Mains

1.
OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the field of wireless networking emerges from the integration of
personal computing, cellular technology, and the Internet. This is due to the increasing
interactions between communication and computing, which is changing information
access from "anytime anywhere" into "all the time, everywhere." At present, a large
variety of networks exists, ranging from the well-known infrastructure of cellular
networks to non-infrastructure wireless ad-hoc networks.
So, wireless ad hoc networks have been a growing area of research. Almost all
Ad-hoc networks to date are based on IEEE 802.11. Wireless communication enables
information transfer among a network of disconnected, and often mobile, users. Popular
wireless networks such as mobile phone networks and wireless LANs are traditionally
infrastructure-based, i.e. base stations, access points and servers are deployed before the
network can be used. In contrast, mobile ad hoc networks (MANET’s) are dynamically
formed amongst a group of wireless users and require no existing infrastructure or pre-
configuration. The resource, power limitations and variability further add to the need for
QoS provisioning in MANET’s.
An Ad-hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile hosts forming a temporary

network without the aid of any established infrastructure or centralized administration. In
such an environment, it may be necessary for one mobile host to enlist the aid of other
hosts in forwarding a packet to its destination, due to the limited range of each mobile
host's wireless transmissions. This project presents a protocol for routing in ad hoc
networks that uses dynamic source routing and node failure prediction QoS routing. The
protocols adapts quickly to routing changes when host movement is frequent, yet requires
little or no overhead during periods in which hosts move less frequently and in addition
NFPQR overcomes the problem of limited power capabilities which leads to node failure.
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1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Quality of Service plays a major in determination of quality of any network. Here,

Quality of Service is means to take minimum bandwidth, maximum delay guarantees or
minimum power levels, as presented by Service Level Agreements (SLA). Coming to
Ad-Hoc networks, it is extremely difficult to provide guarantees to the supported
services. This is due to a variety of reasons. First, variations in the physical medium
implies that the link characteristics (bandwidth, error rate) of an ad-hoc network changes
frequently, altering the topology of the network itself. Second, the dynamic nature of the
network makes it difficult to maintain stability in the underlying routing. As a result
failure of packet delivery and delay in Ad-Hoc network occurs.
1.2 AIM OF PROJECT
Routing in wireless ad-hoc networks has received significant attention from recent
literature due to the fact that the dynamic behavior of these networks poses many
technical challenges on the design of an effective routing scheme. Though on-demand
routing approaches have been shown to perform well, they generally lack the support for
Quality-of-Service (QoS) with respect to data transmission. In order to provide increased
stability and reliability of routes, a new QoS metric, reliability, is defined and emphasized
here.
We present a distributed Dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) for wireless
ad-hoc networks to improve QoS support. But all these characteristics of mobile ad-hoc
networks makes the QoS support a very complex process unlike in traditional networks.
First, the nodes in ad-hoc wireless network have limited power capabilities and they are
prone to failure due to the lack of battery power. The node failure in network leads to
different problems such as network topology changes, possibly packet losses and low
signal quality. Hence the admitted QoS sessions may suffer due to frequent path breaks.
Second, a limited bandwidth resource is usually shared among adjacent nodes due to
wireless medium. Hence we propose a routing protocol to establish a path in the network
that meets QoS requirements by considering the power conditions prior to the
determination of path.
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1.3 ALGORITHMS USED
1.3.1 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING
Quality-of-Service (QoS) routing protocols are needed to search for a path that
can satisfy certain QoS requirements and constraints, such as bandwidth or data
reliability. This algorithm focuses on a new QoS metric, end-to-end reliability. End-to-
end reliability is used to reflect the probability of sending data successfully from the
source node to the destination node within a time window. Note that it is not the focus of
DSR to provide strict end-to-end reliability guarantees. Rather, DSR provides routes that
satisfy a specific end-to-end reliability requirement and such routes persist with a high
probability. Thus, it is possible to have a transient QoS disruption even with such a
guarantee.
Our major contributions in this protocol are the following. First, we define our
QoS parameter of interest, end-to-end reliability. Second, we propose a fully distributed
QoS routing protocol, DSR, with respect to this QoS parameter. It seeks to compute a set
of unicast routes that can satisfy a minimum end-to-end reliability requirement; it then
maintains this requirement throughout the life time of transmission. Packets transmitted
from the source node will arrive at the destination node with a higher successful
probability than existing best-effort ad-hoc routing protocols.
1.3.2 NODE FAILURE PREDICTION QoS ROUTING PROTOCOL
QoS model for MANET’s defines 3 types of nodes. An ingress node sense data,
an aggress node receive data and an interior node forwards data to other nodes. For real
time applications this model may not guarantee QoS if the interior nodes are failed when
forwarding data. So QoS routing need a relatively accurate prediction of network’s future
conditions which are not included in DSR routing algorithm. This project addresses a
new routing algorithm called Node Failure Prediction QoS Routing which decreases end-
to-end packet delay and some extent of packet loss by predicting future power level of a
node.
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In NFPQR Algorithm, more stable paths are found during route discovery. Here,
the stable path means the packets, which traverse on these paths, will not experience long
delays and improves the delivery ratios. Also, NFPQR increases the network lifetime of
the MANET. In addition, algorithm implementation is simple.
Finally, a comparison is made between DSR and NFPQR routing protocols and
analysis of end-to-end delay and power levels at each node in the path is made.
1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE REPORT:
Chapter 1 is the overview of the project. The methodology gives an idea of various
protocols.
Chapter 2 comprehensively, covers the evolution of networks and describes various

Ad-Hoc network topologies.
Chapter 3 explains DSR and NFPQR routing protocols.
Chapter 4 elucidates on the block diagram and the implementation of the project.
Chapter 5 gives the simulation results.
Chapter 6 is the conclusion and gives the future scope to the project.
1.5 ADVANTAGES
 Lower getting-started costs.

 no need to install base stations.
 easier temporary setup.
 Well suited to free unlicensed spectrum.
 significant savings given typical auction prices.
 Inherent scalability.
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 with power control & cooperative relaying, each user contributes to network
capacity.
2. EVOLUTION OF NETWORKS
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS NETWORKS

Mobile computers (such as note book computers) are the fastest growing segment
of the computer industry. Many of the owners of these computers have desktop machines
on LANs and WANs back at the office and want to be connected to their home base even
when away from home. Since having a wired connection is impossible in cars and
airplanes, there is a lot of interest in wireless networks.
In the past few years wireless LANs have come to occupy a significant niche in
the Local Area Network market. Increasingly, organizations are finding that wireless
LANs are an indispensable adjunct to the traditional wired LANS, to satisfy requirements
for mobility, relocation, ad hoc networking and coverage of locations difficult to wire.
A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a flexible data communication system
implemented as an extension to, or as an alternative for, a wired LAN within a building
or campus. Using electromagnetic waves, WLANs transmit and receive data over the air,
minimizing the need for wired connections. Thus, WLANs combine data connectivity
with user mobility, and, through simplified configuration, enable movable LANs.
Over the last seven years, WLANs have gained strong popularity in a number of
vertical markets, including the health-care, retail, manufacturing, warehousing, and
academic arenas. These industries have profited from the productivity gains of using
hand-held terminals and notebook computers to transmit real-time information to
centralized hosts for processing. Today WLANs are becoming more widely recognized as
a general-purpose connectivity alternative for a broad range of business customers.
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Figure 2.1 Wireless LAN
2.2 TYPES OF WIRELESS NETWORK
The history of wireless networks started in the 1970s and the interest has been
growing ever since. During the last decade, and especially at the end, the interest has
almost exploded probably because of the fast growing Internet. Today we see two kinds
of wireless networks but the difference between them is not as obvious as it may seem.
2.2.1 Reliable infrastructure wireless networks
The wireless nodes also connected to the wired network and able to act as bridges
in a network of this kind are called base-stations. An example of this is the cellular-phone
Networks where a phone connects to the base-station with the best signal quality. When
the phone moves out of range of a base-station it does a hand-off and switches to a new
base station within the reach. The hand-off should be fast enough to be seamless for the
user of the network. Other more recent networks of this kind is wireless networks for
offices, cafes etc. which usually are called Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN).
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Figure 2.2 Wireless AD-HOC network
2.2.2 Orthogonal kind
The other kind is the orthogonal kind. One where there is no infrastructure at all
except the participating mobile nodes. This is called an infrastructureless network or
more commonly an ad hoc network. The word ad hoc can be translated as improvised or
into organized which often has a negative meaning, but the sense in this context is not
negative but only describing the network situation, i.e. dynamic.
2.3 What is an ad hoc network?
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Ad hoc networks are an upcoming technology. With the advent of wireless and
mobile devices they provide a new paradigm of computing. Ubiquitous computing and
mutual data exchange without any existing infrastructure will become more and more
important in the future. Business, safety and military applications already exist but the
demand for higher data rates, more security and more convenient connection
establishment is a driving force in the development of new ad hoc networking
technologies. In Europe, few research groups concerning ad hoc networks exist. Along
with the possible establishment of new research groups goes the need for a
comprehensive view of ad hoc networking related topics, to help people getting involved
as quickly as possible.
Today, many people carry numerous portable devices, such as laptops, mobile
phones, PDAs and mp3 players, for use in their professional and private lives. For the
most part, these devices are used separately—that is, their applications do not interact.
Imagine, however, if they could interact directly: participants at a meeting could share
documents or presentations; business cards would automatically find their way into the
address register on a laptop and the number register on a mobile phone; as computers exit
a train, their laptops could remain online; likewise, incoming email could now be
diverted to their PDAs; finally, as they enter the office, all communication could
automatically be routed through the wireless corporate campus network.
These examples of spontaneous, ad hoc wireless communication between devices

