Workshop Calculation & Science (As Per NSQF) : 2 Year

WORKSHOP CALCULATION
& SCIENCE
(As Per NSQF)

2nd Year
Common for All Engineering Trades under CTS

(For all 2 Year Trades)
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
(i)
Copyright free, under CC BY Licence

Workshop Calculation & Science (NSQF) - 2nd Year
Common for All Engineering Trades Under CTS
(For All 2 year Trades)
Copyright © 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition : September 2019 Copies :
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All rights reserved.
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Website: www.nimi.gov.in
(ii)

FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries, Entrepreneurs,
Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, has now come up with instructional material to
suit the revised curriculum for Workshop Calculation & Science 2nd Year NSQF Commom for all 2 year
engineering trades under CTS will help the trainees to get an international equivalency standard where their
skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the globe and this will also increase the
scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF trainees will also get the opportunities to promote life long
learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all
stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in
improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General/ Addl. Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)

PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute(NIMI) was set up at Chennai, by the Directorate General of Training,
Ministry of skill Development and Entrepreneurship, Government of India, with the technical assistance
from the Govt of the Federal Republic of Germany with the prime objective of developing and disseminating
instructional Material for various trades as per prescribed syllabus and Craftsman Training Programme(CTS)
under NSQF levels.
The Instructional materials are developed and produced in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs),
consisting of Trade Theory, Trade Practical, Test and Assignment Book, Instructor Guide, Wall charts,
Transparencies and other supportive materials. The above material will enable to achieve overall improvement
in the standard of training in ITIs.
A national multi-skill programme called SKILL INDIA, was launched by the Government of India, through a
Gazette Notification from the Ministry of Finance (Dept of Economic Affairs), Govt of India, dated 27th
December 2013, with a view to create opportunities, space and scope for the development of talents of
Indian Youth, and to develop those sectors under Skill Development.
The emphasis is to skill the Youth in such a manner to enable them to get employment and also improve
Entrepreneurship by providing training, support and guidance for all occupation that were of traditional
types. The training programme would be in the lines of International level, so that youths of our Country can
get employed within the Country or Overseas employment. The National Skill Qualification Framework
(NSQF), anchored at the National Skill Development Agency(NSDA), is a Nationally Integrated Education
and competency-based framework, to organize all qualifications according to a series of levels of Knowledge,
Skill and Aptitude. Under NSQF the learner can acquire the Certification for Competency needed at any
level through formal, non-formal or informal learning.
The Workshop Calculation & Science 2nd Year (Comon for All 2 year Engineering Trades under CTS) is
one of the book developed by the core group members as per the NSQF syllabus.
The Workshop Calculation & Science (Common for All 2 year Engineering Trades under CTS as per
NSQF) 2nd Year is the outcome of the collective efforts of experts from Field Institutes of DGT, Champion
ITI’s for each of the Sectors, and also Media Development Committee (MDC) members and Staff of NIMI.
NIMI wishes that the above material will fulfill to satisfy the long needs of the trainees and instructors and
shall help the trainees for their Employability in Vocational Training.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to all the Members and Media Development
Committee (MDC) members.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledge with thanks the co-operation and
contribution of the following Media Developers to bring this IMP for the course Workshop Calculation & Science
(2nd Year) as per NSQF.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. M. Sangara pandian - Training Officer (Retd.)

CTI, Guindy, Chennai.
Shri. G. Sathiamoorthy - Jr.Training Officer (Retd.)

Govt I.T.I, DET - Tamilnadu.
NIMI CO-ORDINATORS
Shri. Nirmalya nath - Deputy General Manager,

NIMI, Chennai - 32.
Shri. G. Michael Johny - Assistant Manager,

NIMI, Chennai - 32.
NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this IMP.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the develop-
ment of this book.
(v)

INTRODUCTION
The material has been divided into independent learning units, each consisting of a summary of the topic and an
assignment part. The summary explains in a clear and easily understandable fashion the essence of the mathematical
and scientific principles. This must not be treated as a replacment for the instructor’s explanatory information to be
imparted to the trainees in the classroom, which certainly will be more elaborate. The book should enable the
trainees in grasping the essentials from the elaboration made by the instructor and will help them to solve independently
the assignments of the respective chapters. It will also help them to solve the various problems, they may come
across on the shop floor while doing their practical exercises.
The assignments are presented through ‘Graphics’ to ensure communications amongst the trainees. It also assists
the trainees to determine the right approach to solve the problems. The required relevent data to solve the problems
are provided adjacent to the graphics either by means of symbols or by means of words. The description of the
symbols indicated in the problems has its reference in the relevant summaries.
At the end of the exercise wherever necessary assignments, problems are included for further practice.
Duration:
2nd Year Time allotment : 84 Hrs
Time allotment for each module has been given below. Common for all 2 year Engineering Trades. Instructors are
here with informed to make use of the same.
S.No Title Exercise No. Time allotment (Hrs)
1 Friction 2.1.01 - 2.1.03 14
2 Centre of Gravity 2.2.04 6
3 Area of cut out regular surfaces

and area of irregular surfaces 2.3.05 - 2.3.07 16
4 Algebra 2.4.08 & 2.4.09 12
5 Elasticity 2.5.10 & 2.5.11 9
6 Heat Treatment 2.6.12 & 2.6.13 3
7 Profit and Loss 2.7.14 & 2.7.15 12
8 Estimation and Costing 2.8.16 & 2.8.17 12
LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to
• Demonstrate basic mathematical concept and principles to perform

practical operations.
• Understand and explain basic science in the field of study including
simple machine.
(vi)

CONTENTS
Exercise No. Title of the Exercise Page No.
Friction
2.1.01 Friction - Advantages and disadvantages, Laws of friction, co-efficient of

friction, angle of friction, simple problems related to friction 1
2.1.02 Friction - Lubrication 8
2.1.03 Friction - Co- efficient of friction, application and effects of friction in workshop
practice 12
Centre of Gravity
2.2.04 Centre of gravity - Centre of gravity and its practical application 14
Area of cut out regular surfaces and area of irregular surfaces
2.3.05 Area of cut out regular surfaces - circle, segment and sector of circle 24
2.3.06 Related problems of area of cut out regular surfaces - circle, segment and
sector of circle 27
2.3.07 Area of irregular surfaces and application related to shop problems 29
Algebra
2.4.08 Algebra - Addition , subtraction, multiplication & division 32
2.4.09 Algebra - Theory of indices, algebraic formula, related problems 36
Elasticity
2.5.10 Elasticity - Elastic, plastic materials, stress, strain and their units and
young’s modulus 42
2.5.11 Elasticity - Ultimate stress and working stress 53
Heat Treatment
2.6.12 Heat treatment and advantages 56
2.6.13 Heat treatment - Different heat treatment process – Hardening, tempering,

annealing, normalising and case hardening 58
Profit and Loss
2.7.14 Profit and loss - Simple problems on profit & loss 67
2.7.15 Profit and loss - Simple and compound interest 73
Estimation and Costing
2.8.16 Estimation and costing - Simple estimation of the requirement of material etc.,
as applicable to the trade 85
2.8.17 Estimation and costing - Problems on estimation and costing 92
(vii)

SYLLABUS
2nd Year Common for All Engineering Trades under CTS Duration: One Year
(For All 2 year Trades)
S.no. Syllabus Time Marks
I Friction 14 7
1 Advantages and disadvantages, Laws of friction, co- efficient of friction, angle of

friction, simple problems related to friction
2 Friction – Lubrication
3 Co- efficient of friction, application and effects of friction in workshop practice
II Centre of Gravity 6 4
1 Centre of gravity and its practical application
III Area of cut – out regular surfaces and area of irregular surfaces 16 9
1 Area of cut – out regular surfaces – circle, segment and sector of circle
2 Related problems of area of cut – out regular surfaces – circle, segment and
sector of circle
3 Area of irregular surfaces and application related to shop problems
IV Algebra 12 8
1 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication & Divisions

2 Algebra – Theory of indices, Algebraic formula, related problems
V Elasticity 9 4
1 Elastic, plastic materials, stress, strain and their units and young’s modulus
2 Ultimate stress and working stress
VI Heat Treatment 3 3
1 Heat treatment and advantages

2 Different heat treatment process – Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Normalising,
Case Hardening
VII Profit and Loss 12 8
1 Simple problems on profit & loss

2 Simple and compound interest
VIII Estimation and Costing 12 7
1 Simple estimation of the requirement of material etc., as applicable to the trade

2 Problems on estimation and costing
Total 84 50
(viii)

Friction - Advantages and disadvantages, Laws of friction, co-efficient of
friction, angle of friction, simple problems related to friction Exercise 2.1.01
Introduction Forces acting on a body when a pulling force is
When on a solid surface, another solid is rubbed a force is applied to move (Fig 2)
created between the two solids which acts in the opposite • Weight of the block acting vertically downward (W)
direction of motion or tries to obstruct the motion of the
object, this force is called frictional force. This phenomenon • The normal reaction which acts upwards (R)
is called friction. This happens due to roughness of the • The applied pulling force (F)
two surfaces.
In other words, It is the force of resistance offered to motion, • The frictional force (Ff)
experienced by bodies which are in contact. It depends When the body is about to move W=R, F=P
upon the normal reaction between the contacting surfaces
and the nature of the surfaces. No surface is absolutely When pulling force is increased the body starts to move.
friction less.
Friction plays an important role in our daily life. It would
not be possible to walk without friction between our foot
and floor. Vehicles are able to run on roads because of the
friction between the wheels and road.
Laws of friction (Fig 3 & 4)

• Frictional force is directly proportional to the normal
reaction between contacting surfaces.
• Frictional force acts opposite to the direction of motion.
• Frictional force depends on the nature of contacting
Types of friction
surfaces.
1 Static friction
• Frictional force is independent over the area and shape
2 Dynamic friction of contacting surfaces.
1 Static friction
The friction between two solid objects when at rest is called
static friction.
Eg. Static friction can prevent an object from sliding down
on a sloped surface.
Limiting friction
When the frictional force (F) is equal to the applied pulling
force (P) then the friction between two surfaces is known
as limiting friction. (i.e F=P)
2 Dynamic friction
It is the friction between two objects, when are in motion
is called dynamic friction. It is also called kinetic friction.
Sliding friction
It is the friction experienced by an object when its slides
over another object. Sliding friction is always less than
limiting friction.
Coefficient of friction
Rolling friction
It is a ratio between the frictional force to the normal
It is the friction that occurs when a circular object such as reaction when the body is just about to move but at
a ball or roller rolls on a flat surface. Rolling friction is less equilibrium. It is represented by symbol . (read as ‘meu’)
than sliding friction. (ball or roller bearing)

