
flashing LEDs emit light of a single color, but more sophisticated devices can flash
between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color
mixing.

Bi-color LEDs are actually two different LEDs in one case. It consists of two
dies connected to the same two leads but in opposite directions. Current flow in one
direction produces one color, and current in the opposite direction produces the other
color. Alternating the two colors with sufficient frequency causes the appearance of a
blended third color. For example, a red/green LED operated in this fashion will color
blend to produce a yellow appearance.

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 Tri-color LEDs are two LEDs in one case, but the two LEDs are connected to
separate leads so that the two LEDs can be controlled independently and lit
simultaneously. A three-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or
cathode).

RGB LEDs contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four-wire
connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). Alphanumeric LED displays
are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-segment displays handle
all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters.
Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but
increasing use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power consumption and
greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric
LED display

2.6 DC MOTORS

2.6.1 WORKING OF A DC MOTOR

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A

current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field. when this is then placed in an
external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the
conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. The internal
configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between
a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational
motion.

Fig(2.9) shows a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here left side magnet or winding is
with a "North" polarization, while right side magnet or winding is with a "South"
polarization).

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 Fig(2.9) DC motor
Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (armature), stator, commutator, field
magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors the external magnetic field is
produced by high-strength permanent magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the
motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet
pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with
respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the
windings being electrically connected to the commutator. Fig(2.9) shows a common
motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets. The geometry of the
brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is
applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are
misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field
magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator
contacts, and energize the next winding. In two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the
direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's
magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very
common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. If the
rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets),
it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where
the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both
commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply, waste
energy, and damage motor components as well. Another disadvantage of such a
simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of
torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor).

2.6.2 TYPES OF DC MOTORS

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2.6.2.1 SYNCHRONOUS

Synchronous DC motors, such as the brushless DC motor and the stepper

motor, require external commutation to generate torque.

2.6.2.2 BRUSHLESS

Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and

stationary electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor controller converts DC
to AC. This design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the
complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor.
Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and
high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complexity.

2.7 RESISTORS

A Resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an

electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to
the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits.

They are extremely commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors
can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made
of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power
they can dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit
is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the
resistor as well as its physical dimensions i.e it is determined by design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as

integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to

16
equipment designers. Resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat
when dissipating their power.

2.7.1 FIXED AND VARIABLE RESISTORS

There are two kinds of resistors, FIXED and VARIABLE. The fixed
resistor will have one value and will never change (other than through temperature,
age, etc.).

Variable Resistors

There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the
variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio.
The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by anyone but a
technician. It is used to adjust the operating condition of the circuit by the technician.
Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate for the inaccuracies of the resistors, and
to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of the variable resistor is usually about 300
degrees. Some variable resistors must be turned many times to use the whole range of
resistance they offer. This allows for very precise adjustments of their value. These
are called "Potentiometers” or "Trimmer Potentiometers."

Fig(2.10) Types of variable resistors

In the photograph to the left, the variable resistor typically used for volume controls
can be seen on the far right. Its value is very easy to adjust.
The four resistors at the center of the photograph are the semi-fixed type. These ones
are mounted on the printed circuit board.

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The two resistors on the left are the trimmer potentiometers.

This symbol is used to indicate a variable resistor in a circuit diagram.

Fig(2.11)Change in resistance value with rotation

There are three ways in which a variable resistor's value can change according to the
rotation angle of its axis. When type "A" rotates clockwise, at first, the resistance
value changes slowly and then in the second half of its axis, it changes very quickly.
The "A" type variable resistor is typically used for the volume control of a radio, for
example. It is well suited to adjust a low sound subtly. It suits the characteristics of
the ear. The ear hears low sound changes well, but isn't as sensitive to small changes
in loud sounds. A larger change is needed as the volume is increased. These "A" type
variable resistors are sometimes called "audio taper" potentiometers. As for type "B",
the rotation of the axis and the change of the resistance value are directly related. The
rate of change is the same, or linear, throughout the sweep of the axis. This type suits
a resistance value adjustment in a circuit, a balance circuit and so on. They are
sometimes called "linear taper" potentiometers. Type "C" changes exactly the
opposite way to type "A". In the early stages of the rotation of the axis, the resistance
value changes rapidly, and in the second half, the change occurs more slowly. This
type isn't too much used. It is a special use. As for the variable resistor, most are type
“A”or type “B”. .