might be loosely defined as a scheme, often referred to as ad hoc networking, which
allows devices to establish communication, anytime and anywhere without the aid of a
central infrastructure. Actually, ad hoc networking as such is not new, but the setting,
usage and players are. In the past, the notion of ad hoc networks was often associated
with the use of developing radio technologies communication on combat fields and at the
site of a disaster area; now, as novel technologies such as Bluetooth materialize, the
scenario of ad hoc networking is likely to change, as is its importance.
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Figure 2.3 Wireless AD-HOC network
All or some nodes within an ad hoc are expected to be able to route data-packets
for other nodes in the network who want to reach other nodes beyond their own
transmission range. This is called peer-level multi-hopping and is the base for ad hoc
networks that constructs the interconnecting structure for the mobile nodes. An ad hoc
network is usually thought of as a network with nodes that are relatively mobile
compared to a wired network. Hence the topology of the network is much more dynamic
and the changes often unpredictable oppose to the Internet, which is a wired network.
This fact creates many challenging research issues since the objectives of how routing
should take place is often unclear because of the different resources like bandwidth,
battery power and demands like latency and other types of QoS. The routing protocols
used in ordinary wired networks are not well suited for this kind of dynamic
environment. They are usually built on periodic updates of the routes and create a large
overhead in a relative empty network and also cause slow convergence to changes in the
topology. So, we go for RIMA algorithm to implement the topology in ad hoc networks.
Ad Hoc mobile networking is the uncharted frontier of contemporary networking

technology, and a research area which at this time is being heavily funded in the US. In
essence, Ad Hoc networking is all about providing connectivity between mobile nodes,
which have no supporting connections to the fixed networking infrastructure. In an
Ad Hoc mobile network, every node in the network carries its own router with it, and all
nodes cooperate in carrying traffic.
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The whole philosophy of the Ad Hoc networking model is a radical departure
from the highly structured, and frequently hierarchical models employed for both local
area and wide area networking, currently in use.
In the established, fixed infrastructure model, the routers and supporting functions
such as name resolution are all embedded within the networking infrastructure.
Communication between a pair of nodes requires that the nodes hand the traffic over to
the routers, which then forward the traffic over multiple router hops until it arrives at the
destination router, which then passes the traffic to the recipient node.
In this model, with the exception of the odd host tasked with acting as a router,
mostly the routing function is performed by the network, and the nodes are essentially
clients of the "connectivity service" provided by the networking infrastructure. The
model is hierarchical, in so far as traffic from small cells or subnets is concentrated as it
flows up into the network, which aggregates the traffic associated with multiple virtual
circuits or datagram connections, and carries it across specific point to point
communications links to the geographical area within which the destination (or source)
nodes are situated.
This paradigm has generally served us well, and indeed is the essence of the
"catenet" model used in ARPANET and now the Internet. Because the topology of the
network is unchanging, or changes at a very slow rate, mechanisms for name mapping,
route discovery, and route maintenance can be very lethargic in their response times.
Indeed, manual reconfiguration of the routing topology is commonly employed.
An Ad Hoc mobile network is essentially incompatible with this basic model,

since it is highly time variant in topology.
At this point it is worth digressing into the practical, application oriented, aspects
of the Ad Hoc network, since the technology promises many services which have hitherto
been inconceivable.
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The simplest Ad Hoc network can be envisaged as a wireless radio network
between a collection of vehicles, ships, aircraft, or even people on foot, operating in a
geographical area with no networking infrastructure. Many examples of such scenarios
come to mind. A fleet of fishing vessels searching for schools of fish on the high seas, a
seismic survey team in a remote area, a disaster relief operation, or aid operation, trying
to function in an area which has been stripped by a natural disaster of its communications
infrastructure, or if in the Third World, never had one in the first place. Scientists on field
outings, or indeed even a class of school-children on an outing into a national park, all
carrying laptops or wearables. Cars and trucks on country highways or freeways, with
onboard Internet connectivity.
There are, of course, also a myriad of military applications involving the

networking of aircraft, helicopters, tanks, ships, and even infantrymen with wearable
computers.
The range of possible situations in which Ad Hoc networking can be exploited is

huge, and this is not an understatement by any measure. A robust Ad Hoc networking
scheme frees the individual from the geographical constraints of the fixed network. In
this respect it is fundamentally different from established mobile networking, in which
mobile nodes are tied down by the need to remain within the coverage of a wireless hub,
connected to the fixed network infrastructure.
An Ad Hoc network, by its nature, provides mutual connectivity between

cooperating peer nodes. Nodes which cannot directly communicate, are assisted by other
nodes between which connectivity exists, and which can connect to the end nodes which
intend to communicate. Therefore, every node in an Ad Hoc network must have the
capability to perform as a router if its peers require it to do so.
Mutual connectivity does not imply the ability to access the fixed infrastructure,
and if connectivity to the fixed infrastructure is required, then at least one node in the Ad
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Hoc network must have the ability to connect to the fixed infrastructure and carry traffic
into and out of the Ad Hoc network.
2.4 Ad Hoc Network types
Ad hoc networks can be classified differently. That can be according to the kind
of mobility involved, their application and their topology. These classifications will be
looked at in this section. The nodes are assumed to be some mobile or portable device
with a radio transceiver and (ideally) a circular rx/tx radius with the same transmission
parameters (e.g. frequency, coding, modulation).
2.4.1 Mobility Types
Mobility can be looked at from two sides: either the way something moves or
what moves. In networks, either the user, the terminal or the application may move.
Therefore, there are three main types of mobility: personal, terminal, or service mobility.
These mobility types are defined in [TOH] and will not be discussed here.
Mobile node movement is quantifiable by the speed, the extend to which the node moves
and if it is connected while moving. Note that, particularly in wireless networks, the
network environment can change as well, which will be perceived as movement of nodes.
2.4.2 Application Types
Small Range Ad Hoc Local Area Network

Ad hoc local area networks are usually networks which are build for a certain
purpose and a limited temporal extent. A spontaneous meeting of people with their
laptops could be such a case. The spatial extent of such a network would be small, very
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often line of sight between the network nodes exists, and can be assumed to be one radio
hop.
Usually, mobile computing devices (laptops) would be connected wirelessly to
form such a network. This kind of network presumes a high data rate and immediate
deployment without administration effort. The nodes usually do not move significantly
while the network exists.
It is this kind of ad hoc network we will have in mind throughout this report. The
small ad hoc LAN type also applies to the multi media home environment, where
multimedia capable devices (such as television, telephone, computer, ..) are connected
wirelessly without the user being involved. In this case, the reliability of the deployment,
i.e. that really all devices are found, is more important.
2.4 Simple Ad-Hoc Network
The circles shown in the above figure is the coverage area of various laptop
computers. Laptop Computer A i.e., node A wants to transmit a packet to laptop
computer D which is not in the coverage area of laptop computer A, so it sends the packet
to laptop computer D via the laptop computer C.
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Routes between two mobile hosts in Ad-Hoc networks may consist of hops through
other nodes in the network. The intermediate nodes from which the data is transmitted
from source to destination are referred as hops.
 Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET)
This is a network which as the small range ad hoc local area network mostly
connects powerful mobile computing facilities. The difference is that the coverage area is
bigger and therefore routing is involved (multi-hop). The criteria, fast and easy
deployment and high data rate remain the same. An example could be a wide range
military operation involving mobile computing. This type is often referred to as MANET
(mobile ad hoc network).
 Personal Area Network (PAN)
The personal area network has a very small coverage area (max. 10 m radius)
usually moving with the person it is attached to. The data rate may range from low to
high, depending to the desired application. Usually WPANs replace cable connections
between mobile devices, such as mobile phone, palmtop, walkman, etc. . Important issues
in WPANs are easy deployment and low battery consumption. Bluetooth is a typical
protocol for WPANs
2.5 SPECTRUM USED FOR ADHOC NETWORKS
Connectivity between nodes in an Ad Hoc network can be provided by any