Therefore
Limiting friction(or)force
Co - efficient of friction =
normal reaction(or) weight
F F
= (or ) f
W R
Angle of friction (Fig 5)
The forces acting on a body when it is just about to move
by the application of a pulling force are W, R, P and F. The  P = F + W sin and R = W cos 
forces 'R' and 'F' are compounded and we get the resultant  P = uR + W sin = u(W cos  W sin 
force 'S'. The angle formed by 'S' with 'R' is the angle of
 P = W x tan  cos + W cos 
friction.
Therefore Sin φ
= Wx x cos θ + W cos θ
Cos φ
F
tan  Sin φ + cos θ + Wcos φ x cos θ
W =W x
Cos φ
tan 
=W
[Sin (θ + φ)]
Cos φ
Similarly when the body is about to slide down the plane
the applied force P must be equal to
=W
[Sin (θ + φ)]
Cos φ
To keep the body under equilibrium when the body is about
Angle of repose (Fig 6) to move up the plane by the action of an applied force the
applied force P = W
[Sin (θ + φ)] and the force necessary
Cos φ
to be applied to the body to prevent it from sliding down
the plane will be P = W

[Sin (θ + φ)]
Cos φ
Note : Under all circumstances
=W
[Sin (θ + φ)] < P < = W [Sin (θ + φ)]
Cos φ Cos φ
A body placed on an inclined surface remains at rest till
Advantages of friction
the angle of inclination equals the angle of friction. When
it exceeds the body starts sliding down. This is known as 1 Helps us to walk without slipping.
angle of repose. 2 Used to stop vehicles when brakes are applied.
Motion up the plane 3 Movement of vehicles due to friction between revolving
When > a force must be applied to keep the body in wheels with tyres and the road.
equilibrium. The applied force may be parallel to the plane, 4 Power transmission using gear drive or belt pulley drive.
horizontal or at an angle to the plane itself. 5 Using friction we can sharp any object and also to hold
When the body is at the point of motion up the plane the it.
frictional force ‘F’ acts down the plane. 6 Nails and screws are held in wood by friction.
Forces acting are W,R,P and F. The weight force ‘W’ is 7 Heat is produced when two rough surfaces are rubbed
resolved into two components of W cos  perpendicular to against each other.
the plane acting downwards and W sin  acting parallel to
the plane downwards. Disadvantages of friction
F 1 It causes wear and tear of the machine parts.

= μ = tan φ
R 2 It produces heat and may cause melting of machine
parts. To avoid production of heat using of coolant is
Where is the angle of friction. necessary.
2 Workshop Calculation & Science : (NSQF) Exercise 2.1.01

3 It reduces efficiency of a machine. W = 14500 kg = Weight
4 It reduces speed of the moving object. eg. spindle, shaft, F = ? = Force friction
piston etc. F
Friction can be reduced
μ=
W
1 By using suitable lubricants (oil, grease) between the F
moving parts. 0.28 =
14500
2 By polishing the surface to make them smooth. F = 0.28 x 14500
3 By using ball bearings and roller bearings. F = 4060 kg.
4 By the use of wheel.
5 A force of 800 gram weight is needed to pull a
Example block weighing 3200 gram. What is the co-efficient
1 A force of 40 kg is required to pull a weight of 400 of friction.
kg on a horizontal plane. Determine the F = 800 gm = Force
coefficient of friction.
W = 3200 gm = Weight
Force F
Coefficient of friction = =  =?
Weight W
Co-efficient of friction = ?
But F = P and R = W
F

F Ff
= =
40 Co-efficient of friction = μ =
W R 400 W
= 0.1 =
800
3200
2 A force for 30N is required to move a body of mass
 = 0.25
35 kg on a flat surface horizontally at a constant
velocity. Find the coefficient of friction. 6 A force of 40 kg is required to move a mass of 80
Mass of the body = 35 kg. = W (By taking kg on a flat surface horizontally at a constant
velocity. Calculate its co-efficient of friction?
The weight force=35 x 10 = 350 N 1kg = 10N)
F = 40 kg = Force
(By taking g = 10 meter/sec2)
W = 80 kg = Weight
F Ff 30 3
∴μ= = = = = 0.086  =?
W R 350 35
Co-efficient of friction = ?
= 0.09
F
Co-efficient of friction = μ =
3 A solid weights 20 kg. This is placed on a solid W
surface. How much force does it require to come
40
in motion when co-efficient of friction is 0.24. =
80
 = 0.24 = Co-efficient of friction
W = 20 kg = Weight
 = 0.5
F = ? = Force required 7 A weight of 10 kg is resting on a horizontal table
and can just moved by a force of 2 kg. Find the
F co-efficient of friction?
μ=
W W = 10 kg = Weight
F F = 2 kg = Force
0.24 =
20  =?
F = 20 x 0.24 Co-efficient of friction = ?
F = 4.8 kg F
μ=
4 A tanker with loaded weight of 14500 kg is running W
on the road. If the co-efficient friction between 2
tyres and road surface is 0.28. Find out its force of =
friction. 10
 = 0.28 = Co-efficient of friction  = 0.2
Workshop Calculation & Science : (NSQF) Exercise 2.1.01 3

8 A body weighing 100kg is resting on a table. Find W = 150 kg = Work done
the co-efficient of friction if a force of 30 kg makes
its just to move?
 
W = 100 kg = Weight
F = 30 kg = Force F = ? = Force
 =?  = tan  = 0.25
Co-efficient of friction = ?  tan-1 0.25
F = 14º 2’
μ=
W F
μ=
30 W
=
100
F
 = 0.3 0.25 =
150
9 A metal block weighing 10 kg rests on a horizontal F = 0.25 x 150
table. A horizontal force of 2.5 kg can just slide
the block. Find the normal reaction, limiting F = 37.5 Kg.
friction and co-efficient of friction?
12 A body of mass 60kg rests on a horizontal plane.
W = 10 kg = Weight The value of co-efficient of friction between it and
F = 2.5 kg = Force the plane being 0.2. Find the work done in moving
R =? the body through a distance of 5 meters along the
plane.
Normal reaction = W
Limiting friction = ?
W = 60 kg = Weight
 =?
S = 5 m = Distance
R = Normal reaction = 10 kg
W = ? = Work done
Limiting friction = F = 2.5 kg
F F
μ= μ=
W W
100
2.5 F
= 0.2 =
10 60
F = 60 x 0.2
 = 0.25
= 12 kg
10 A wooden block weights 100 kg. If the co-efficient Work done = Force x distance = F x S
of friction is 0.3, find out force required to move
the block. = 12 x 5
W = 10 kg = Weight = 60 m - Kg.
 = 0.3 = Co-efficient of friction (ie) Work done (or) Applied force = 60 m - Kg.
F = ? = Force 13 If a force of 30N is required to move a mass of

35kg on a flat surface horizontally at constant
F velocity, what will be the co-efficient of friction?
μ=
W F = 30 N = Force
F W = 35 kg = Weight
0.3 =
100 1 kg = 9.8 N
F = 100 x 0.3 35 Kg = 9.8 x 35 = 343 N
F = 30 kg F
Co-efficient of friction = μ=
W
11 Calculate the angle of inclination, if a weight of
150 kg is in equilibrium, co-efficient of friction is 30 N
=
0.25. Calculate the force of normal reaction also. 35 kg

= 2.2/cos 30º
30 N
= = 2.2/0.8660
35 x 9.8 N
= 2.54 kg
 = 0.087
14 A block of ice weighing one quintal rests in 17 Calculate the angle of inclination, if a weight of
equilibrium on a wooden plank inclined at 30º. 150 kg is in equilibrium. Coefficient of friction is
Find the coefficient of friction between the ice and 0.25. Calculate the force of normal reaction also.
wood.  = ? = angle of inclination
W = 1 quintal = 100 kg = Weight W = 150kg = Weight
F
 = 30º    tan   = 0.25
W
 = tan tan 30º F = ? = Force
 = 0.5774 tan  = 
tan  = 0.25
15 Calculate the force that is required to slide a mass
of 980 kg on a guide, when the coefficient of  = 14º 2'20"
friction between the surfaces is 0.09.
F
W = 980 kg = Weight μ=
W
F
F = Force = ? 0.25 =
150 Kg
F
Co-efficient of friction = μ= F = 0.25 x 150 kg
W
F = 37.5 kg.
F
0.09 =
980 kg 18 A body of mass 10 kg rests on a horizontal plane.
F = 0.09 x 980 kg The co-efficient of friction between the body and
plane is 0.15. Find the work done in moving the
Required force(F) = 88.2 kg body through a distance of 10 meter.
16 A metal block weighing 10kg rests on a horizontal W = 10kg = Weight

board and the coefficient of friction between the  = 0.15 = Co-efficient of friction
surfaces is 0.22. Find (a) the horizontal force which
will just move the block and (b) the force acting S = 10 meter = distance
at an angle of 30º with the horizontal, which will W = Work done = ?
just move the block.
F
W = 10 kg = Weight μ=
W
Co-efficient of friction = = 0.22
F
(a) F =? 0.15 =
10 Kg
(b) Force acting at an angle of 30º with the horizontal?
F = 0.15 x 10 kg
F F = 1.5 kg
(a) μ=
W Work done = W = F x S
F = 1.5 kg x 10 m
0.22 =
10 kg = 15 m - kg
F = 2.2 Kg.
F
(b) Force acting at an angle of 30º=
Cos θ

Assignment A
1 A force 50N is required to move a mass of 40kg on a 7 A body of mass 2000 kg moves a distance of 10 meters
flat surface horizontally at a constant velocity. Find the in 5 sec. If the co-efficient of friction between the body
coefficient of friction. (9.8N = 1kg) and floor is 0.3 find the horizontal force required to move
2 A vehicle having a weight of 800kg is moving on the the body and horsepower absorbed against friction.
road. If the coefficient of friction between the tyres and 8 A vehicle is moving at 50kmph and the load on the
road surface is 0.3, then calculate the force of friction. vehicle is 5000 kg. Find the H.P. required to move the
3 A solid weighing 50kg is place on a solid surface. How vehicle if = 0.2.
much force is required to move the block when 9 Find out the power lost due to friction by a planer under
coefficient of friction is 0.25 between the block and the the following conditions.
surface.
Mass of the planer table = 3500 kg
4 A railway wagon weighs 1250 tonnes. If the coefficient
of friction between it and the rails is 0.003, find the Rate of moment of the table=0.5 m/sec
force required to move the wagon. Co-efficient friction between the table and the
5 A body of mass 100kg rests on a horizontal plane. The ways=0.06
angle of friction between the body and the plane being 10 A truck having weight 12000 kg is moving on the road.
0.025. Find the work done is moving the body through If the co-efficient of friction between the tyres and the
a distance of 16m along the plane. road surface is 0.3, then calculate the force of friction.
6 A body of mass 20kg rests on a horizontal plane the
co-efficient of friction between the body and plane is
0.3. Find the work done in moving the body through a
distance of 10 meters.
Assignment B
1 F = 1800 N 4 F = 1.2 kN
μ (static) = 0.16 d = 60 mm
μ (dynamic) = 0.012 μ = 0.03
FR to overcome Frictional torque MR
static friction = ______ Nm
= ______ N (Frictional torque =
FR to overcome Frictional force x
dynamic friction radius)
= ______ N
5 mass = 180 kg
2 mass = 250 kg μ = 0.15
FR = 160 N FR = ______ N
μ = ______
6 FR = 120 N
μ = 0.032
Normal force F
= ______ N
3 F = 5000 N
μ (dry) = 0.03
7 m = 1000 kg
μ (fluid friction)
= 0.01 μ = 0.4
FR when dry Force required to move
= ______ N
FR = ______ N
FR when lubricated =
______ N