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2.7.2 PRESETS

Fig(2.12) Presets

These are miniature

versions of the standard variable
resistor. They are designed to be
mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For
example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive
circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets. Presets are
much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects
where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.

2.7.3 THEORY OF OPERATION

2.7.3.1 OHM’S LAW

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in
Ohm's law:
V = IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

2.7.3.2 SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTORS

Resistors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage).
To find their total equivalent resistance (Req):

fig(2.13) resistors in parallel

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1/Req=(1/R1)+(1/R2)……..+(1/Rn)

The parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||"
(as in geometry) to simplify equations. For two resistors,
Req = R1||R2 = R1.R2/(R1+R2)

The current through resistors in series stays the same, but the voltage across
each resistor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal
to the total voltage. To find their total resistance:

Fig(2.14) resistors in series

Req=R1+R2….+Rn
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can be broken
up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

fig(2.15) resistors in combination

Req = R1||R2+R3 = R1.R2/(R1+R2)+R3

However, many resistor networks cannot be split up in this way. Consider a
cube, each edge of which has been replaced by a resistor. For example, determining

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the resistance between two opposite vertices requires additional transforms, such as
the Y-Δ transform, or else matrix methods must be used for the general case.
However, if all twelve resistors are equal, the corner-to-corner resistance is 5⁄6 of any
one of them. The practical application to resistors is that a resistance of any non-
standard value can be obtained by connecting standard values in series or in parallel.

2.7.4 POWER DISSIPATION

The power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor multiplied
by the current through the resistor. All three equations are equivalent. The first is
derived from Joule's first law. Ohm’s Law derives the other two from that.The total
amount of heat energy released is the integral of the power over time. If the average
power dissipated is more than the resistor can safely dissipate, the resistor may depart
from its nominal resistance, and may be damaged by overheating. Excessive power
dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it burns out,
which could cause a fire in adjacent components and materials. There are flameproof
resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. The nominal power
rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can safely dissipate in practical
use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient temperature, and other
factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly.
Rated power dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25 °C in
free air. Inside an equipment case at 60 °C, rated dissipation will be significantly less.
If we are dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the manufacturer we
may still be outside the safe operating area, and courting premature failure.

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2.8 CAPACITORS

Fig(2.16) capacitors
2.8.1 FUNCTIONS
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth
varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter
circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC
(constant) signals.

2.8.2 CAPACITANCE
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance
means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F.
However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

• n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF

• p µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
• means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types
of capacitor with different labeling systems. There are many types of capacitors but
they can be split into two groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its
own circuit symbol.

22
 Fig(2.17) unpolarised and Polarised capacitor

2.8.3 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Fig(2.18) Electrolytic capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct
way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by
heat when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors, axial where the
leads are attached to each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at
the same end (10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they
stand upright on the circuit board.

It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly
printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite
low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an
electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a
capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage.
25V is a sensible minimum most battery circuits.

2.8.4 VARIABLE CAPACITORS

23
 Fig(2.19) variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are
sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values,
typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001µF). The type illustrated usually
has trimmers built(for making small adjustments ) as well as the main variable
capacitor. Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable
for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be
wise to check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor.
Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance
is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead
timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the
time period.

2.8.5 TRIMMER CAPACITORS

Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed
to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the
circuit is built.

Fig(2.20)variablea nd trimmer capacitor symbols

A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The

process of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and
the tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the
trimmer.

24
 Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances,
normally less than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so
they are usually specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-
10pF. Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable
resistors.

2.9 NINE-VOLT BATTERY

A nine-volt battery, sometimes referred to as a PP3 battery, is shaped as a

rounded rectangular prism and has a nominal output of nine volts. Its nominal
dimensions are 48 mm × 25 mm × 15 mm (ANSI standard 1604A)

Fig(2.21) Panasonic 9v battery

2.9.1 USES

9v batteries are commonly used in smoke detectors, guitar effect units,

pocket radios, and radio-controlled vehicle controllers. They are also utilised as
backup power to keep the time in digital clocks and alarm clocks.