channel which can carry traffic, and existing research encompasses everything from short
wave radio, VHF, UHF, omnidirectional and directional microwave, and omnidirectional
incoherent infrared or directional infrared and visible band laser technology. Any scheme
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which can carry a digital modulation without using a cable is a candidate for Ad Hoc
networking applications, indeed the ideal Ad Hoc network doesn't really concern itself
with the physical layer channel employed to carry ones and zeroes between participating
nodes. Moreover, with proper protocol transparency, it need not be concerned with the
type of traffic it carries, other than with the issue of the amount of bandwidth required for
a given service.
We could envisage a situation in which you are travelling in your company car
down a country highway, and you receive a "phone" or "video-phone" call from the
office, which has hopped along a series of other cars and trucks along the highway, from
the vehicle nearest to a fixed hub, in the nearest country town. The managing director has
decided to change your assignment and you have to spend another three days in the
middle of nowhere.
2.6 ROUTING MODELS
From a perspective view, the routing problem really decomposes into two
problems. One is that of "route discovery", the other is that of "route maintenance"
whereby the validity of discovered routing information is maintained.
Topologies in Ad Hoc networking are an issue within themselves. In essence,

nodes may move around with no clear geometrical interrelationship, or may form clusters
associated with groups of individuals or vehicles moving around in relatively close
mutual proximity, or nodes may also form "linear topologies", when vehicles travel down
roads, railways, shipping lanes or air routes.
Two different architectures exist for an Ad-hoc network: flat and hierarchical. In a
general sense, routing models are either based upon a "Flat Topology" model, or a
"Hierarchical Topology" model. In the former, all nodes are peers, in the latter one node
within a cluster gathers traffic on behalf of "lesser" nodes in the cluster, and is
responsible for carrying this traffic in and out of the cluster. The Hierarchical Topology is
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in many respects an offshoot of the static networking model, and has generally not been a
popular research area, since it can result in less than optimal routing behaviour. Flat
Topologies are in most situations the best approach, since they can provide for redundant
paths in and out of cells, and should protocol support exist, load balancing across
multiple links.
2.6.1 Flat topology
 Sparse topology
Figure 2.5 Sparse topology

 Dense topology
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Figure 2.6 Dense topology
2.6.2 Hierarchical topology
 No strict topology
Figure 2.7 No strict topology
 Strict topology
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Figure 2.8 Strict topology
2.7 ADHOC NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

2.7.1 Static One Hop Topology
The static one hop topology consists of a number of nodes in direct mutual
communication range. The maximum distance between two nodes is one radio hop, all
stations are within that radio cell. The hidden node problem and exposed node problem
do not exist by definition, since those effects only occur with multiple radio hops. The
nodes within the network do not seem to move with respect to the connectivity. Since this
network configuration is the simplest, it is the most appropriate way to demonstrate the
different systems properties and behaviors and it will be used throughout this report
unless otherwise stated.
2.7.2 Static Multi Hop Topology

The connections in static multi hop topology are static, too, i.e the nodes do not
move significantly. However, the distance between two nodes may be more than one
radio-hop. This implies the existence of hidden nodes and exposed nodes. Static multi
hop topology involves the discovery of appropriate connections (routing).
2.7.3 Dynamic Multi Hop Topology

In addition to the increased size of the multi hop network, we now allow dynamic
movements of the nodes within the whole network. The result is a constantly changing
communications structure. This demands continuous observation of routes, and
performing of handovers, to keep all nodes connected. Again, hidden nodes and exposed
nodes exist.
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2.7.4 Scatter Ad Hoc Topology
The term scatter Ad hoc network has been introduced with bluetooth to describe
multiple overlapping independent networks. The single networks are usually considered
as being single hop, and the overlapping networks as mainly not interfering with each
other.
2.8 Problems in managing Ad Hoc wireless networks
Managing an Ad hoc network well is frequently necessary because of the domain

in which such networks are used. For instance, in a disaster scenario, the management
software ought to provide a complete picture of the deployment of relief crews, possibly
overlaid on top of a map of the area containing information about potential hazards,
victim density, etc. In this scenario, we may also imagine information from unmanned
sensors (ground based, as in the earth quake hit regions or airborne, as in the case of
nuclear disasters) being relied to the management station that provide a comprehensive
picture of the situation. Some of the properties of ad hoc networks that make them
difficult to manage them well are the following:
2.8.1Complexity of nodes
Nodes of an Ad hoc network can range in complexity from simple sensors located
in the field to fully functional computers, such as laptops. An implication of this diversity
is that not all nodes will be able to contribute equally to the management task. For
instance, it is likely that sensors and small personal digital assistant (PDA) type devices
will contribute minimally to the task of management, while more powerful machines will
need to take on responsibilities such as collating data before forwarding it to the
management station, tracking other mobiles in the neighborhood. As they move, etc..
thus, the management protocol needs to function in very heterogeneous environments.
2.8.2 Message Overhead
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One mission of network management protocol is to present the topology of the
network to the network manager. In wire line networks, this is a very simple task because
changes to the topology are very infrequent (example a new node gets added, failure of a
node or addition or deletion of a subnet, etc.,). In mobile networks, on the other hand, the
topology change very frequently because the nodes move about constantly, thus, the
management station needs to collect connectivity information from nodes periodically.
An implication of this is an increased message overhead in collecting topology
information.
2.8.3 Energy Consumption

Most nodes in Ad hoc networks run on batteries. Thus, we need to ensure that
network management overhead is kept to a minimum so that energy is conserved. Energy
is consumed by a radio when a packet is transmitted or received (the DEC Roam About
radio consumes approximately 5.76Watts during transmission, 2.88Watts during
reception). In addition, the CPU expends energy in processing these packets. Thus we
need to reduce the number of packets received or processed at each node. This
requirement is contradictory for topology update messages.
2.8.4 Mobility
Energy constraints and mobility can result in the network becoming partitioned
frequently. For instance, nodes may MARI themselves off to conserve energy resulting in
partitions, or a node may move out of transmission range of other nodes. Similarly, a
node may die when its battery runs out of the MARI. In all these cases, the partitioned
sub networks need to continue running independently and the management protocol must
be robust enough to adapt. For instance when the network gets partitioned, the
management protocol entities must quickly learn that the partition has occurred and
reconfigure the sub network(s) to function autonomously. Further more, when partitions
merge, the management protocol must be capable of updating the network view without
too much of an overhead.
2.8.5 Degrade channel quality
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Signal quality can vary quite dramatically in wireless environments. Thus, fading
and jamming may result in a link going down periodically, an effect of this is that the
network topology from a graph theoretic point of view changes. However, the physical
layout of the network may not change at all. The management protocol must be able to
distinguish this case from the case when the node move cause topology changes, because
in the case of changing link quality or connectivity, it may not be necessary to exchange
topology update messages at all.
2.8.6 Security
Ad hoc networks are frequently setup in hostile environments.(e.g., battle site
networks) and are therefore subject to eaves dropping, destruction and possibly
penetration.(i.e., a node is captured and used to snoop). Thus, the management protocol
needs to incorporate encryption as well as sophisticated authentication procedures.
2.9 Technological challenges of Ad-Hoc routing
What mature and robust Ad Hoc networking offers is virtually universal

connectivity, limited only by the link performance and routing delays of the participating
nodes, and their connectivity to the established fixed network.
Too good to be true ? Perhaps, but certainly, as fanciful as these examples may
be, they are all well within the bounds of today's technology, providing that suitable Ad
Hoc routing protocols exist and are implemented.
The technological challenges of Ad Hoc routing are very much non-trivial !
The first "package" of problems derive from the continuously varying topology, and
potential throughput, of the Ad Hoc network.
1. Topology varies simply because some nodes will move in and out of wireless link
range of other nodes in the network, be it through distance, or concealment behind terrain
or other obstacles which prevent transmission, such as inclement weather or rain which
soaks up microwaves and laser beams.
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2. Network throughput will vary for two reasons. The first, and obvious reason, is that the
larger the number of hops your traffic has to travel across to get to where it is going, the
greater the routing delays you incur, which cumulatively add up to increase the latency of
your link, and thus potential throughput, for a finite buffer size in participating nodes.
Since the network topology is continuously changing, frequently in an unpredictable
manner, the number of hops between you and your destination node will also vary. This
has other implications we will discuss later.
The second reason why network throughput will vary is a consequence of