C MCQ
1 Which one of the following is useful friction A 0.0215 B 0.0152
A Rings in cylinders B Crankshaft bearings C 0.0125 D 0.0251
C Brake shoe linings D Wheel hole bearings 7 Calculate the pulling force required for the figure shown.
2 Which is in between the wheels and road, if vehicles
are able to run on roads.
A erosion B motion
C corrosion D friction
A 27 Kg B 28 Kg
3 Which direction of motion frictional force acts.
C 29 Kg D 30 Kg
A equal B opposite
C inclined D forward 8 Determine the co-efficient of friction() between brass
and steel when a brass slider was placed on the
4 What is the formula of angle of friction, if ‘F’ is the horizontal steel surface until it is just moving, if brass
frictional force, R is the normal reaction and q is the slides (W) = 3 Kgf
angle of friction. Brass slides (W) = 3 Kgf
F F Force (F) required = 0.7 kgf

A Tan q = B Cot q =
R R A 0.033 B 0.133
F F C 0.233 D 0.333
C Sin q = D Cos q =
R R
9 Which is necessary to avoid production of heat.
5 What is the formula for Co-efficient of friction (m). A sand B coolant

C lubricant D salt
A  R B  F
F R 10 Which is using for reduce the friction.
C F x R D F + R A lubricants B sand

C coal D coolant
6 A loaded truck weighs 2400 kg and it can be moved by
a force of 30 kg. Determine the co-efficient of rolling
friction
Key Answers
A B C MCQ
7 F = 600 Kg
1 0.1275 1 288N, 21.6 N 1 C 6 C
P = 16 HP
2 240 Kg 2 0.065 2 D 7 D
8 185.2 HP
3 12.5 Kg 3 150 N, 50 N 3 B 8 C
9 1.4 HP 4 36 N, 1.08 Nm 4 A 9 B
4 3.75 Tonne
10 3600 Kg 5 264.6 N 5 B 10 A
5 40 m-kg
6 3750 N
6 60 m-kg
7 3920 N

Friction - Lubrication Exercise 2.1.02
There are 3 systems of lubrication.
• Gravity feed system
• Force feed system
• Splash feed system
Gravity feed
The gravity feed principle is employed in oil holes, oil cups
and wick feed lubricators provided on the machines.
(Figs 1 & 2)
Oil pump method

In this method an oil pump driven by the machine delivers
oil to the bearings continuously, and the oil afterwards
drains from the bearings to a sump from which it is drawn
by the pump again for lubrication.
Splash lubrication
In this method a ring oiler is attached to the shaft and it
dips into the oil and a stream of lubricant continuously
splashes around the parts, as the shaft rotates. The rotation
of the shaft causes the ring to turn and the oil adhering to
it is brought up and fed into the bearing, and the oil is then
led back into the reservoir. (Fig 5) This is also known as
ring oiling.
Force feed/Pressure feed

Oil, grease gun and grease cups
In other systems one of the rotating elements comes in
The oil hole or grease point leading to each bearing is contact with that of the oil level and splash the whole
fitted with a nipple, and by pressing the nose of the gun system with lubricating oil while working. (Fig 6) Such
against this, the lubricant is forced to the bearing. Greases systems can be found in the headstock of a lathe machine
are also force fed using grease cup. (Fig 3) and oil engine cylinder.
Oil is also pressure fed by hand pump and a charge of oil

is delivered to each bearing at intervals once or twice a
day by operating a lever provided with some machines.
(Fig 4) This is also known as shot lubricator.

Types of grease guns
The following types of grease guns are used for lubricating
machines.
• ‘T’ handle pressure gun (Fig 7)
• Automatic and hydraulic type pressure gun (Fig 8)
After cleaning the open gears, oil them and repeat

lubrication regularly. (Fig 13)
• Lever-type pressure gun (Fig 9)
Lubrication to exposed slideways

Lubricate bearings
The moving parts experience some kind of resistance even
when the surface of the parts seems to be very smooth. A shaft moving in a bearing is also subjected to frictional
resistance. The shaft rotates in a bush bearing or in ball/
The resistance is caused by irregularities which cannot
roller bearing, experiencing friction.
be detected by the naked eyes.
When the shaft is at rest on the bottom of the bush
Without a lubricant the irregularities grip each other as
bearing, there is hardly any lubricant between the shaft
shown in the diagram. (Fig 10)
and the bush. (Fig 14)
With a lubricant the gap between the irregularities fills up

and a film of lubricant is formed in between the mating
components which eases the movement. (Fig 11) When the shaft starts rotating the lubricant maintains a
The slideways are lubricated frequently by an oilcan. film between the shaft and the bush and an uneven ring of
(Fig 12) lubricant builds up. (Fig 15)

When the shaft is rotating at full speed a full ring of
lubricating film surrounds the shaft (Fig 16) which is known
as hydro dynamic lubrication.
Functions
The functions of cutting fluids are:
- to cool the tool as well as the workpiece
This lubrication ring decreases the frictional resistance
very much and at the same time protects the mating - to reduce the friction between the chip and the tool face
members against wear and changes. by lubricating
Some bush bearings have oil feeding holes over which the - to prevent the chip from getting welded to the tool
oil or grease cup is mounted and the lubricant is fed through cutting edge
the holes into the bearing by gravity feed system.(Fig 17) - to flush away the chips
- to prevent corrosion of the work and the machine.
Advantages
As the cutting fluid cools the tool, the tool will retain its
hardness for a longer period; so the tool life is more.
Because of the lubricating function, the friction is reduced
and the heat generated is less. A higher cutting speed can
be selected.
As the coolant avoids the welding action of the chip to the
tool-cutting edge, the built up edge is not formed. The tool
Hints for lubricating machines: is kept sharp and a good surface finish is obtained.
- identify the oiling and greasing points As the chips are flushed away, the cutting zone will be neat.
The machine or job will not get rusted because the coolant
- select the right lubricants and lubricating devices
prevents corrosion.
- apply the lubricants.
Properties of a good cutting fluid
The manufacturer’s manual contains all the necessary
A good cutting fluid should be sufficiently viscous.
details for lubrication of parts in machine tools. Lubricants
are to be applied daily, weekly, monthly or at regular At cutting temperature, the coolant should not catch fire.
intervals at different points or parts as stipulated in the It should have a low evaporation rate.
manufacturer’s manual.
It should not corrode the workpiece or machine.
These places are indicated in the maintenance manuals
with symbols as shown in Fig 18. It must be stable and should not foam or fume.
Cutting Fluids It should not create any skin problems to the operator.
Cutting fluids and compounds are the substances used for Should not give off bad smell or cause itching etc. which
efficient cutting while cutting operations take place. are likely to irritate the operator, thus reducing his efficiency.
Should be transparent.

Types of cutting fluids Compounded or blended oil
The following are the common cutting fluids. These oils are used in automatic lathes. These oils are
• Straight mineral oil much cheaper and have more fluidity than fatty oil.
• Chemical solution (synthetic fluids) Fatty oil
• Compounded or blended oil Lard oil and vegetable oil are fatty oils. They are used on
heavy duty machines with less cutting speed. They are
• Fatty oils also used on bench-works for cutting threads by taps and
• Soluble oil (Emulsified oil-suds) dies.
Straight mineral oil Soluble oil (Emulsified oil)
Straight mineral oils are the coolants which can be used Water is the cheapest coolant but it is not suitable
undiluted. Use of straight mineral oil as a coolant has the because it causes rust to ferrous metals. An oil called
following disadvantages. soluble oil is added to water which gets a non-corrosive
It gives off a cloud of smoke. effect with water in the ratio of about 1: 20. It dissolves in
water giving a white milky solution. Soluble oil is an oil
It has little effect as a cutting fluid. blend mixed with an emulsifier.
Hence straight mineral oils are poor coolants. But kerosene Other ingredients are mixed with the oil to give better
which is a straight mineral oil is widely used as a coolant protection against corrosion, and help in the prevention of
for machining aluminium and its alloys. skin irritations.
Chemical solution (Synthetic oil) Soluble oil is generally used as a cutting fluid for centre
These consist of carefully chosen chemicals in dilute lathes, drilling, milling and sawing.
solution with water. They possess a good flushing and a Soft soap and caustic soda serve as emulsifying agents.
good cooling action, and are non-corrosive and non-
A chart showing coolants for different metals is given
clogging. Hence they are widely used for grinding and
below.
sawing. They do not cause infection and skin trouble.
They are artificially coloured.
Recommended cutting fluids for various metals and different operations
Material Drilling Reaming Threading Turning Milling
Aluminium Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
Kerosene Kerosene Kerosene Lard oil
Kerosene and Mineral oil Lard oil Mineral oil
lard oil Dry
Brass Dry Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry
soluble oil soluble oil Lard oil soluble oil
Mineral oil
Lard oil
Bronze Dry Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry
soluble oil soluble oil Lard oil soluble oil
Mineral oil Mineral oil Mineral oil
Lard oil Lard oil Lard oil
Cast iron Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry
Air jet soluble oil sulphurized oil soluble oil soluble oil
Soluble oil Mineral lard oil Mineral lard oil
Copper Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry
soluble oil Lard oil Lard oil soluble oil
Mineral lard oil
Kerosene
Steel Soluble oil Soluble oil Sulphurized oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
alloys Sulphurized oil Sulphurized oil Lard oil Mineral
Mineral lard oil Mineral lard oil
General Soluble oil Soluble oil Sulphurized oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
purpose Sulphurized oil Sulphurized oil Lard oil Lard oil
steel Lard oil Lard oil
Mineral lard oil