2.9.2 CONNECTORS

PP3 actually refers to the type of connection or snap that is on top of the
battery . The PP3 connector (snap) consists of two connectors: one smaller circular
(male) and one larger, typically either hexagonal or octagonal (female). The
connectors on the battery are the same as on the connector itself -- the smaller one
connects to the larger one and vice versa. 6 AAAA batteries may be found inside
when the battery is open. By cutting the 6 metal strips inside found on the bottom
and top, you can use them in a device that uses AAAA batteries. However, not all
manufacturers use AAAA batteries.

25
2.9.3 HISTORY

The PP3 appeared when portable transistorized radio receivers became

common, and is still called a "transistor" battery by some manufacturers. The
Energizer company claims that it introduced this battery type in 1956 . It is very
widely used in smoke alarms and carbon monoxide alarms and in guitar effects
pedals.

2.9.4 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

The battery has both the positive and negative terminals on one end. The
negative terminal is fashioned into a snap fitting which mechanically and
electrically connects to a mating terminal on the power connector. The power
connector has a similar snap fitting on its positive terminal which mates to the
battery. This makes battery polarization obvious since mechanical connection is
only possible in one configuration. The clips on the 9-volt battery can be used to
connect several 9-volt batteries in series. One problem with this style of connection
is that it is very easy to connect two batteries together in a short circuit, which
quickly discharges both batteries, generating heat and possibly a fire. While this is
a danger, the same thing can be done with multiple 9 volt batteries to create higher
voltage (they can snap together). The wiring usually uses black and red wires, red
for positive, and black for negative.

Inside a PP3 there are ordinarily six alkaline or carbon-zinc 1.5 volt
(nominal) cells arranged in series. These are either AAAA cells, or special flat,
rectangular cells. The exact size of the constituent cells varies from brand to brand
-- some brands are slightly longer than others -- as does the manner in which they
are joined together. Some brands use soldered tabs on the battery, others press foil
strips against the ends of the cells.

Very cheap versions may contain only five 1.5 volt cells. Rechargeable
NiCd and NiMH batteries have various numbers of 1.2 volt cells. Lithium versions
use three 3.2 V cells - there is rechargeable lithium polymer version. There is also a
Hybrio NiMH version that has a very low discharge rate (85% of capacity after 1
year of storage). .

26
2.10 TRANSISTORS

2.10.1 FUNCTION

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small
output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current
device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a
changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage. A transistor may
be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no
current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). The amount of current amplification is
called the current gain, symbol hFE.

Fig.(2.22) transistors

2.10.1 TYPES OF TRANSISTORS

There are two types of standard
transistors, NPN and PNP, with different
circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers
of semiconductor material used to make the
transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN
Fig(2.23) Transistor circuit symbols
because this is the easiest type to make from
silicon. The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so they are just labels.

2.10.1.1 NPN
NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" and
"P" refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor.
Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than
hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster operation.

27
 NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base")
between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base in common-emitter
mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on"
when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.

The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in
the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active
mode.

2.10.1.2 PNP

The other type of BJT is the PNP with the letters "P" and "N" referring to
the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. PNP
transistors consist of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-
doped material. A small current leaving the base in common-emitter mode is
amplified in the collector output. In other terms, a PNP transistor is "on" when its
base is pulled low relative to the emitter. The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is
on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the conventional current flow when
the device is in forward active mode. One mnemonic device for identifying the
symbol for the PNP transistor is "points in proudly" or "points in permanently".

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current
gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect
transistors which are usually
referred to as FETs.

2.10.2 CONNECTING

Transistors have three

leads which must be connected
the correct way round. Please
take care with this because a
wrongly connected transistor may
be damaged instantly when you
switch on.
.
Fig(2.24) Transistor leads for some common case styles
28
 If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or
stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to
identify the leads.