Shannon's information theory, since for a constant power output and receiver sensitivity,
as distance increases between two wireless nodes, the signal/noise ratio declines and thus
achievable link bit rate drops. Therefore, as the signal weakens, the range of potentially
available services declines, or the bit error rate increases. This variation of throughput
with time is usually referred to as "fading", as much as this term is used and abused in
various niches of communications theory.
At this time very few protocols for MAC layer connections exist which can
adaptively adjust their throughput to accommodate variations in link performance. We
are seeing the first steps with the IEEE 802.11 wireless Ethernet, where link quality
degradation forces a reduction in link bit rate, albeit in large and discrete chunks. We
have yet to see a genuinely robust protocol which dynamically "rubber bands" the bit rate
through the channel to achieve a desired balance of speed and bit error rate. In wireless
networking, where power and bandwidth come at a big premium, every snippet of usable
bit rate is valuable.
By far the biggest problem in current Ad Hoc networking research is that of

routing in a situation where the topology of the network changes continuously,
somewhere within the network.
2.10 PROTOCOLS PROPOSED FOR ADHOC NETWORKS
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Routing models are divided into:
 "Proactive Routing" is any scheme which continuously monitors the topology

and maintains current routing tables regardless of instantaneous demand. DV and
LS schemes fall into this category. While routing information is always available
for a sender, the network is being continuously flooded with routing management
traffic, much of which is unused.
 "Reactive Routing" is any scheme where routing information is gathered only on

demand. In such schemes, a route is discovered only when needed, and thus
routing management traffic is kept to its bare minimum. Reactive schemes have
been most popular to date, since they minimize the route management traffic
overheads.
Static networks mostly use either Distance Vector (DV) or Link State routing
algorithms, neither of which are spectacularly well suited to highly dynamic topologies.
DSR, or Bellman-Ford schemes, such as those used in the DARPA packet radio
protocol, RIP, XNS or IPX, are based on the idea of periodically broadcast tables of
distances, typically in hops, between a node and all possible destinations. A necessary
requirement is that the update rate is greater than the rate of topology change.
Numerous protocols have been developed for Ad hoc mobile networks. Such
protocols must deal with the typical limitations of these networks, which include high
power consumption, low bandwidth, and high error rates. As shown in Fig. 2.9, these
routing protocols may generally be categorized as:
• Table-driven
• Source-initiated (demand-driven)
Ad-hoc Routing Protocols
23
Table-driven Source-initiated on-demand
DSDV AODV DSR LMR ABR

WRP
CGSR TORA SSR
Figure 2.9 Categorization of Ad-hoc Routing Protocols
Link State schemes, such as those used in the OIS IS-IS or Internet OSPF routing
protocols, rely on the broadcast of complete topology maps for the network.
In a highly dynamic wireless network, such protocols run into a number of
difficulties:
* Topologies may be highly redundant, with some nodes being in the situation of being
able to connect to a very large number of neighbours, while others see very few
neighbours.
* Bandwidth is scarce and cannot be wasted.
* High rates of topology change require high update rates.
Link State, and Distance Vector routing schemes fall foul of these issues since
they distribute a lot of routing information, and with high rates of topology change this
will eat into bandwidth and thus battery power, more so in highly redundant topologies,
where much of the information is effectively wasted. Maintaining a current routing table
on a node which does not communicate much with its neighbours is a drain on critical
resources for no return.
Hence to overcome the dynamic wireless Ad hoc network problems we go for the
DSR and Bellman-ford protocols but even these protocols suffer with a problem of finite
resource battery power on a portable equipment and node power failures, so we choose
NFPQR protocol to have an advantage over this.
2.11 APPLICATIONS
24
A new framework for ad hoc applications is under development at the University
of Lausanne in Switzerland. This thin layer, based on existing standards, will help
developers build applications that include three features: mobility, peer-to-peer operation
and collocation. As the framework is independent of the underlying network technology,
the proposed solution will be adaptable to the emergence of the next-generation Ad hoc
network.
The goal of several recent research projects has been to study the new generation
of mobile communication and information services, based on self-organisation (AODV,
Terminodes, CarNet). Such systems have lately become very topical, with the advent of
the peer-to-peer communication paradigm and the emergence of Ad hoc network
technologies. Many fundamental technical questions remain open however, and real
business applications still need to be rolled out. One specific domain where the peer-to-
peer phenomenon has had a major impact is data and media interchange on the Internet.
Mobile devices will presumably be the next target, as the minimal requirements for
multimedia applications are almost guaranteed.
An Ad hoc network is “a transitory association of mobile nodes which do not
depend upon any fixed support infrastructure. [...] Connection and disconnection is
controlled by the distance among nodes and by willingness to collaborate in the
formation of cohesive, albeit transitory community.” [Murphy et al]. But what are ad hoc
applications? One could simply answer 'pieces of software that will run on Ad hoc
networks'. We believe that defining a class of applications (ad hoc applications) by
coupling it to only one possible implementation technology (ad hoc networks) reduces
the generality and effectiveness of the definition. Therefore we define an Ad hoc
application as a self-organising application composed of mobile and autonomous devices
interacting as peers, whose relationships are made possible because of relatively close
physical distances (collocation). In addition, this dynamic community, defined by
geographical proximity, needs to have a common (application-level) interest. More
formally, three features must be present in an application for it to deserve the Ad hoc
label:
25
 Mobility: in order to be able to use the application everywhere, the user should
not be limited by range. The range limit is set by the business logic of the
application.
 Peer-to-Peer: direct communication between peers is mandatory. This means that
the client/server relationship is defined in an Ad hoc manner by the application
logic (direct interaction between the pieces of software).
 Collocation: all logical interactions between applications must result in a physical
interaction between users. This means that in order to be called an Ad hoc
application, the service has to be location-based.
The above definition allows us to abstract the network completely, and focus on the
application aspects. In this way, there is a clear decoupling between the application and
the network, and any type of network — GSM, WLAN or Ad hoc — can be used. This
decoupling is fundamental in understanding the key issues underlying Ad hoc
applications and in providing reusable solutions to solve these issues. This eases the
development of Ad hoc applications. By abstracting the network level, we are able to
build Ad hoc applications in the absence of any Ad hoc network, as long as the
underlying infrastructure can provide support for the three basic aspects described above.
Here is an example of a possible Ad hoc application called the ubiquitous flea market.
This application is available wherever you are and at all times. It is available on many
mobile devices and matches buyers and sellers present within a certain range, the latter
being previously defined by the user. As the user is walking, this Ad hoc application
scans its surroundings for possible peer sellers or buyers. It has to be noted that any user
can be buyer and/or seller. When the application finds another mobile device that runs the
same piece of software, it scans the shared items in order to find a match. If there is a
match, the user is alerted and can then ask the peer to get in touch and make the physical
transaction.
3.ROUTING ALGORITHMS
The term “Routing” refers to the overall, network wide process that determines
end-to-end paths that data grams will take from source to destinations. Using a driving
26
analogy, we can think of routing as the process of building maps and giving directions
from source to destinations. When end-to-end logical connection, consisting of a
sequence must make a routing decision that determines the next hop in the sequence.
3.1 Need for Routing

A Network is an interconnected set of nodes (with a network wide system of
unique addresses). In general there may be several different routes from one node to
another node. There is no requirement for a direct connection to one or more nodes. If a
node receives a packet address to a directly connected node it will simply pass it to
appropriate link to driver software. If a node receives a packet addressed to a node that it
has no direct connection it must solve the “routing problem” to determine which node to
send it to. A typical network is illustrated below
X Node Node Node Y

A B C
Node Node
D E
Figure 3.1 Routing Network
3.2 R outing Principle

The network layer must determine the path, or route, that the packets are to
follow. Whether the network layer provides the datagram service (in which case
different packets between a given source-destination pair may take different route) or a
27
virtual circuit service (in which case all packets between given source and destination
will take the same path).In the above network node A may route a packet address to Y to
either node B or to node D. The selection of which node to route the packet to is the
routing decision, the routing decision is incorporated by the algorithm used in Packet
switching exchange (PSE)software node A. The performance of routing algorithms may
be expressed in terms of various criteria.
3.2.1 Characteristics
The primary function of a Packet switching network is to accept packets from a

source station and deliver them to destination station. To accomplish this, a path or route
through the network must be determined; generally more than one route is possible, thus
a route function must be performed. The requirement for this function include:
 Correctness
 Simplicity
 Robustness
 Optimality
 Fairness
 Stability
 Efficiency
3.2.2 Performance Criteria