Friction - Co -efficient of friction, application and effects of friction in workshop
practice Exercise 2.1.03
Co-efficient of friction 2 An empty drum weighing 50kg is resting on a shop
The ratio between the limiting frictional force and the normal floor. Find the coefficient of friction if a force of
reaction is called co-efficient of friction. 15kg makes it just move.
Suppose, by applying a force P kg, the object is just fit to W = 50 kg = Weight

move, then limiting frictional force will be produced in F = 15 kg = Force
between the two surfaces. The limiting frictional force will
be equal to external force applied and will work in the
F
opposite direction. W
 F = P kg 15 kg
=
According to the second law of limiting frictional force, the 50 kg
frictional force will be proportional to normal reaction.  = 0.3
F  R (sign is proportional to) 3 A machine crate weighing 1000kg moves distance
F = R x constant of 5m in 5 sec. If the coefficient of friction between
the crate and floor is 0.3, calculate the horizontal
F force required to move the crate and horse power
or = constant
R absorbed against friction.
This constant between objects is called co-efficient of Weight (W) = 1000 kg
friction. This is represented by .
Distance (S) = 5 meter
F
 or F   .R Time (t) = 5 second
R
i Co-efficient of friction () = 0.3
Limiting frictional force
Co-efficient of friction = ii Force (F) =?
Normal reaction
Co-efficient of friction is always constant for any two objects Horse power (H.P.) = ?
and it has no unit.
F
Example i μ=
W
1 The sliding valve of a steam engine has dimensions
25cm by 45 cm and the steam pressure on the back F
0.3 =
of the valve is 25 kg/cm2. If the co-efficient of friction 1000 Kg
is 0.13. Calculate the force required to move the
valve. Dimension of steam valve = 25 cm x 45 cm. F = 0.3 x 1000 kg
Steam pressure = 25 kg/cm2 F = 300 kg (1 HP = 75 m.kg/sec)
Co-efficient of friction = 0.13
FxS 1
Force required to move the valve = ? ii H.P = x
t 75
F=?
1
Force of the steam = Pressure x Area H.P = 300 x 5 x = 4 H.P
5 75
= 25 x 25 x 45
25kg Horse power absorbed against friction = 4.H.P.
 25cm  45cm = 28125 kg.
cm2 4 A weight of 600 kg is kept on the inclined plane
Force acts on the valve = 28125 kg at 300. Calculated the normal reaction and force
rolling downwards.
F
μ= Solution:
W
Weight kept on the inclined plane (W) = 600kg
F
0.13 = Angle of the inclined plane () = 300
28125
 Normal reaction (R) = W . cos 
F = 0.13 x 2812
Force required to move the valves = 3656.25 Kg
12

= 600 x cos 300 75 kgm/sec = 1 H.P
= 600 (0.8660) 105  1
105 kgm/sec = = 1.4 H.P
= 519.6 kg 75
Force rolling downwards = W . sin  Power lost due to friction = 104 H.P
= 600 x sin 300 6 A planner table weighting 800 kg moves a
distance of 2 metres in seconds on its bed. If co-
= 600 (0.5000)
efficient of friction between bed and table is 0.30
= 300 kg find the power required to move the table aganist
the friction.
 Normal reaction = 519.6 kg
7 On a milling machine table a component of 20
Force rolling downwards = 300 kg
kgf is clamped with the help of three equidistant
5 Find out the power lost due to friction by a planner clamps. What force must be exerted by each
under the following conditions. clamp to avoid slipping of the component when
Mass of the planer table = 3500 kg the horizontal cutting force is 60 kgf and the
coefficient of friction is equal to 0.2.
Rate of movement of the table = 0.5m/sec
8 A machine weight of 14500 kg moving on the
Co-efficient of friction between
the table and the ways = 0.06 floor.If the co-efficient of friction between the
machine and floor surface is 0.28 then calculate
Solution: the force of friction.
Weight of planer (W) = 3500 kg 9 A tail stock of a lathe has a mass of 21.5 kg and
co-efficient of friction at the slides is 0.122. What
Distance moved (d) = 0.5 m/sec horizontal force will be required to slide the tail
Co-efficient of friction () = 0.06 stock?
10 An inclined surface makes an angle of 30 degrees
F with the horizontal. An object weigting 5 tons is
W placed on the surface. Find out the normal
reaction at the object and also the effective force
F required to bring the object downwards.
0.06 =
3500
11 A glass block of 400 grams has been placed on
F = 0.06 x 3500 = 210 kg the table. The glass is commuted by a string to a
40 grams scale pan. The string passes over pulley.
Workdone = F x distance moved
When a weight of 60 grams is placed on the scale
= 210 x 0.5 = 105 kgm/sec pan, the block starts sliding. Find out the co-
effiecient of friction between wood and glass.

Centre of gravity - Centre of gravity and its practical application
Exercise 2.2.04
Any object comprises of a large number of particles. Each of a body. If the lamina is assumed to have uniform mass
particle is pulled towards the earth due to the force of per unit area, then the centroid is also the centre of gravity
gravity. Thus, the forces on the particles are equal, parallel in a uniform gravitational field.
and act in the same direction. These forces will have a
Methods to calculate centre of gravity
resultant which acts through a particular point ‘G’. This
fixed point ‘G’ is called the centre of gravity. 1 By geometrical consideration.
2 By moments.
Principle : The total moment of a weight about any axis
= The sum of the moments of the various parts about the
same axis.
3 By graphical method.
The first two methods are generally used to find out the
centre of gravity or centroid, as the third method can
become tedious.
Centre of gravity by geometrical consideration
Concept of Centre of gravity

In physics, an imaginary point in a body of matter where,
for convenience in certain calculations, the total weight of
the body may be thought to be concentrated. The concept
is sometimes useful in designing static structures (e.g.,
buildings and bridges) or in predicting the behaviour of a
moving body when it is acted on by gravity.
In a uniform gravitational field the centre of gravity is
identical to the centre of mass, a term preferred by
physicists.
Gravitation
The mutual attractive force of bodies due to which they
attract each other is called gravitation.
1 Gravity
The attractive force of the earth due to which it attracts all
bodies towards its centre is called gravity.
The value of gravity varies from place to place on the ground
surface. Its general value is 9.81 m/s2. 1 The centre of gravity of a circle is its centre.
Centroid 2 The centre of gravity of a square, rectangle or a
Different geometrical shapes such as the circle, triangle parallelogram is at the points where its diagonals meet
and rectangle are plane figures having only 2-dimensions. each other. It is also the middle point of the length as
They are also known as laminas. They have only area, but well as the width.
no mass. The centre of gravity of these plane figures is 3 The centre of gravity of a triangle is at the point where
called as the Centroid. It is also known as the geometrical the medians of the triangle meet.
centre. The method of finding out the centroid of a plane
figure is the same as that of finding out the centre of gravity 4 The centre of gravity of a right circular Cone is at a
distance of from its base.
14

5 The centre of gravity of a hemisphere is at a distance more likely it is to tip over when it is tilted by a force. This
of from its base. figure demonstrates a bus driving on two different grades;
6 The centre of gravity of a segment of a sphere of radius the second one is steep enough to cause the centre of
h is at a perpendicular distance of from the centre of gravity to fall outside of the base of the vehicle, which will
the sphere. cause it to topple over.
7 The centre of gravity of a semicircle is at a perpendicular

distance of from its centre.
8 The centre of gravity of a trapezium with parallel side
'a' and 'b' is at a distance of measured from the base
'b'.
9 The centre of gravity of a cube of side L is at a distance
of from every face.
10 The centre of gravity of a Sphere of diameter 'd' is at a Equilibrium
distance of from every point.
A body is said to be in equilibrium if the resultant of all the
Centre of gravity; An experiment
forces acting on a body is zero and if there is no turning
• Number of 2 pencil moment.
• A fine edge like a ruler or a credit card There are three states of equilibrium (Fig 5)
• A permanent marker 1 Stable equilibrium
• A ruler 2 Unstable equilibrium
Step 1 3 Neutral equilibrium
Attempt to balance the pencil on the edge you have
selected
Balancing the pencil may take some trial and error. The
point at which the pencil balances may not be where you
first thought. If it begins to tip in one direction, move the
pencil back slowly in the opposite direction until it will
stay there on its own.
Step 2
Once the pencil is balanced, mark the location of the 1 Stable equilibrium
balancing point with a permanent marker.
A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium if it returns to
Step 3 its original position when slightly displaced. (The C.G. is
Measure the distance between the ends of the pencil and as low as possible).
the balancing point you have marked. Are the two lengths E.g : 1 A cone resting on its base
equal? On my pencil, the length from the eraser to the
balancing point was actually 1.25 inches less than the 2 A ball on a concave surface
length from the pencil tip to the balancing point. Why 3 Funnel resting on its base. (Fig 6)
would this be the case?
In our experiment, the balancing point was another word
for the centre of gravity of this pencil. In other words, if we
cut the pencil in two at the mark we made in the experiment,
the two parts would be equal in weight. However, they are
not equal in length. As you may have already figured out,
the metal piece that houses the eraser contributes more
to the weight of the pencil, so the CG is closer to that side
of the pencil.
2 Unstable equilibrium
Keeping up with that centre
A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium if it does
The centre of gravity is an important concept in determining not return to its original position when slightly displaced.
the stability of a structure. It’s the reason why a good Its centre of gravity falls taking it away from its original
homeowner will keep the top branches of his trees trimmed. position. (CG is at high points)
It’s also the reason why a pick-up truck might not be the
best vehicle choice for a first time driver. Stability is E.g: 1 A cone resting on its tip
maximized in objects with a lower centre of gravity and a 2 A ball on convex surface
wide base. The taller and more top-heavy an object, the

3 Funnel standing on its tube end. (Fig 7) Some example of equilibrium in daily life
1 The lower decks of the ships are loaded with heavy
cargoes. This makes the centre of gravity of the whole
ship lower and its equilibrium becomes more stable.
2 A man carrying a bucket full of water in one hand extends
his opposite arm and bends his body towards it.
3 While carrying load on back the man bends forward so
3 Neutral equilibrium that his and the load’s centre of gravity falls on his
feet, if he walks erect, he will fall backward.
A body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium if on being
slightly displaced, it takes a new position similar to its 4 While climbing a mountain, a man bends forward and
original one. The centre of gravity remains undisturbed. bends backward while descending so that the centre
(CG is neither raised or lowered) of gravity of his load falls on his feet.
Eg: 1 A cone resting on its side 5 In a double-decker, more passengers are
accommodated in the lower deck and less on the upper
2 A ball on flat surface so that the centre of gravity of the bus and the
3 Funnel resting on its side (Fig 8) passengers is kept low to eliminate any chance of
turning.
Example
1 Find the centroid of the isosceles triangular plate
as shown in the figure.
Model 1
Conditions for stable equilibrium
• The CG should be as low as possible.
• It should have a broad base.
• The vertical line passing through the CG should fall
within the base. Since BCD=45º then BD=DC=x
Conditions of equilibrium As per Pythagoras theorem
A body is said to be in a state of equilibrium under the BD2 + DC2 = CB2

action of forces when there is no motion of rotation or x2 + x2 = 402
translation of the body. There are three conditions of
equilibrium of a body which are given below: 2x2 = 1600
i Algebraic sum of the horizontal components of all the 1600

x2 = = 800
forces acting on the body must be zero. 2
H = 0
x = 800 = 28.28 cm
ii Algebraic sum of the vertical components of all the
forces acting on the body must be zero. x 28.28
Centroid from BD = = = 9.43 cm
V = 0 3 3
iii Algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting 2 A rectangular lamina has 10 cm and 8 cm. Find
on the body must be zero. the centroid. Centroid of rectangular = Diagonals
M = 0 intersecting point.
Centroid of rectangular = Diagonals intersecting point
Torque or twisting moment of a couple is given
by the product of force applied and the arm of 10
Centre of AB = =5
the couple (i.e. Radius). In fact, moment means 2
the product of “force applied” and the
“perpendicular distance of the point and the 8
Centre of AB = =4
line of the force”. 2
Centroid lying 4 cm from AB and 5 cm from AD