2.10.3 TESTING A TRANSISTOR

Transistors can be damaged by heat

when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If
you suspect that a transistor may be
damaged there are two easy ways to test it:

2.10.3.1TESTING WITH A
MULTIMETER Fig(2.25) Testing an NPN transistor
Use a multimeter or a simple tester
(battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a digital
multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low resistance range.

• The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.

• The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
• The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

2.11 BC548

The BC548 is a general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction transistor

found commonly in European electronic equipment. It is electrically similar to the
North American 2N3904 and Japanese 2SC1815 but has different lead assignments.
If the TO-92 package is held in front of one's face with the flat side facing away
and the leads downward, the order of the leads. from left to right is emitter, base,
collector.

SPECIFICATIONS

29
 The exact specifications of a given device depend on the manufacturer. It is
important to check the datasheet for the exact device and brand you are dealing
with. Philips and Telefunken are two manufacturers of the BC548.

Vcbo = 30 Volts, Ic = 100mA, Ptotal = 50mW and ft = 300MHz

2.11.1 RELATIONSHIP WITH THE FAMILY OF ‘BC’ DEVICES

The BC548 is a member of a larger group of similarly numbered transistors.

Its complement is the BC558, which is similar to the North American 2N3906 and
the Japanese 2SA1015. The BC548 is flanked by two similar transistors, the BC547
and the BC549. These are similar to the BC548 but the 547 has a greater Vcbo of
50 volts and the 549 has the same Vcbo of 30 volts but a lower noise figure. The
547 and 549 have complementary PNP versions numbered 557 and 559. A 556
device also exists with a Vcbo of 80 volts, which device finds extensive use in the
current mirror input stages of medium quality audio amplifiers with relatively high
rail voltages. A family of older "BC" transistors predates the TO-92 BC54x series,
the BC107, 108 and 109, (with complements BC177, 108 and 109). These are
generally housed in the TO-72 metal package, the same as what the North
American 2N2222 uses. These older transistors have similar characteristics as the
TO-92 BC5xx devices and are generally interchangeable. For example, a damaged
BC178 could be replaced with a BC558, taking the usual precautions to ensure that
the three leads are correctly oriented.

The BC337, 338 and 339 are a range of higher current, slower devices with
complementary PNP versions BC327, 328 and 329. These are similar to the North
American 2N2222 and 2N2907 in Ic and ft values and have the same Vcbo ratings
as the BC547, 548 and 549. The BC637, 638 and 639 possess an Ic value of 1A, a
Vcbo of between 60 and 100 volts and an ft of 50 to 130MHz. These devices have a
different lead configuration, with the collector lead in the middle. The
complementary PNP version would be BC62x, but it is not clear if these devices
are produced. There are many other devices based on the BC54x family, such as the
surface-mount versions of the BC547, 548 and 549, the BC847, 548 and 549.

30
 CHAPTER-3

WORKING OF INFRARED PROXIMITY

DETECTOR

3.1 WORKING

This circuit can be used as an Infrared beam barrier as well as a proximity

detector. The receiver consists of a 555 timer IC working as an oscillator at about
38Khz (also works from 36kHz to 40kHz) which has to be adjusted using the 10K
preset. The duty cycle of the IR beam is about 50%. This allows us to pass more
current through the LEDS thus achieving a longer range.
The transmitter section consists of a 555 timer IC functioning in astable mode.

31
When the IR beam from the transmitter falls on the object in front of it, it gets
reflected onto the photo diode, the resultant current is amplified by the CE-
configuration which inturn acts as a trigger input for the 555 timer IC in the
monostable mode. The output is activated which activates the DC motor and de-
activated after a particular time period after the object moves away. If a relay is
placed it can be used to turn ON/OFF alarms, lights etc. The circuit is used as a
proximity sensor, i.e to detect objects in front of the device without obstructing a IR
beam. For this the LEDs should be pointed in the same direction as the IR module
and at the same level. The suggested arrangement is shown in the circuit diagram.
The LEDs should be properly covered with a reflective material like glass or
aluminum foils on the sides to avoid the spreading of the IR beam and to get a
sharp focus of the beam. When there is nothing in front of them, the IR beam is not
reflected onto the module and hence the circuit is not activated. When an object
comes near the device, the IR light from the LEDs is reflected by the object onto
the module and hence the circuit gets activated .