 Minimum number of Hops
 Minimum “cost”
 Minimum delay
 Maximum throughput
 Minimum CPU processing at nodes
 Minimum CPU memory requirement at nodes
3.3 C lassification of Routing Algorithms
28
Routing algorithms determine an efficient path from one source to its destination
through the chain of routers and servers. One way in which we classify routing
algorithms is according to whether they are Global or Decentralized.
 A Global Routing algorithm computes the shortest path between a source and
destination using complete, global knowledge about the network i.e the algorithm takes
the connectivity between all nodes and links costs as inputs. The calculation can be run
at one site (a centralized global routing algorithm) or replicated at multiple sites. In
practice, Packet switching thus with global state information are often referred to as
Link State Algorithm.
 In a Decentralized routing algorithm, the calculation of the shortest path is

carried out in an iterative, distributed manner. No node has complete information about
the cost of all network links. A decentralized routing algorithm is also known as
Distance Vector Algorithm because a node never actually knows a complete path from
source to destination.
We can also classify routing algorithms as static and dynamic:
In static routing algorithms, routes change very slowly over time, often as a
result of human intervention (for example, a human manually editing a router’s
forwarding table)
Dynamic routing algorithm changes the routing paths as the network traffic
loads for topology change. While dynamic algorithms are more responsive to network
changes, they are also more susceptible to problems such as routing loops and
oscillations in route.
Routing Algorithms can be grouped into two major classes Non–adaptive and
Adaptive.
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Non Adaptive algorithms do not base their routing decision on measurements
or estimates of the current traffic and topology. Instead, the choice of the route to use is
computed in advance, off-line and downloadable to the routers when network is booted
Adaptive Algorithms, in contrast change their routing decision to reflect
changes in the topology and usually the traffic as well. They differ in where they get
information (e.g., locally, from adjacent routers, or from all routers), when they change
the routes.
3.4 Types of Routing Algorithms
There are mainly two types of routing algorithms, Dynamic Source Routing Algorithm
and NFPQR Algorithm.
3.4.1 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING
The Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol is an on-demand routing protocol