4 A thin lamina consists of an isosceles triangle of
height 120mm and base 100mm placed on a
semicircle of diameter 100mm. find the location
of its centre of gravity.
3 A thin lamina is shown in the figure below. Find

the centre of gravity.
1
Area of right angled triangle (a1) = bh
2
1
= x 10 x 12
2
= 60 cm2
1
Centroid of right angled triangle = h from base
3
1
= x 12
3
Centroid from E = 4 cm
Centroid from A (h1) = 12 - 4 = 8 cm
Centroid of rectangle 1
Area of half circle (a2) =  r2
Area of rectangle= 5 x 10 = 50cm2 2
1 1
Area of triangle = bh
2 = x 3.14 x 5 x 5
2
1
= x 5 x 5 = 12.5 cm2 = 39.25 cm2
2
Centroid of semi circle = (Vertical distance from
Total area = 50 + 12.5 = 62.5 cm2 centre of diagonal)
The centre of gravity for rectangle is the point of intersection
4r
of diagonal = 5 cm distance from AD (CG1) =
3π
1
Centre of gravity for triangle is distance from its height.
3 4x5
Centroid distance from E to D =
3 x 3.14
1 5
=5x = = 1.67 cm = 2.123 cm
3 3
(CG2) Centroid of plate is lying in between CG1 and CG2. ⎛ Height of ⎞ ⎛ Centroid of ⎞
From the figure torque is about AD. (h2 ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ triangle ⎠ ⎝ half circle ⎠
62.5x = 50 x 5 + 12.5 x 11.67
= 12 + 2.123
= 250+145.875
= 14.123 cm
62.5x = 395.875
To find centroid of lamina
395.875
x = = 6.334 cm a1 h1 + a2 h2
62.5 y=
a1 + a2
Centre of gravity is 6.334 cm from AD, on the centre
axis.

= 54 KNm + 90KNm
60 x 8 + 39.25 x 14.123
=
60 + 39.25 = 144 KNm
B This moment is equal to moment of section A and
480 + 554.328 section B about 'O' (distance of action being D meter)
=
99.25
That is =(36KN+20KN) x D(meter)=56 DKNm
1034.328 Again equating A and B
=
99.25
144 KNm = 56 DKNm
= 10.421 cm
Centroid is lying at 10.421 cm from point A 144 KNm
=D
56 KNm
5 A uniform rod weighing 50kg and 3m long carries
loads as shown below. Find out the distance of 144
=D
the CG of the system from the left hand end. 56
18
Therefore D =
7
= 2.57 meters
The distance of CG of the shaft from left hand is 2.57
meters.
Distance of CG from A = x
Total weight = 50 + 15 + 20 + 25 = 110 kg 7 A thin lamina is shown in the figure. Find centre
of gravity.
110 x x = (50 x 1.5) + (15 x 1.75) + (20 x 2.25) + (25 x
2.75)
= 75 + 26.25 + 45 + 68.75 = 215
215
Therefore x = = 1.96 m
110
Distance of CG of the system from A = 1.95 m
6 A long shaft is composed of two section A and B
each 3 meter long and weight 36KN and 20KN
respectively. Find out the position of centre of
gravity of the shaft.
Solution
Let G1 be the c.g. point of section A As the body is symmetrical about y-axis centre of
gravity lies on this axis.
Let G2 be the common c.g. of the shaft and its distance is
D from left hand end. Let AB is the axis of reference
Now, take moments about 'O' Let y = The distance between centre of gravity and point
F, the point of reference as shown in the figure.
A Moment of section A about O = 36 KN x 1.5 m
Let a1= Area of rectangle CDBA = 45 x 40 = 1800 mm2
Moment of section B about O = 20 KN x 4.5 m
h1 = Distance between centre of gravity of rectangle
Adding both we get as below
of point F = 40 = 20 mm
Total moment about O=(36 KN x 1.5 m + (20KN x 4.5m) 2

Let a2 = Area of triangle ECD=1/2 x base x height Area of B1 = 30 x 15 mm2
=1/2 x 45 x 50 = 1125 square mm = 450 mm2
h2 = distance between centre of gravity of triangle of 30
Distance of CG2 from AB = 20 + mm
point F. 2
=1/3rd height of triangle +width of rectangle = 20 + 15 mm
1 50 170 = 35 mm
= (50) + 40 = + 40 = mm
3 3 3 1
Area of triangle = x 40 x 40 mm2
Applying formula 2
a1 h1 + a2 h2 = 800 mm2
y=
a1 + a2  PTR - Isosceles triangle
Draw perpendicular line PS on TR from P.
⎛ 170 ⎞ PSR - right angled triangle
1800(20) + 1125⎜ ⎟
= ⎝ 3 ⎠
By applying Pythagoras theorem,
1800 + 1125
800 5 x2 + x2 = 402
36000 + 63753.75 99753.75 2x2 = 1600
= =
2925 2925 x 2
= 800
y = 34.10 mm x = 800
The CG is at a distance of 34.1mm from point F = 28.28 mm
the point of reference in the line AB.
Distance of CG3 from TR = x = 28.28 mm = 9.43 mm
8 Find the CG of the lamina shown below. 3 3
Dist. Of CG3 from AB = 20 + 30 + 9.43 mm = 59.43 mm
Total area =1200 + 450 + 800 mm2 = 2450 mm2
Distance from AB = Ymm
Taking moment at AB 2450 x y = 1200 x 10 + 450 x 35 +
800 x 9.43
=12000 +15750 + 7544
=35294
35294
y = = 14.41 mm
2450
Distance of CG is on the line PQ from side
AB = 14.41 mm.
9 A rectangular sheet of cardboard of uniform

thickness measuring 20 cm by 15 cm is divided
into four parts by drawing the diagonals. One of
the triangles formed on a 15 cm side is removed.
Find the position of the C.G. of the remainder.
CG is in PQ
CG1, CG2 and CG3 - centres of centre of gravity.
Area of A1 = 60 x 20 mm2
=1200 mm2
20
Distance of CG1, from AB = mm
2
= 10 mm

ABCD - rectangle hard board Volume of circle = r2h unit3
AC, BD - diagonals
=  x 3 x 3 x 12 cm3
O - meeting point
= 339.3 cm3
AOD - removed portion
 AOB = CG1 Remaining volume = 14400 - 339.8 cm3
 BOC = CG2 = 14060.7 cm3

 COD = CG3 C.G is on PQ
C.G = Centre of gravity of the hard board CG in before drilling = C.G1
Take CG is on PQ CG in before drilling = C.G2
Area of  AOB = 1/2 bh unit2 CG in after drilling = C.G
= 1/2 x 20 x 7.5 cm2
Calculating the moment on side AB
= 75 cm2
Area of BOC = 1/2 x 15 x 10 cm2 Distance of CG1 =
100
= 50 cm
= 75 cm2 2
Area of COD = 1/2 x 20 x 7.5 cm2 Distance of CG2 = 10 cm

= 75 cm 2
Distance of C.G =x
Total area = 75 + 75 + 75 cm2
14060.7 x x + 339.3 x 10 =14400 x 50
= 225 cm2
14060.7x + 3393 = 720000
Taking moment at side BC
20 14060.7x = 720000 - 3393
Distance of CG1 = in = 10 cm
2 = 716607
10 716607
Distance of CG2 = in = 3.33 cm x =
3 14060.7
20 = 50.97 cm
Distance of CG3 = in = 10 cm
2
C.G. of the strip = 50.97 cm from side AB.
Distance of C.G = x
225 x x = 75 x 10 + 75 x 3.33 + 75 x 10 11 Centre of gravity in a lamina (Area)
= 750 + 249.75 + 750 Find the position of c.g of the area shown in Fig11.
= 1749.75 (All dimensions are in mm.)
x = 1749.75 = = 7.777
225
= 7.777
Distance of CG is on the line PQ from side BC=7.78cm
10 A steel rod 100x12x12cm has a hole dia 6cm

drilled in it as shown in the figure. Find the
position of the C.G. of the strip.
Solution
Taking moments of area about the line ab, we get the
equation as below.
Moment of area abcd+moment of area efgh=moment of
area of complete figure.
Now to calculate the areas
Volume of rod = a2h unit3
1 Area of abcd = 120 mm x 50 mm
= 12 x 12 x 100 cm3
= 6000 mm2
= 14400 cm3

Area of efgh = 200 x 75 mm2
10 6 mm 3
= 15000 mm 2 =
10 3 mm 3
Total area = (6000+15000) mm2
= 1000 cm3
(abcd+efgh) = 21000 mm2
Mass of copper cube = Volume x Density
2 (6000 m2 x 25) + (15000 mm2 + 150 mm)
= 1000 x 8.9
= (21000mm2) x (x mm)
= 8900 gms
150000mm2 + 2250000mm2 = (21000 mm2) x (x mm)
240000mm2 = (21000 mm2) x (x mm) 8900
= Kg
1000
2400000 mm 2
Therefore x = = 8.9 Kg.
21000 mm 2
(g=Acceleration due to gravity=10m/sec2)
2400
= mm Weight of copper cube = 8.9 kg x 10 m/sec2
21
Similarly = 89 N
800
= mm
7 1000 cm3 x 8.5 x 10
Weight of brass cube =
= 114.3 mm 1000
(Take g = 10m/sec ) = 8.500 x 10 = 85N
2
Hence c.g. point of composite figure is 114.3 mm from

A on the line ab. Let cg of separate cubes be Gc and GB as shown
12 Centre of gravity point of a composite body can in figure.
be found out by using a variation of principle of The distance between Gc and GB=100mm or
moments. 0.1 m
Example (Fig 12) Let c.g of the total object be at G which is 'P'
meter to the right of GC or (0.1-P) meter to the
left of GB.
Take moments about G

Clock moments = WB x (0.1 - P)
= 85 x (0.1 - P))
= 8.5 - 85P
Anti clock moments = WC x P
= 89 x P[Nm]
= 89P
By principle of moments
89P = 8.5 - 85P [Equating clock moments with anti-clock
Moment of part "A" about O+ Moment of part "B" about moments]
O=Moment of (A+B) about O.
89P + 85P = 8.5
The moment of the (A+B) acting through
point G. 174P = 8.5
A copper cube of 100mm side is attached to brass cube 8.5

P= meter or 0.049 m or 49 mm
of 100 mm side, as sketched in the figure. Calculate the 174
position of c.g of composite object. Take densities of copper
and brass as 8.9 gms/cm3 and 8.5 gms/cm3. Centre of gravity of the composite object lies
49 mm from point of Gc. Hence it lies within
Solution
copper cube.
Volume of copper cube = 100 x 100 x 100 cm3
= 106 mm3