32
Fig(3.1) circuit diagram of infrared detection system

33
3.2 NE555 IN MONOSTABLE MODE

In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a “one-shot” pulse generator.
The pulse begins when the 555 timer receives a trigger signal. The width of the
pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC network, which consists of a
capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The pulse ends when the charge on the C equals
2/3 of the supply voltage. The pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the
need of the specific application by adjusting the values of R and C.

fig(3.2) ic555 in monostable mode

The pulse width of time t is given by

t=RCln(3)=1.1RC

which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage. See RC circuit
for an explanation of this effect.

3.3 ASTABLE MODE

Fig(3.3) Standard 555 Astable Circuit

34
 In astable mode, the '555 timer' outputs a continuous stream of rectangular
pulses having a specified frequency. A resistor (call it R1) is connected between
Vcc and the discharge pin (pin 7) and another (R2) is connected between the
discharge pin (pin 7) and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a
common node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged
only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low
intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor. The use of R2 is
mandatory, since without it the high current spikes from the capacitor may damage
the internal discharge transistor.

In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1,
R2 and C:

f=1/ln(2).C.(R1+2R2)

The high time from each pulse is given by

High=ln(2).(R1+R2).C

and the low time from each pulse is given by

low=ln(2).R2.C

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the
capacitor in farads.

35
 CHAPTER-4

APPLICATIONS

They are found in many object detection applications such as automatic door
openers and burglar alarms, surface feature detection, rotation shaft encoding,

4.1 WHEEL-ENCODER

This is a simple wheel encoder based on the idea that white stripes will reflect
IR light, while black ones will absorb it. This will result in a series of electrical
pulses as the wheel is rotating, providing the microcontroller with precious
information that can be used to calculate displacement, velocity or even
acceleration. This kind of sensor has to be Always ON, to detect every single white
stripe passing in front of it, to achieve accurate results.

Fig(4.1) wheel encoder

4.2 CONTACTLESS-TACHOMETER

This is a tachometer, that counts the revolutions per minute of a rotating

object, given that the object has a reflective stripe glued on it, that will pass in front
of their sensor for each and every revolution, giving a pulse per revolution.

36
 fig(4.2) contact less tachometer

4.3 BURGLAR ALARM

Burglar (or intrusion), fire, and safety alarms are electronic alarms designed
to alert the user to a specific danger. Sensors are connected to a control unit via
low-voltage wiring or a narrowband RF signal which is used to interact with a
response device. The most common security sensors are used to indicate the
opening of a door or window or detect motion via passive infrared (PIR). New
construction systems are predominately hardwired for economy. Retrofit
installations often use wireless systems for a faster, more economical installation.
Some systems serve a single purpose of burglar or fire protection. Combination
systems provide both fire and intrusion protection. Systems range from small, self-
contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-zoned systems with color-coded
computer monitor outputs. Many of these concepts also apply to portable alarms for
protecting cars, trucks or other vehicles and their contents (i.e., "car alarms").
Burglar alarms are sometimes referred to as alarm systems.

Burglar alarms (or perimeter detection systems, Perimeter protection, intrusion

detection systems and many more terms for the same thing) are divided to two main
fields: home burglar alarms and industrial burglar and perimeter intrusion
detection.

37
 fig(4.3) photo-infrared motion sensor for a Friedland

Response Alarm Kit(burglar alarm detection point)

4.3.1 INDOOR ALARMS

These types of sensors are designed for indoor use. Outdoor use would not
be advised due to false alarm vulnerability and weather durability.These include
passive infrared detectors, ultrasonic detectors,microwave detectors, glass break
detectors.