that is based on the concept of source routing. Mobile nodes are required to maintain
route caches that contain the source routes of which the mobile is aware. Entries in the
route cache are continually updated as new routes are learned.
The protocol consists of two major phases: route discovery and route
maintenance. When a mobile node has a packet to send to some destination, it first
consults its route cache to determine whether it already has a route to the destination. If it
has an unexpired route to the destination, it will use this route to send the packet. On the
other hand, if the node does not have such a route, it initiates route discovery by
broadcasting a route request packet. This route request contains the address of the
destination, along with the source node’s address and a unique identification number.
Each node receiving the packet checks whether it knows of a route to the destination. If it
does not, it adds its own address to the route record of the packet and then forwards the
packet along its outgoing links.
30
To limit the number of route requests propagated on the outgoing links of a node,
a mobile only forwards the route request if the request has not yet been seen by the
mobile and if the mobile’s address does not already appear in the route record. A route
reply is generated when the route request reaches either the destination itself, or an
intermediate node which contains in its route cache an unexpired route to the destination.
By the time the packet reaches either the destination or such an intermediate node, it
contains a route record yielding the sequence of hops taken. Figure 3.2 illustrates the
formation of the route record as the route request propagates through the network.
A route reply is generated when the route request reaches either the destination
itself, or an intermediate node which contains in its route cache an unexpired route to the
destination. If the node generating the route reply is the destination, it places the route
record contained in the route request into the route reply. If the responding node is an
intermediate node, it will append its cached route to the route record and then generate
the route reply.
31
Figure 3.2 Creation of the route record in DSR.
The Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) [5, 6] is a simple and efficient
routing protocol designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless Ad-hoc networks of
mobile nodes. DSR allows the network to be completely self-organizing and self-
configuring, without the need for any existing network infrastructure or administration.
The protocol is composed of the two mechanisms of Route Discovery and Route
Maintenance, which work together to allow nodes to discover and maintain source routes
to arbitrary destinations in the Ad-hoc network. The use of source routing allows packet
routing to be trivially loop-free, avoids the need for up-to-date routing information in the
intermediate nodes through which packets are forwarded, and allows nodes forwarding or
overhearing packets to cache the routing information in them for their own future use. All
aspects of the protocol operate entirely on-demand, allowing the routing packet overhead
of DSR to scale automatically to only that needed to react to changes in the routes
currently in use.
To send a packet to another host, the sender constructs a source route in the
packet’s header, giving the address of each host in the network through which the packet
32
should be forwarded in order to reach the destination host. The sender then transmits the
packet over its wireless network interface to the first hop identified in the source route.
When a host receives a packet, if this host is not the final destination of the packet, it
simply transmits the packet to the next hop identified in the source route in the packet’s
header. Once the packet reaches its final destination, the packet is delivered to the
network layer software on that host.
Each mobile host participating in the Ad-hoc network maintains a route cache in
which it caches source routes that it has learned. When one host sends a packet to another
host, the sender first checks its route cache for a source route to the destination. If a route
is found, the sender uses this route to transmit the packet. If no route is found, the sender
may attempt to discover one using the route discovery protocol.
While waiting for the route discovery to complete, the host may continue normal
processing and may send and receive packets with other hosts. The host may buffer the
original packet in order to transmit it once the route is learned from route discovery, or it
may discard the packet, relying on higher-layer protocol software to retransmit the packet
if needed. Each entry in the route cache has associated with it an expiration period, after
which the entry is deleted from the cache.
While a host is using any source route, it monitors the continued correct operation
of that route. For example, if the sender, the destination, or any of the other hosts named
as hops along a route move out of wireless transmission range of the next or previous hop
along the route, the route can no longer be used to reach the destination. A route will also
no longer work if any of the hosts along the route is failed or is powered off. This
monitoring of the correct operation of a route in use is called route maintenance. When
route maintenance detects a problem with a route in use, route discovery may be used
again to discover a new, correct route to the destination.
This section describes the basic operation of route discovery and route maintenance.
3.4.2 NODE FAILURE PREDICTION QoS ROUTING PROTOCOL
NFPQR calculates the future condition of a node to make it as next relay node in
the path discovery. The estimation of future condition of a node depends on the power
level of the node at a particular time.
33
3.4.2.1 Power Level
In wireless Ad-hoc network, the devices generally are dependent on finite battery
power is completely consumed, then the device will go down, i.e, the device is
considered as under-failure. If the radio interface of the mobile device is not functioning
then all the communications from this device will be stopped. A prediction on node
failure helps us in providing better QoS routing for Ad-hoc and/or sensor networks.
Suppose a node, having high probability of failure in the near future due to the lack of
sufficient power in the battery and the node is selected as a router to forward the packets,
then the following problems will occur. After some seconds the node will be failed as its
communication links with its neighbour will be broken.
So it cannot forward the packets and many packets will be lost and these packets
have to be regenerated and retransmitted. Another penalty due to the node failure is that
the route discovery process should be performed once again to establish new path that
may take few more seconds. During this entire process, the packets will be queued up at
the down stream nodes until a new path is set up. During certain lower power levels, the
signal strength is reduced and delay is increased at the MAC level. Sometimes the
network partitions also occur due to the node failures, where the packet may never reach
the destination if the source and destination nodes are not in the same partition. So, the
node failure in the network causes the QoS violation, which increases end-to-end delay,
packet loss and decreases the network throughput.
In order to solve the problem due to node failure and to support QoS, we propose
a new method, which predicts whether a node will be failed in the near future or not.
Before the upstream node is selected as a router to forward the packets, the downstream
node predicts whether the upstream node will be failed in the near future or not. The
heuristic we use here is based on the power levels in the battery power are consumed
during communication and processing or computing. Communication power is much
higher than the computing power. In communication power, the transmission power, the
power needed to transmit a packet, is much higher than others like receiving power, idle
34
power etc. If transmission power is Ct and overhead energy is C0,then the total power
needed to transmit the entire buffer is
(Bf * Ct/Ps)+C0
Here Bf is buffer capacity and Ps is packet size. The threshold power level is
based on the packet size, buffer capacity and the packet transfer rate of the node. If t1 is
the present time, then the maximum power consumption at a particular node after time t2
is given as
P12=(t2-t1).(tr.Ct+C0)
Here tr is the maximum packet transfer rate of a node.
If Tp is the total battery power given to the node initially, then our experimental
results show that the threshold value about 0:1xTp is desirable. That is, the down stream
node checks whether the upstream node is having power level at least 10% of the total
battery power. If the node is having the power level more than the threshold, then it is
selected as router. Otherwise the downstream node will not select this node as a router
and the process is repeated with other neighbour nodes. This method selects a path such
that the nodes depleted energy do not lie on this path. This method also increases the life
of the network. This approximation may not be applicable for all the cases. The node
failure may occur due to some other reasons like environmental inference, unexpected
accidental events etc, which are not considered here.
3.4.2.2 NFPQR Algorithm
When node j receives a route request message (RREQ in AODV) from node i,
then node j predicts its future condition by considering power level of node j. If its power
level is above the threshold, that is the power level is above the initial power
given(0:1xTr) then the node j will forward this RREQ to next hop; otherwise it will drop
the route request message. The same procedure is repeated for all the nodes till the
destination node is reached.
35
In NFPQR algorithm, more stable paths are found during route discovery. Here,
the stable path means the packets, which traverse on these paths, will not experience long
delays and improves the delivery ratio also, NFPQR increases the network lifetime of the
MANET. In addition, algorithm implementation is simple. In the following section, the
simulation and achieved results are presented.
4.PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 Block Diagram
36
Creation of Distance Neighbour
N/W Calculation Discovery
Routing
Path
( DSR &
Analysis Determination
NFPQR )
Figure 4.1 Block Diagram
4.2 DESCRIPTION
4.2.1 NETWORK CREATION
37
Here we create a network by entering the number of nodes we require. Here we use a
random permutation to generate x and y coordinates of each node. We also assign the id
numbers and power levels for each node which can be used future applications. We use
the function below to create a random network in our project.
create_ntw.m
4.2.2 DISTANCE CALCULATION
After creating a network, we find the distance between each node to all other nodes
by using Euclidean distance method. Then a Distance matrix is then formed.
d=sqrt ((x1-x2)^2+(y1-y2)^2).
4.2.3 NEIGHBOUR DISCOVERY
In order to maximize the quality of service we use the threshold value in order to find the
neighbour list of each node. We group all these neighbouring lists into a cell matrix
which can be used for path determination. We use the function below to discover the
neighbours of all the nodes.
neighbour_discover.m
4.2.4 PATH DETERMIATION
We use the neighbouring list inorder to find the path between each source and destination
using DSR and NFPQR routing protocols. First,it finds all the possible paths between
source and destination later in DSR it takes distance metric into consideration to find the
optimal path. Since in DSR the power metric is not taken into consideration, some nodes
will go down if the power is completely consumed i.e, the node is considered as under-
failure. Hence, we go for NFPQR routing protocol which predicts whether a node will be
failed in the near future or not. Based on this an optimal path can be found.
evaluate_route_DSR.m
4.2.5 ROUTING (DSR & NFPQR)
38
Using DSR and NFQR protocols the optimal path satisfying their algorithmic nature is
found.
DSR_comm.m
This function is used to determine the path in Dynamic Source Routing algorithm. Here
its checks for the best optimal path from the various paths obtained in the evaluation of
route.
NFPQR_comm.m
This function is used to determine the path in Node Failure Prediction QoS Routing
algorithm. Here the optimal path which satisfies the power conditions is selected from the
various paths obtained in the evaluation of route.
Based on the path selected, the packet data is transferred from the source node to
the destination node through different intermediate nodes of the determined optimal path.
4.2.6 ANALYSIS:
Now an analysis is made by comparing the convergence time, delay and the power levels
at each node of the paths using both the DSR and NFPQR routing protocols. Finally we
conclude that NFPQR has an advantage of good convergence time, less delay and better
node power levels and hop-node performance than DSR. We use the function below to
make an analysis of randomly created AD-HOC network in our project.
analysis.m
5.RESULTS
5.1 Example: 1
39
Figure 5.1 Outlook of the GUI interfaced main program
The above window is displayed when we run the GUI interfaced program, which
shows name of the project along with continue and close buttons. Continue button helps
us to proceed into the program and close button helps us to terminate the program.
40
Figure 5.2 Selection of create network & routing
When the continue button is clicked a window is displayed as shown above with 2
options create network and routing. Now, when we click on the create network, a random
Ad-hoc network with 30 nodes is created.
41
Figure 5.3 Random ad hoc network creation
Network Specifications:
Network Area: 30X30units
No. of Nodes: 30
Node density: Average
Mobility: Random
Nodes: Static
Power Allocation: Random
Communication Standard: IEEE 802.11b
42
Figure 5.4 Node packet with entry of source & destination id’s
A command window is now displayed showing the node details (id numbers and
power values) of all the nodes. It is required to enter the source and destination id’s to
route the data between them by using DSR and NFPQR algorithms. Here the source id is
taken as id: 1 and destination id is taken as id: 15.
43
Figure 5.5 Selection window for routing and analysis
Now, after selecting routing a new window is displayed which gives us a choice to select
the type of algorithm to find the path between the source and destination and then an
analysis is made by clicking on the analysis button. This window provides DSR, NFPQR
and analysis buttons. At any point in the program we can exit by clicking on the close
button.
44
Fig 5.6 DSR protocol applied on the random network for route selection
For the created random ad hoc network the route is selected considering the
source node as the node with id: 1 and destination node as the node with id: 15 using
DSR as routing protocol. The communication route selected for considered source and
destination contains node with id:5, id: 6, id: 4, id: 13, id: 20, id: 25 and id: 3 as
intermediate nodes .The arrows indicate the path traversed by the route request and
acknowledgement packet.
After the route selection the data packet will traverse the same path for the
communication between the considered source and destination.
45
Fig 5.7 NFPQR protocol applied on the random network for route selection
NFPQR as routing protocol. The communication route selected for considered source and
destination contains node with id: 5, id: 6, id: 4, id: 20 and id: 25 as intermediate
nodes .The arrows indicate the path traversed by the route request and acknowledgement
packet.
46
Fig 5.8 Convergence time plot for DSR and NFPQR
When the analysis button is clicked the program is set to display the various plots
and first among them is convergence plot. This convergence plot is bar graph which
displays the convergence times of DSR and NFPQR .
Convergence Time of DSR = 0.58
Convergence Time of NFPQR = 0.145
47
Fig 5.9 NFPQR & DSR protocols applied on the random network for route selection
both the DSR and NFPQR as routing protocols.
Path in DSR = 1-5-6-4-13-20-25-3-15
Path in NFPQR = 1-5-6-4-20-25-15
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Fig 5.10 Delay Performance Plot
Depending on End-to-End delay of path obtained in DSR and NFPQR routing

protocols, a delay plot is drawn which clearly shows that NFPQR is the effective
algorithm to obtain the best path in terms of End-to-End delay when compared to that of
DSR.
Fig 5.11 Outlook of the GUI interfaced main program
The above window is displayed when we run the GUI interfaced program, which
shows name of the project along with continue and close buttons. Continue button helps
us to proceed into the program and close button helps us to terminate the program.
49
5.2 Example: 2
Fig 5.12 Selection of create network & routing
When the continue button is clicked a window is displayed as shown above with 2
options create network and routing. Now, when we click on the create network, a random
Ad-hoc network with 30 nodes is created.
50
Fig 5.13 Random ad hoc network creation
Network Specifications:
Network Area: 30X30units
No. of Nodes: 30
Node density: Average
Mobility: Random
Nodes: Static
Power Allocation: Random
Communication Standard: IEEE 802.11b
51
Fig 5.14 Node packet with entry of source & destination id’s
A command window is now displayed showing the node details (id numbers and
power values) of all the nodes. It is required to enter the source and destination id’s to
route the data between them by using DSR and NFPQR algorithms. Here the source id is
taken as id: 1 and destination id is taken as id: 15.
52
Fig 5.15 Selection window for routing and analysis
Here in this window we make selection of routing protocols, DSR and NFPQR.
There after the performance of DSR and NFPQR can be compared by clicking on
ANALYSIS button
53
Fig 5.16 DSR protocol applied on the random network for route selection
source node as the node with id: 1 and destination node as the node with id: 5 using DSR
as routing protocol. The communication route selected for considered source and
destination contains node with id:14, id: 15, id: 22, id: 24, id: 10, id: 3, id: 2 and id: 26
as intermediate nodes .The arrows indicate the path traversed by the route request and
54
Fig 5.17 NFPQR protocol applied on the random network for route selection
NFPQR as routing protocol. The communication route selected for considered source and
destination contains node with id: 14, id: 15, id: 22, id: 24, id: 10, id: 13 and id: 19 as
intermediate nodes .The arrows indicate the path traversed by the route request and
55
Fig 5.18 Convergence time plot for DSR and NFPQR
When the analysis button is clicked the program is set to display the various plots
and first among them is convergence plot. This convergence plot is bar graph which
displays the convergence times of DSR and NFPQR .
Convergence Time of DSR = 0.578
Convergence Time of NFPQR = 0.13
56
Fig 5.19 NFPQR & DSR protocols applied on the random network for route selection
both the DSR and NFPQR as routing protocols.
Path in DSR = 1-14-15-22-24-10-3-2-26-5
Path in NFPQR = 1-14-15-22-24-10-13-19-5
communication between the considered source and destination
57
Fig 5.20 Delay Performance Plot
Depending on End-to-End delay of path obtained in DSR and NFPQR routing