Assignment A
1 Find the position of centre of gravity of the figure shown. 3 A steel strip 50x12x12cm has a hole of 8cm dia. drilled
(All dimensions in mm) through it at a distance of 10cm from end. Find out the
c.g of the strip.
4 Find out the C.G. of the four sided figure ABCD when
A = B=90º and the side AB=15cm, BC=12cm and
AD=5cm.
2 A lamina consists of a square of 60mm side, on one
side of which an equilateral triangle is constructed. Find
the position of centroid of the composite.
Assignment B
1 What is the centre of gravity of a semi-circle is at a 4 What is the centre of gravity of a right circular cone is
perpendicular distance from its centre? at a distance from its base.
3r 4r h h
A B A B
4π 3π 2 3
8r h h
C D 3r C D
3 8 4 5
2 What is the centre of gravity of a hemisphere is at a 5 Centre of gravity is usually located where.
distance from its space.
A more weight is concentrated
A B 3r B less weight is concentrated
8
C less mass is concentrated
4r 5r D more mass is concentrated
C D
8 8
6 Centre of gravity of an object depends on it's.
3 What is the centre of gravity of a triangle is at the point
where the medians of the triangle meet? A weight B mass
h h
C density D shape
A B
2 3
7 Point where whole weight of body acts vertically is
h h
called.
C D
4 5 A centre of mass B mid point
C centre of gravity D none of above

8 A simple method to find centre of gravity of a body is 10 Which of the following laminas do not have centroid at
usage of. its geometrical centre?
A stop watch B plumbline A Circle B Equilateral triangle
C pendulum D screw gauge C Right angled triangle D Isosceles triangle
9 If a material has no uniform density throughout the body,

then the position of centroid and centre of mass are.
A identical
B not identical
C independent upon the density
D unpredictable
Key Answers
A B
1 90.6 mm 1 B
2 44.3 mm 2 B
3 26.3 cm 3 B
4 The C.G. lies at a point at a distance of 4.49 cm, from 4 C
the line AB and at a distance of 6.47 from the line BC.
5 D
6 B
7 C
8 B
9 B
10 C

Area of cut out regular surfaces - circle, segment and sector of circle
Exercise 2.3.05
Circle (Fig 1)
It is the path of a point which is always equal from its
centre is called a circle.
r = radius of the circle
d = diametre of the circle
Area of the circle = r2
Area of the smaller segment
π
(or) = d2 unit2 = Area of the sector - Area of  ABC
4
Area of the greater segment
Circumference of the circle = 2r (or) d unit
= Area of the circle - Area of smaller segment
Semi Circle (Fig 4)
• A semi circle is a sector whose central angle is 180°.
Sector of a circle (Fig 2)

The area bounded by an arc is called the sector of a circle. • Length of arc of semi circle
In the figure given ABC is the sector of a circle.
180 1
r = radius of the circle l = 2πr × = 2πr ×
360 2
= Angle of sector in degrees
= r unit
Area of sector ABC
2
r 2
πr xθ Area of semi circle = unit2
= 0
unit2 2
360
Length of arc of sector  radius 2πr
Area of sector = unit2 Perimeter of a semi circle == + 2r
2 2
θ = r + 2r
Length of the arc  = 2r x 0 unit = r ( + 2) unit
360
Quadrant of a circle (Fig 5)
Perimeter of the sector =  + 2r unit
• A quadrant of a circle is a sector whose central angle
r = radius
is 90°.
Segment of a circle (Fig 3)

When a circle is divided into two by drawing a line, the
bigger part is called segment of the circle and the smaller
part is also called segment of the circle.
24

• Length and area of a quadrant of a circle  Circumference of circle = d
90  44 = d
l = 2πr ×
360
1 44
= 2πr × d= = 44 ÷ π
4 π
πr 22
= = 44 ÷
2 7
7
2 = 44 ×
πr 22
Area of quadrant of a circle = unit2
4
= 14 cm
2 πr  Diameter of circle (d) = 14 cm
Perimeter of a quadrant = + 2r
4
π 2
 Area of circle = d unit2
πr 4
= + 2r
2
1
=r ⎜
⎛ π +2 ⎞ unit =π × d 2
⎟ 4
⎝2 ⎠
22 1
Examples : = × × 14 ×14
7 4
1 Find the area of a sector of a circle whose radius
is 14 cm and the length of the arc of the sector is = 154 cm2
28 cm. Area of circle = 154 cm2
Radius of sector r = 14 cm
3 Find the remaining areas of circles of 10 cm dia
Length of arc of sector = 28 cm after inscribing triangles of 5 cm base and 10 cm
height.
Length of arc of sector () = Solution

π 2
(i) Area of the circle = d
28 = 4
22 × 10 × 10
=
 = = 114.550 7×4
550
=
 Angle of sector  = 114.550 7
(ii) Area of the triangle inscribed in this circle
 Area of sector =
1
= × base × height
2
= cm2 10 × 5
= = 25 sq.cm
2
= 196 cm 2
Area of sector = 196 cm2

Remaining area =
2 If the circumference of a circle is 44 cm, find its
22
area. (Take π = ) Remaining area of circle = 53
4
Sq.cm
7
7
Solution
 Let (d) = diamter of circle

4 A rectangular sheet of metal measures 8 cm and = 48 - 12.57
6 cm. Four quadrants of circles each of radius 2 cm
= 35.428 cm2
are cut away at corners. Find the area of the
remaining portion. = say 35.43 cm2
Area of remaining portion = 35.43 sq.cm
5 Find the perimeter of the given circular disc.
Sector :
r = 100 mm
 = 360° - 45° = 315°
θ
Area of rectangular sheet =8x6 l= × 2π r unit
360
= 48 cm2
315
There are four quadrants of a circle, each of radius 2 cm cut = × 2 × π × 100 mm
360
away at the corners. Quadrant of circle means 1/4th of
circle.  = 550 mm
4 quadrant of circles =4x of circle = 1 circle
Area of 4 quadrant circles = Area of one circle

=  r2
22
= × 2× 2
7
= 12.57 cm2 Perimeter of the given circular Disc =  + 2r
Area of remaining portion = = 550 + 200 = 750 mm

Perimeter of the given circular Disc = 750 mm
Area of rectangular sheet - Area of four quadrant circles cut
at corners.

Related problems of area of cut out regular surfaces - circle, segment and
sector of circle Exercise 2.3.06
1 7 D = 38 mm
d t = 21 mm d = 32 mm
A t = ______ mm2 Cross sectional area

= _____ mm2
2 l = 750 mm
b = 400 mm 8 Av (Area of shaded

part) = ______ mm2
d = 180 mm
Av = % of (Area of
Area of sheet rectangle) A1
= _______
3  = 60°
9 D = 880 mm
s = 9.2 mm
d = 580 mm
A of sector Angle of cut off
= _______ mm2 sector a = 135°
Area of the remain-

4 A = Area of sector ing portion, A
= 140 mm2 = _____ mm2
d of the circle 10 Equilateral triangle

= 30 mm of side a = 6 cm
Radius of circle
 = ______°
= 1.732 cm
5 d = 380 mm Shaded area

_______________
No. of sectors of
equal area = 8
Area of each sector 11 Two plugs having
= ______ mm2 diameters 2 cm and
5 cm are placed on a
 = ______ ° surface plate touching
length of arc of each each other. calculate
sector = ______ mm the distance ‘L’ in the
figure.
6  = 160°
A = 0.893 m2 12 90° vee block is 26 mm

wide at the top of the
d = ______ mm vee block. What dia.
of soft when laid in the
vee block will
have its top surface just
level with the top of the
vee block.
27

13 17
From a sheet of 5m  The arrangement of a
3m how many circular band saw blade is
pieces of 12.5 cm dia shown in the figure given
can be cut. below. Find out the
length of the saw blade.
18 Calculate the area covered by 3 equal circles of radius

14 2.8 cm touches one another.
19
Find out ‘L’ from the
given sketch. = 155°
d = 350 mm
b = ____mm
15
Find the value of ‘x’ in
20
the following fig.
Find the area of shaded
portion.
16 Area of the shaded

portion
______________mm2.

Area of irregular surfaces and application related to shop problems
Exercise 2.3.07
Area of irregular surface (b) Trapezoidal rule
Surface area of irregular figures can be obtained by h
applying either i) simpson’s rule or ii) trapezoidal rule. Area A= [y1 + y8 + 2(y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 + y6 + Y7)] unit2
found by simpson’s rule is more accurate than trapezoidal 3
rule. However accurate area can be obtained if the number
of ordinates are more i.e interval between ordinates is so A=
5 [4 + 5 + 2(3 + 2 + 5 + 1 + 2 + 3)] m2
small as possible. (Fig 1) 2
5
A= x 41 m2
2
= 102.5 m2
Calculation of the area of an irregular surface

In this Calculation the area of an irregular surface may be
determined as follows.
In this method of calculation a chain line known as base line
to be laid through the centre of the area of the surface.
i Area as per simpson’s rule The offset are taken to the boundary points in the order of
their chainages on both the sides of the base line.
h
Area = [y1 + y7 + 4(y2 + y4 + y6) + 2 (y3 + y5)]
3 The chain line and offsets are noted down.
where With reference to the notes the boundary points are plotted
and the area to be divided into number of triangles and
h = interval between ordinates trapezium according to the shape.
ii Area as per trapezoidal rule Example
h Now apply the geometrical formulae for calculating the
Area= [ (first ordinate + last ordinate) + sum of
2 according to the shape of the figures. (Fig 2)
remaining ordinate]
Calculate the area enclosed between the chain line,
the edge and the end offsets by
The offsets were taken from a chain line to a edge.
Distance (M) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Off set (M) 4 3 2 5 1 2 3 5
(a) Simpson’s rule (b) Trapezoidal rule
(a) Simpson’s rule Chainline = AB

h Offsets = C,E
A= [y1 + y8 + 4(y2 + y4 + y6) + 2 (y3 + y5 + Y7)] unit2
3 1 Area of triangle
5 ½ x base x height
A= [4 + 5 + 4(3 + 5 + 2) + 2 (2 + 1 + 3)] m2
3 2 Area of trapezium
= 101.7 m2 .
base (a  b)
 height
2
29

Example
Plot the following details of a field and calculate its area all measurements are in metres (Fig 3)
Serial No. 1 In ABI Sl. No. 3

Chainage in metres 0 and 20m. 1 1
Area of triangle KCD = xbxh=  20  45
Offsets in metres 0 and 36m. 2 2
In  ABI = 45m x 10m = 450 Sq.m
Sl. No. 4
Area = ½ x base x height
Area of rectangle DEFL = 25 x 30 = 750 sq.m
=1/2 x 20 x 36
Sl. No. 5 (LFGH)
=360 sq.m
SI. No. 2 (a  b)  30  35 
Area of Trapezium LFGJ =  height =   30 
2  2 
Area of trapezium IBCK = 32.5m x 30m = 975 sq.m
Chainage in metres = 20m and 55m = 35m
Sl. No. 6
Offsets in metres 36m and 20m = 28m
35  45 80
(a  b)  36  20  Area of trapezium AJGH =  35   35
=  height =   35 
2 2
2  2 
= 28 x 35 = 980 sq.m = 40 x 35 = 1400 sq.m
S. Figure Chainline in Base in Offsets in Mean offsets Area in square Remarks

No. metres Metres metres in metres Metres
+ve -ve
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 ABI 0 and 20 20 0 and 36 18 360 --
2 Trapezium 20 and 55 35 36 and 20 28 980 --
IBCK
3 KCD 55 and 100 45 0 and 20 10 450 --
4 Rectangle 100 and 75 25 0 and 30 15 750 --
DEFL
5 Trapezium 75 and 45 30 30 and 35 32.50 975 --
LFGJ
6 Trapezium 45 and 0 45 45 and 35 40 1400 --
JGHA
Total 4915

Assignment
Calculate the area of the irregular surfaces given below.
Note : All dimension are in mm.