USING INFRARED DETECTORS

Photoelectric beam systems detect the presence of an intruder by transmitting

visible or infra red light beams across an area, where these beams maybe obstructed.
To improve the detection surface area, the beams are often employed in stacks of two
or more. However, if an intruder is aware of the technology’s presence, it can be
avoided. The technology can be an effective long-range detection system, if installed
in stacks of three or more where the transmitters and receivers are staggered to create
a fence-like barrier. Systems are available for both internal and external applications.
To prevent a clandestine attack using a secondary light source being used to hold the
detector in a ‘sealed’ condition whilst an intruder passes through, most systems use
and detect a modulated light source

4.4 GARAGE DOOR OPENER

Contrary to popular belief, the electric opener does not provide the actual
lifting power to open and close a heavy garage door. Instead, most of the actual
lifting power comes from the counterbalance springs that are under tension to lift
the garage door via steel counterbalance cables. The electric opener only controls

38
how far the door opens and closes, as well as the force the garage door exerts. In
most cases, the garage door opener also acts as a lock.

The typical electric garage door opener consists of a power unit that
contains the electric motor. The power unit attaches to a track. A trolley connected
to an arm that attaches to the top of the garage door slides back and forth on the
track, thus opening and closing the garage door. The trolley is guided along the
track by a chain, belt, or screw that turns when the motor is operated. A quick-
release mechanism is attached to the trolley to allow the garage door to be
disconnected from the opener for manual operation during a power failure or in
case of emergency. Limit switches on the power unit control the distance the garage
door opens and closes once the motor receives a signal from the remote control or
wall push button to operate the door.

The entire assembly hangs above the garage door. The power unit hangs from the
ceiling and is located towards the rear of the garage. The end of the track on

fig(4.4) power unit

the opposite end of the power unit attaches to a header bracket that is attached to
the header wall above the garage door. The power head is usually supported by
punched angle iron.Garage door opener remote controls are simple and consists of
a simple transmitter (the remote) and receiver which control the opener mechanism.
The transmitter would transmit IR beams on a designated frequency; the receiver
detects the approaching vehicle by the reflected beam and switches on the power
unit thereby running the motor which in turn opens the garage doors.

39
4.5 LIMITATIONS

• The range for the system has proven to be about 16"(off-white) to 24"(bright
white) for large indoor targets, like walls. Unfortunately, as the targets surface
area gets smaller so does the range.
• Like most other infrared sensors, black can be a problem for the system.
• Direct sunlight, right into the optical element, is a problem as well. Such a
tremendous volume of IR just overwhelms the phototransistor and blots out
everything else. The error filtration still works outdoors but sunlight tends to
make the IR signal mushy and hard to read making only short-range (4" to 8")
detection’s possible.
• The reliability of the system depends on the texture,color,size of the object.
• High power driving detectors are complex and therefore cost of the circuit
increases

40
 CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSIONS
Infrared proximity detector can therefore be built at lower costs as it is simple and can
be used for obstacle detection in short ranges.

Future developments have to be made in order to increase the range of detection and
to increase the reliability of the detector making it independent of the
texture,size,color of the obstacle.

RESULT
The frequency of the train of pulses generated by NE555 in astable mode is
F = 1/(ln2*C2*(R2+2R3))
Here in the circuit diagram C2=0.01microfarads,R2=220ohms,R3=1.8kohms
Hence f = 37.766khz
The time period of 555timer on the receiver side is
t = 1.1*R7*C4
Here R7=100kohms,C4=10microfarads
Hence t = 1.1secs
Thus the train of pulses with a frequency of 38khz acts as a trigger for IC555 on the
receiver side thus switching ON the motor

41
 CHAPTER-6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. “The Alarm, Sensor & Security Circuit Cookbook” Petruzzellis, Thomas (1993)
McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 0830643141

2. "IR Astronomy: Overview". NASA Infrared Astronomy and Processing Center.

http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/Outreach/Edu/importance.html. Retrieved 2006-10-30.

3.Dr. S. C. Liew. "Electromagnetic Waves". Centre for Remote Imaging, Sensing and
Processing. http://www.crisp.nus.edu.sg/~research/tutorial/em.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-27.

4.Reusch, William (1999). "Infrared Spectroscopy". Michigan State University.

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/InfraRed/infrared.htm. Retrieved
2006-10-27

5.Zheludev, N. (2007). "The life and times of the LED — a 100-year history" (PDF). Nature
Photonics 1 (4): 189–192. doi:10.1038/nphoton.2007.34

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