protocols, a delay plot is drawn which clearly shows that NFPQR is the effective
algorithm to obtain the best path in terms of End-to-End delay when compared to that of
DSR.
58
6.CONCLUSION
6.1 CONCLUSION
In this project work performance of NFPQR and DSR protocols for random
Ad-Hoc network has been evaluated and compared for QoS parameters such as power
consumption and delay. To analyze the performance an average node density random
Ad-Hoc network with 30 nodes is considered for simulations. The power level of each
node and the respective geographical position is randomly defined in the network.
Simulations have been run for 3 seconds considering almost no mobility of nodes during
routing and communication.
The aforementioned QoS parameters have been evaluated for a defined source
and destination using NFPQR and DSR protocols. Route selection and communication
has been performed by all the protocols individually in accordance with the respective
algorithms. The performance plots of all the protocols reflect the efficiency of each in
terms of quality of route and power optimization.
The simulation results of DSR and NFPQR for an average node density in random
Ad hoc network shows that DSR protocol does not provide optimization of QoS. Thus
the QoS parameters evaluated for it reflect poor performance. Better QoS routing is
provided through NFPQR protocol as it provides stable routes in comparison to DSR due
to node failure prediction based on power to some extent improvement in QoS .
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6.2 FUTURE SCOPE
Ad-hoc networks have already been specified in the early seventies, but there has
not been a commercial breakthrough since then. Nevertheless, ad-hoc networks have
received an increased attention recently. For example, among the topics where papers
could be submitted to this year’s IST Mobile Summit, the area of ad-hoc and sensor
networks has received the highest number of submissions. One reason for the current
uptake of ad-hoc networks are certainly the great advances in wireless technologies over
the last years. Examples are the IEEE 802.11 series (many DSL users have their own hot-
spot at home), the recent 802.16 WiMAX specification, which enables a significantly
larger range of up to 10 km, or Bluetooth for shorter distances. Another focus of current
research are 4G mobile networks. 4G networks aim at integrating the various access and
network technologies in order to implement ubiquitous services. Ad-hoc networks are
one piece of this concept.
 Application areas
There are a number of application areas for ad-hoc networks. The cover theme
articles in this issue will provide insights into a few selected application areas and
research activities. The following overview should give you an idea of the wide range of
application areas:
Personal Area Networks (PANs) are formed between various mobile (and
immobile) devices mainly in an ad-hoc manner, e.g. for creating a home network. They
can remain an autonomous network, interconnecting various devices, at home, for
example, but PANs will become more meaningful when connected to a larger network. In
this case, PANs can be seen as an extension of the telecom network or Internet. Closely
related to this is the concept of ubiquitous / pervasive computing where people,
noticeable or transparently will be in close and dynamic interaction with devices in their
surrounding.
60
REFERENCES
[1] D.Satynarayana, S.Sathyashree, “Node Failure Predication QoS routing Protocol for
ad hoc sensor networks”, 2nd International Conference on wireless communication &
sensor networks, December 17-19, 2006
[2] Tony Larsson and Nicklas Hedman, “Routing Protocols in Wireless Ad hoc
Networks -A Simulation Study”, Master’s thesis in Computer Science and Engineering,
Luleå University of Technology Stockholm, 1998.
[3] David B. Johnson, David A. Maltz, Josh Broch, “DSR: The Dynamic Source Routing
Protocol for Multi-Hop Wireless Ad Hoc Networks”, Computer Science Department
Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, http://www.monarch.cs.cmu.edu/
[4] Rajarshi Gupta, Zhanfeng Jia, “Interference-aware QoS Routing (IQ Routing) for Ad-
Hoc Networks”, published in the proceedings of National conference, held at Jawaharlal
Nehru National College of Engineering, Shimoga on 7-8 July 2006
[5] Federico Cali, Marco Conti and Enrico Gregori, “IEEE 802.11 Protocol: Design and
Performance Evaluation of an Adaptive Backoff Mechanism”, IEEE Journal on Selected
Areas of Communications vol. 18, No.9, September 2000
[6] IEEE Standard for Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical layer
(PHY) Specifications, Nov. 1997. P802.11
[7] G. Bianchi, “Performance Analysis of the IEEE 802.11 Distributed Coordination

Function,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 18, no. 3, March
2000.
61
[8] M. Ergen and P. Varaiya, “Throughput Analysis and Admission Control for IEEE
802.11a,” to appear in ACM-Kluwer MONET Special Issue on WLAN Optimization at
the MAC and Network Levels.
[9] D. Bertsekas and R. Gallagher, “Data Networks (2nd Edition),” Prentice Hall, 1991.
[10] C. Yuan and P. Marbach, “Rate Control in Random Access Networks,” preprint,
1999
[11] E. M. Royer, C. Perkins, and S. R. Das, “Quality of Service for Ad-Hoc On-Demand
Distance Vector Routing,” Internet Draft draft-ietf-manetaodvqos-00.txt, July 2000.
[12] S. Chen and K. Nahrstedt, “Distributed quality-of-service routing in adhoc

networks,” IEEE Journal Selected Areas in Communication, vol. 17 no. 8, pp. 14881505,
Aug 1999.
[13] C. R. Lin and J.-S. Liu, “QoS Routing in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks,” IEEE Journal
on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 14261438, Nov./Dec. 1999.
[14] H. Luo, S. Lu, and V. Bhargavan, “A New Model for Packet Scheduling in Multihop
Wireless Networks,” ACM Journal of Mobile Networks and Applications (MONET) vol.
9, no. 3, June 2004.
[15] C. Zhu and M. S. Corson, “QoS Routing for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks,”
Proceedings INFOCOM 2002, New York.
[16] T. Salonidis and L. Tassiulas, “Distributed dynamic scheduling for end to end rate
guarantees in wireless ad hoc networks,” submitted for publication.
[17] Y. Yang and R. Kravets, “Contention-aware admission control for ad hoc networks,”
UIUC Tech Report, 2003.
62
APPENDIX-I
ACRONYMS
• AHN - Ad-Hoc Network