Algebra - Addition , subtraction, multiplication & division
Exercise 2.4.08
Introduction – 72
= –8
Algebra is a form of mathematics in which letters may be +9
used in place of unknown. In this mathematics numbers
– 96
are also used in addition to the letters and the value of = +16
number depends upon its place. For example in 3x and x3, –6
the place of x is different. In 3x =3 is multiplied with x,
whereas in x3 - 3 is an Index of x. When an expression contains addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division,
Positive and negative numbers perform the multiplication and division
operations first and then do the addition and
Positive numbers have a + sign in front of them, and subtraction.
negative numbers have – sign in front of them. The same
applies to letters also. Example
Example + x, – y. 12 x 8 – 6 + 4 x 12 = 96 – 6 + 48 = 138
+8 or simply 8 positive number. 102  6 – 6 x 2 + 3 = 17 – 12 + 3 = 8

– 8 negative number. Parantheses and grouping symbols
Addition and subtraction ( ) Brackets
Two positive numbers are added, by adding their absolute { } Braces
magnitude and prefix the plus sign.
7 + (6–2) = 7 + 4 = 11
To add two negative numbers, add their absolute magni-
tude and prefix the minus sign. 6 x (8–5) = 6 x 3 = 18
To add a positive and a negative number, obtain the Parentheses

difference of their absolute magnitudes and prefix the sign These are symbols that indicate that certain addition and
of the number having the greater magnitude. subtraction operations should precede multiplication and
+7 + 22 = +29 division. They indicate that the operations within them
should be carried out completely before the remaining
–8 – 34 = – 42
operations are performed. After completing the grouping,
–27 + 19 = –8 the symbols may be removed.
44 + (–18) = +26
In an expression where grouping symbols immediately
37 + (–52) = –15 preceded or followed by a number but with the signs of
Multiplication of positive and negative numbers operation omitted, it is understood, that multiplication
should be performed.
The product of two numbers having like signs is positive and
the product of two numbers with unlike signs is negative. Grouping symbols are used when subtraction and multipli-
Note that, where both the numbers are negative, their cation of negative numbers is done.
product is positive. To remove grouping symbols which are preceded by
Ex. –20 x –3 = 60 negative signs, the signs of all terms inside the grouping
symbols must be changed (from plus to minus and minus
5x8 = 40
to plus).
4 x –13 = – 52
Parentheses which are preceded by a plus sign may be
–5 x 12 = –60
removed without changing the signs of the terms within the
Division parentheses.
The number that is divided is the dividend, the number by When one set of grouping symbols is included within
which we are dividing is the divisor and the answer is the another set, remove the innermost set first.
quotient. If the signs of the dividend and the divisor are the
When several terms connected by + or – signs contain a
same then the quotient will have a + sign. If they are unlike
common quantity, this common quantity may be placed in
then the quotient will have a negative sign.
front of a parentheses.
+ 28 8 + 6(4–1) = 8 + 6 x 3 = 26
= +7
+4 (6+2) (9–5) = 8 x 4 = 32
+ 56 Plus 4 less negative 7 is written as 4 – (–7).
= –14
–4
32

Plus 4 times negative 7 is written as 4(–7). 2) Add 25xy, + 2xy, - 6xy, - 3xy
4 – (–7) = 4 + 7 = 11 25xy + 2xy + (- 6xy) + (- 3xy)
8 – (7–4) = 8 – 3 = 5 = 27xy - 9xy
3 + (–8) = 3 – 8 = –5 = 18xy
7 + (4 – 19) = 7 + (–15) = 7 – 15 = – 8 3) Add 9m, + 4m, - 2
3 {40 + (7 + 5) (8–2)} 9m + 4m + (- 2)
= 3 {40 + 12 x 6} 9m + 4m - 2
= 3 x 112 = 336. = 13m - 2
8x + 12 - quantity 4 may be factored out giving the 4) Add 5a3, + 12b3, - c3, + a3, - 4b3, + 3
expression 8x + 12 as 4 (2x + 3).
5a3 + 12b3 + (- c3) + a3 + (- 4b3) + 3
The innermost set in a grouping symbols of an expression
= 6a3 + 8b3 - c3 + 3
is to be simplified first.
Coefficient
Algebraic symbols and simple equations
When an expression is formed into factors whose product
Algebraic symbol is the expression, then each factor is the coefficient of the
An unknown numerical value of a quantity is represented by remaining factors.
a letter which is the algebraic symbol. 48x = 4 x 12 x x
Factor 4 is the coefficient of 12x . x is the coefficient of 48.
A factor is any one of the numbers or letters or groups which Equation
when multiplied together give the expression.
Factors of 12 are 4 and 3 or 6 and 2 or 12 and 1. It is a statement of equality between numbers or numbers
and algebraic symbols.
8x + 12 is the expression and this may be written as
4(2x + 3), 4 and (2x + 3) are the factors. 12 = 6 x 2, 13 + 5 = 18.
Algebraic terms 2x + 9 = 5, y – 7 = 4y + 5.
If an expression contains two or more parts separated by Simple equation

either + or –, each part is known as the term. Equations involving algebraic symbols to the first power are
y – 5x is the expression. y and – 5x are the terms. simple equations.
The sign must precede the term. 2x + 4 = 10. 4x + 12 = 14.
Kinds of terms: Addition and subtraction
1. Like terms Quantities with algebraic symbols are added or subtracted

by considering those terms involving same symbols and
a) 13a, 15a, 19a, -12a, -18a powers.
b) 5xy, 11xy, -xy, -14xy Example
c) 27m2, 25m2, -3m2, 11m2 1. 10x + 14 – 7y2 – 11a + 2x – 4 – 3y2 – 4a + 8
2. Unlike terms = 10x + 2x – 7y2 – 3y2 – 11a – 4a + 14 – 4 + 8
a) 3ac, - 4b, 8x, 3yz = 12x – 10y2 – 15a + 18
b) 2xy, y2, a2b, xz, 3bc 2. 2x = 10, 2x + 6 = 10 + 6
c) 13m n, 3mn , 14lm , 15a b, 5lm
2 2 2 2
3. y + 12 = 20, y + 12 – 8 = 20 – 8
Examples : 4. x + 10 = 12,
1) Add 7a, - 2a, a, 3a x + 10 – 10 = 12 – 10
7a + (- 2a) + (a) + 3a 5. 3x = 6, 2 x 3x = 2 x 6, 6x = 12
7a - 2a + a + 3a
6. 5y = 20, 5y = 20 .
= 11a - 2a 5 5
= 9a The same number may be added or subtracted to both
members of an equation without changing its equality.

Each member of an equation may be multiplied or divided We must always perform the same operation on both sides
by the same number or symbol without changing its of the equation to keep the equilibrium. Add or subtract the
equality. same amount from both sides. 5 + x = 9 By adding 3 on
both sides, the equation becomes 5 + x + 3 = 9 + 3 or x
The equality of an equation is not altered when the numbers
+ 8 = 12.
or symbols are added or subtracted from both sides.
Multiplication and division by the same numbers or sym- 5 + x = 9 Subtract 5 from both sides then 5 + x – 5 = 9– 5.
bols on both sides also will not affect the equality.
x = 4.
Transposition of the terms of the equations 5 is transposed from left side to the right side by changing
= equals to its sign from + to –.
x x
+ plus = 20. Multiply both sides by 4. Then x 4 = 20 x 4.
4 4
– minus x = 80,
x multiply 5x = 25.
 divided by 5x 25
Divide both sides by 5 then =
Concept of equality (Fig 1) 5 5
x = 5.
When transposing numbers or letter symbols from one
side to the other side multiplication becomes division and
the division becomes multiplication.
The equality of an equation remains unchanged

when both sides of the equation are treated in
the same way. When transposing from one
side to the other side,
a plus quantity becomes minus quantity.
a minus quantity becomes a plus quantity
a multiplication becomes a division
a division becomes a multiplication.
To solve simple equations isolate the unknown
quantity which is to be found on the left side of
the equation.
Example
• Solve for x if 4x = 3(35 – x )
An equation can be compared to a pair of scales which 4x = 105 – 3x (brackets removed)

always remain in equilibrium. The two sides of the equation 4x + 3x = 105 (By transposing –3x on the right side
can fully be transposed. 9 = 5 + x may also be written as to the left side)
5 + x = 9.
7x = 105
x = 15 (dividing both sides by 7)

Assignment
ADD 13 8t + 12u - t - 14u
1 14f - 2f + 5f - 7f + 9f 14 x - z + y + z
2 3xy + 5xy - 2xy + 8xy - 4xy 15 15a + 13a - 37a
3 7a2 - 5a2 + a2 + 3a2 16 17a - 4b - 7a + 3b
4 3m2n - 2m2n + 4m2n - m2n + 7m2n 17 9c - 15e + 4c + 3e
5 18 + 13x - 13 + 2x - 15x
2 2 2
18 13f + 40g - 16f + 7f + 2g - 17g
6 17xy - 4xy + 13 - xy - 6 19 30x + 45y - 17x - 16y
7 6l2m + 3lm2 - 2l2m - 17lm2 + 1 20 14.5k + 33.2 - 18.4k + 12.3
8 3a2b - 2ab - 2a2b - 3ab - 2a2b + ab 21 8a + 3c - 6b - 5c + 4a + 8b
9 2a + a + 3a + 6a - 5b 22 27i + 17k - 5l + 12i - 31k + 19l
10 8c + 5c + 3c + 2c 23 230m + 472P - 320n - 75m + 180n - 141p
11 14d + 3d + 25e + 2e 24 17.5P + 12.4x - 29.2r - 7.6x - 12.1p + 31.4r
12 5p + 3r - r - 2p 25 230m + 420s + 370y + 225m - 510y - 110s