• ACK - Acknowledge
• AODV - Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
• ABR - Associativity Based Routing
• CGSR - Clusterhead Gateway Switch Routing
• CTS - Clear-To-Send
• CDM - Code Division Multiplexing
• DAG - Directed Acyclic Graph
• DSR - Dynamic Source Routing
• DSDV - Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector
• LMR - Lightweight Mobile Routing
• MANET - Mobile Ad-Hoc Network
• MRL - Message Retransmission List
• NPDU - Network Protocol Data Units
• PDA - Personal Digital Assistant
• QoS - Quality of Service
• RRC - Route Reconstruction
• REQ - Request
• RREQ - Route Request
• RTS - Request-To-Send
• SWP - Shortest Widest Path
• SLA - Service Level Agreements
• TORA - Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm
• TDM - Time Division Multiplexing
• WRP - Wireless Routing Protocol
63
APPENDIX-II
MATLAB FUNCTIONS
1. abs(X)- returns an array Y such that each element of Y is the absolute value of the
corresponding element of X.
2. break- Terminate execution of a for loop or while loop
3. case- a part of the switch statement syntax which allows for conditional execution
4. close all- deletes all figures whose handles are not hidden. close all hidden deletes
all figures including those with hidden handles.
5. cputime- returns the total CPU time (in seconds) used by MATLAB from the
time it was started. This number can overflow the internal representation and
wrap around.
6. diff(X, n)- applies diff recursively n times, resulting in the nth difference. Thus,
diff(X,2) is the same as diff(diff(X))
7. disp(X)- displays an array, without printing the array name. If X contains a text
string, the string is displayed.
8. dist- is the Euclidean distance weight function. Weight functions apply weights to
an input to get weighted inputs.
9. else is used to delineate an alternate block of statements. If expression evaluates
as false, MATLAB executes the one or more commands denoted here as
statements.
10. else if- with a space between the else and the if, differs from elseif, with no space.
The former introduces a new, nested if, which must have a matching end.
11. end- is used to terminate for, while, switch, try, and if statements. Without an end
statement, for, while, switch, try, and if wait for further input. Each end is paired
with the closest previous unpaired for, while, switch, try, or if and serves to
delimit its scope.
12. fontsize-size in points, Approximate size of text characters. A value specifying
the font size to use in points. The default size is 10 (1 point = 1/72 inch).
13. for- Repeat statements a specific number of times.
64
14. global X Y Z- defines X, Y, and Z as global in scope.
15. grid on- adds major grid lines to the current axes.
16. hold on- retains the current plot and certain axes properties so that subsequent
graphing commands add to the existing graph.
17. if- the evaluation yields a logical true or nonzero result, executes one or more
MATLAB commands denoted here as statements. When you are nesting ifs, each
if must be paired with a matching end.
18. int2str(n)- converts an integer to a string with integer format. The input n can be
a single integer or a vector or matrix of integers, noninteger inputs are rounded
before conversion.
19. legend('string1','string2',...)- displays a legend in the current axes using the
specified strings to label each set of data.
20. length(X)- returns the size of the longest dimension of X. If X is a vector, this is
the same as its length.
21. menu('mtitle','opt1','opt2',...,'optn')- displays the menu whose title is in the
string variable 'mtitle' and whose choices are string variables 'opt1', 'opt2', and so
on. menu returns the number of the selected menu item.
22. msgbox(message)- creates a message box that automatically wraps message to fit
an appropriately sized figure. message is a string vector, string matrix, or cell
array.
23. ndims(A)- returns the number of dimensions in the array A. The number of
dimensions in an array is always greater than or equal to 2. Trailing singleton
dimensions are ignored. A singleton dimension is any dimension for which
size(A,dim) = 1 or ndims(x) is length(size(x)).
24. plot(X1,Y1,...)- plots all lines defined by Xn versus Yn pairs. If only Xn or Yn is
a matrix, the vector is plotted versus the rows or columns of the matrix, depending
on whether the vector's row or column dimension matches the matrix.
25. rand- The rand function generates arrays of random numbers whose elements are
uniformly distributed in the interval (0,1).
26. randperm(n)- returns a random permutation of the integers 1 to n.
65
27. round(X)- rounds the elements of X to the nearest integers. For complex X, the
imaginary and real parts are rounded independently.
28. c = setdiff(A, B)- returns the values in A that are not in B. The resulting vector is
sorted in ascending order. In set theory terms, c = A - B. A and B can be cell
arrays of strings
29. size(X)- returns the sizes of each dimension of array X in a vector d with
ndims(X) elements.
30. sortrows(A,column)- sorts the matrix based on the columns specified in the
vector column. For example, sortrows(A,[2 3]) sorts the rows of A by the second
column, and where these are equal, further sorts by the third column.
31. sprintf- Write formatted data to a string.
32. sqrt(X)- returns the square root of each element of the array X. For the elements
of X that are negative or complex, sqrt(X) produces complex results.
33. strcat(s1, s2, s3, ...)- horizontally concatenates corresponding rows of the
character arrays s1, s2, s3, etc. All input arrays must have the same number of
rows (or any can be a single string). When the inputs are all character arrays, the
output is also a character array.
34. subplot- divides the current figure into rectangular panes that are numbered row
wise. Each pane contains an axes. Subsequent plots are output to the current pane
35. switch(s)- The switch statement syntax is a means of conditionally executing
code. In particular, switch executes one set of statements selected from an
arbitrary number of alternatives. Each alternative is called a case
36. text(x,y,'string')- adds the string in quotes to the location specified by the point
(x,y).
37. title('string')- outputs the string at the top and in the center of the current axes.
38. while- repeats statements an indefinite number of times. The statements are
executed while the real part of expression has all nonzero elements. expression is
usually of the form.
39. xlim([xmin xmax])- sets the axis limits in the current axes to the specified values.
40. ylim([ymin ymax])- sets the axis limits in the current axes to the specified values.
66
Key Research Challenges
From a communications perspective, the main characteristics of ad hoc networks include:

1. Lack of pre-configuration, meaning network configuration and management must be
automatic and dynamic.
2. Node mobility, resulting in constantly changing network topologies.
3. Multi-hop routing.
4. Resource limited devices, e.g. laptops, PDAs and mobile phones have power and CPU
processing constraints.
5. Resource limited wireless communications, e.g. reduced to 10's of kilobits per second
by the fact that many nodes must share the radio medium.
6. Potentially large networks, e.g. a network of sensors may comprise thousands or even
tens of thousands of mobile nodes.
A key research challenge in ad hoc networks is to increase the efficiency of
information transfer, while handling the harsh environmental conditions such as energy
constrained and highly mobile devices. Advances in wireless communications technology
are required to overcome the limitations inherent of broadcast radio networks. In
addition, routing and transport protocols (e.g. TCP/IP) must be made more intelligent
such that communication paths avoid nodes low on resources (e.g. low battery power).
A second challenge is enhancing the usability of ad hoc networks to support
future commercial applications. With no prior configuration of network services, nor any
central authority, basic tasks expected of a computer communications network become
more complicated. Securing the network is perhaps the most difficult task. Supporting
interactive voice and video applications will only be possible if some control of service
quality is available. Finally, it is necessary to develop middleware services that hide the
complexities of the ad hoc network from application programmers.
67

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1.

An Ad-hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile hosts forming a temporary

Quality of Service plays a major in determination of quality of any network. Here,

1.2 AIM OF PROJECT

1.3.1 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING

1.3.2 NODE FAILURE PREDICTION QoS ROUTING PROTOCOL

1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE REPORT:

Chapter 2 comprehensively, covers the evolution of networks and describes various

Chapter 3 explains DSR and NFPQR routing protocols.

Chapter 5 gives the simulation results.

 Lower getting-started costs.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS NETWORKS

2.2.1 Reliable infrastructure wireless networks

2.2.2 Orthogonal kind

2.3 What is an ad hoc network?

These examples of spontaneous, ad hoc wireless communication between devices

Ad Hoc mobile networking is the uncharted frontier of contemporary networking

An Ad Hoc mobile network is essentially incompatible with this basic model,

There are, of course, also a myriad of military applications involving the

The range of possible situations in which Ad Hoc networking can be exploited is

An Ad Hoc network, by its nature, provides mutual connectivity between

2.4 Ad Hoc Network types

2.4.1 Mobility Types

2.4.2 Application Types

Small Range Ad Hoc Local Area Network

2.4 Simple Ad-Hoc Network

 Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET)

 Personal Area Network (PAN)

2.5 SPECTRUM USED FOR ADHOC NETWORKS

Connectivity between nodes in an Ad Hoc network can be provided by any

2.6 ROUTING MODELS

Topologies in Ad Hoc networking are an issue within themselves. In essence,

2.6.1 Flat topology

Figure 2.5 Sparse topology

2.6.2 Hierarchical topology

Figure 2.7 No strict topology

2.7 ADHOC NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

2.7.2 Static Multi Hop Topology

2.7.3 Dynamic Multi Hop Topology

2.8 Problems in managing Ad Hoc wireless networks

Managing an Ad hoc network well is frequently necessary because of the domain

2.8.2 Message Overhead

2.8.3 Energy Consumption

2.8.5 Degrade channel quality

2.9 Technological challenges of Ad-Hoc routing

What mature and robust Ad Hoc networking offers is virtually universal

The second reason why network throughput will vary is a consequence of

By far the biggest problem in current Ad Hoc networking research is that of

2.10 PROTOCOLS PROPOSED FOR ADHOC NETWORKS

 "Proactive Routing" is any scheme which continuously monitors the topology

 "Reactive Routing" is any scheme where routing information is gathered only on

Ad-hoc Routing Protocols

DSDV AODV DSR LMR ABR

CGSR TORA SSR

Figure 2.9 Categorization of Ad-hoc Routing Protocols

3.1 Need for Routing

X Node Node Node Y

Figure 3.1 Routing Network

3.2 R outing Principle

The primary function of a Packet switching network is to accept packets from a

3.2.2 Performance Criteria

3.3 C lassification of Routing Algorithms

 In a Decentralized routing algorithm, the calculation of the shortest path is