Algebra – Theory of indices, Algebraic formula, related problems
Exercise 2.4.09
Calculations involving powers 3
2 3–2 1
Power : Concept =2 =2 =2
2
2
a.a.a... upto n times is = an
a is the base, n is the exponent. 2x2x2 8
= =2
When a number, say 2 is multiplied by itself 4 times, we 2x2 4
write it as 24 (two to the power of 4) and it is equal to Powers with the same exponents are divided by involving
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16. the quotient of the bases by the common exponent.
The exponent denotes how many times the base number
is multiplied by itself. n n
a ⎛a⎞
Powers with a positive base have a positive result. n =⎜ ⎟
b ⎝b⎠
Powers with a negative base and with an exponent that is
even will have a positive result. 2 2
2 ⎛2⎞ 2x2 4
=⎜ ⎟ = =
The sign 3
2
⎝3⎠ 3x3 9
(+a) n = an
Only like powers can be added or subtracted.
(– a) 2n = a2n
(2) 2 = 2 x 2 = 4 and Examples
(– 2)2 = – 2 x – 2 = +4 but (The exponent 1 is usually not written.)
(– 2)3 = –2x–2x–2=–8 a1 = a
Addition and subtraction of powers 21 =2
Powers with the same base and exponents can be added 2a2 + 3a2 = 5a2
or subtracted by addition or subtraction of the coefficients.
(Any number raised to the power of 0 is 1.)
x.an + y.an = an (x + y)
a0 = 1
x.an – y.an = an (x – y)
20 = 1
Ex .4x2 + x2 – 3x2 = x2 (4 + 1 – 3) = 2x2.
A number raised to a negative power corresponds to its
Multiplication reciprocal with the exponent's sign changed to +.
Powers with the same bases are multiplied by involving the –n 1
a = n
common base raised to the power of sum of the exponents. a
am x an = am + n.
1
2 3 x 2 2 = 2 3 + 2 = 25 2–2 = 2
2
(2 x 2 x 2) x (2 x 2) = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 25
8 x 4 = 32. Powers are involved by multiplying the exponents.
Powers with the same exponent of different base numbers (an)m = anm
are multiplied by involving the product of the base numbers (22) 3 = 22.3 = 26
raised to the common exponent.
Powers can be transposed without affecting the result.
an x bn = (a x b)n
22 x 32 = (2 x 3)2 a  = a 
n m m n
2 x 2 x 3 x 3 = 6 x 6 = 36 (22) 3 = (23) 2
Division (2 x 2) x (2 x 2) x (2 x 2) = (2 x 2 x 2) (2 x 2 x 2)
Powers with like bases are divided by involving the base 4 x 4 x 4 = 64

raised to the difference between the exponents. 8 x 8 = 64
m A mixed number raised to a power is first converted into an

a m–n improper fraction and then the result is evaluated.
n =a
36 a

2 2 4. Add : (3x + 3z) ; (5x - 4y); (9y - 3z)
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛7⎞
⎜1 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ 3x + 0 + 3z
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝4⎠
5x - 4y + 0
7 7 49 0 + 9y - 3z
= x = ______________________
4 4 16
8x + 5y
Indices ______________________
5. 5x2y + 3xy2 + 8x2y + 7xy2

• The indices are added in multiplication
= 5x2y + 8x2y + 3xy2 + 7xy2
am x an = am + n.
= 13x2y + 10xy2
• The indices are subtracted in division
Subtraction
m
a m–n 1. 38xy - 15xy = 23xy
n =a
a . 2. Subtract 3xy from -4xy
• In case of index of an index, both the indices are -4xy
multiplied mutually +3xy
(-) _______
[am]n = am.n
-7xy
• A fractional index shows root of a number _______
1/m m 3. Subtract 5x from 12x

a = a
= 12x - (5x)
• In case of an index having minus sign, the sign can be
= 12x - 5x
changed by taking the number from numerator to
denominator or vice versa = 7x
1 4. Subtract 18x from 7x

–m
a = m
a = 7x -( 18x)
= 7x - 18x
and 1 m
−m = a = -11x
a
5. Subtract 2x2 - 3y2 from 3x2 + 2y2
• If an index contains both the numerator and denomina-
tor then it means that the number has 'index' as well as 3x2 + 2y2
'root'. 2x2 - 3y2
_________________
m/n n m x2 + 5y2
a = a
_________________
Basic problem 6. Subtract 3x - 2y from 4y - 2x
Addition = (4y - 2x) - (3x - 2y)
1. 8a + 12b - a - 14b = 4y - 2x - 3x + 2y
= 8a - a + 12b - 14b = 6y - 5x
= 7a - 2b Multiplication
2. 14a + 3a + 25b + 2b + b 1. - 4x2 x 8x5 = - 4 x 8x2+5
(-) (+)
= 17a + 28b = -32x7
3. (2a + 3b - c) + (4a - b - c) + (a - 8) 2. (3d2 - 2d) 3d
2a + 3b - c + 0 = 9d3 - 6d2
4a - b-c+0 3. (5x + 3y) (5x - 3y)
a + 0+0-8 = (5x)2 - (3y)2
______________________
7a + 2b - 2c - 8 = 5x x 5x - 3y x 3y
______________________
= 25x2 - 9y2

4. 5x2y x 8x5y3 Algebraic Formulae
= 40x y 7 4
1 (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
5. (2a+b) (a+2b)
2 (a - b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab
= 2a2 + 4ab + ab + 2b2
3 (a + b)2 = (a - b)2 + 4ab
= 2a + 2b + 5ab
2 2
4 (a - b)2 = (a + b)2-4ab ; (a + b)2-(a - b)2=4ab
6. 8a b c x 3a b c
3 5 -5 2 -5 5
5 a 2 + b2 = (a + b)2 - 2 ab = (a - b)2 + 2 ab
= 24a5
6 a 2 - b2 = (a + b) (a - b)
Division
7 a 3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 + b2 - ab)
3 2
12 x y 8 a 3 - b3 = (a - b) (a2 + b2 + ab)
1. 2
= 3xy
4x y 9 (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b)
10 (a - b)3 = a3 - b3 - 3ab (a - b)
15
15y
2. 5
= y10 11 (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2 (ab + bc + ca)
15y
12 a4 -- b4 = (a2 + b2) (a + b) (a - b)
3. 9c5d3  c2d2
Examples
= 9c3d
1) If x + y = 9 and xy = 20
5a + 20 5(a + 4 ) 5
4. = = Find i) x2 + y2 ii) x - y iii) x2 - y2
7a + 28 7(a + 4 ) 7
iv) x3 + y3 v) x3 - y3 vi) x and y
2 3
3a x 4a x 5a i) (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
5. 4
6a x 10a (x + y)2 = x2 + y2 + 2xy
6
60a (9)2 = x2 + y2 + 2 (20)
= 5 =a
60a 81 = x2 + y2 + 40
6. -25a15  -5a-8 x2 + y2 = 81 - 40
15 x +y =
2 2
41
- 25a
= -8
- 5a ii) (a - b)2 = (a + b)2 - 4ab
= 5a15a8 = 5a23 (x - y)2 = (x + y)2 - 4xy
7. 4x2y  2y = (9)2 - 4 (20)

2 = 81 - 80
4x y
= = 2x2
2y = 1
x-y = 1 =1
8. 3x2y3  -6x5y
2 3 2
3x y y iii) a2 - b2 = (a + b) (a - b)
= 5
=− 3
- 6x y 2x x -y
2 2
= (x + y) (x - y)
9. 3x3y2  xy = 9x1
x2 - y2 = 9
3 2
3x y
= = 3x2y iv) a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 + b2 - ab)
xy
x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 + y2 - xy)
10.Divide 45a2b2c by 9a2c
= 9 (41 - 20)
2 2
45a b c
= = 9 x 21
2
9a c
x3 + y3 = 189
=5b2

v) a3 - b3 = (a - b) (a2 + b2 + ab) x4 + y4 + 7200 = 28561
x -y
3 3
= (x - y) (x + y + xy)
2 2
x4 + y4 = 28561 - 7200
= 1 (41 + 20)
x4 + y4 = 21361
= 1 x 61
= 61 5. x + y = 5 ; x - y = 3 Find the value of 8 x y (x + y )
2 2
x3 - y3 = 61
x + y = 5; x - y = 3 (take square on both sides)
vi) x+y = 9
(x + y)2 = 5; (x - y)2 = 3
x-y = 1
---------------------- Solve the equations
2x = 10
---------------------- (x + y)2 = x2 + y2 + 2xy = 5
10 (x - y)2 = x2 + y2 - 2xy = 3
x = =5 ----------------------------------------
2
2 (x2 + y2) = 8
If x = 5, 5 + y = 9
y=9-5=4 8
(x2 + y2) = =4
x = 5; y = 4 2
2. Solve (x + 5)2 - (x - 5)2 = x2 + y2 + 2xy = 5
If x + 5 = a and x - 5 = b = x + y - 2xy = 3
2 2
(-) (-) (+) (-)

a2 - b2 = (a + b) (a - b) -------------------------------------------
4xy = 2
(x + 5)2 - (x - 5)2 = [(x + 5) + (x - 5)] [(x + 5) - (x - 5)] -------------------------------------------
= (x + 5 + x - 5) (x + 5 - x + 5) 2 1
xy = =
= (2x) (10) 4 2
1
= 20 x 8 xy (x2 + y2) = 8x x4
2
3. If (x - y) = 4 and xy = 12, find the value of (x2 + y2)
= 4 x 4 = 16
(x - y)2 = x2 + y2 - 2xy
(4)2 = x2 + y2 - 2 x 12 1 1
6. If (a - ) = 6. Find the value of a2 +
16 = x + y - 24
2 2
a a
2
x2 + y2 - 24 = 16 ⎛ 1⎞
x +y =
2 2
16 + 24
⎜a - ⎟ = 6
⎝ a⎠
x2 + y2 = 40
2
⎛ 1⎞
⎜a - ⎟ = 62 (take square on both sides)
⎝ a⎠
4. If x - y = 7 and xy = 60 then find the value of x + y 4 4
2
(x - y)2 = x2 + y2 - 2xy = 72 ⎛ 1 ⎞ - 2 (a) ⎛ 1 ⎞ = 36
a2 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
x2 + y2 - 2 x 60 = 49 ⎝a⎠ ⎝a⎠
x2 + y2 = 169 1
a2 + 2
- 2 = 36
(x2 + y2)2 = (169)2 (take square on both side) a
x4 + y4 + 2x2y2 = (169)2 1
a2 + = 36 + 2
x + y + 2(xy)
4 4 2
= 28561 a
2
x4 + y4 + 2(60)2 = 28561
1
a2 + = 38
x + y + 2(3600) =
4 4
28561 a
2

1 1 1
7. If x - = 2, Find the value of x3 - 3 x- = 4 (take square on both sides)
X x X
(a - b)3 = a3 - b3 - 3 ab (a - b)
2
⎛ 1⎞
⎜x − ⎟ = 42 [(a - b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab]
⎝ x⎠
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
3
⎛ 1⎞ 1
⎜x − ⎟ = x3 - 3 - 3 (x) ⎜ ⎟ . ⎜ x − ⎟ 1 1
⎝ x⎠ x ⎝ ⎠
x ⎝ x⎠ x2 + - 2 x xx = 42
x
2
X
1 ⎛ 1⎞
= x3 - 3 - 3 ⎜ x − ⎟
x ⎝ x⎠ 1
x2 + 2 - 2 = 16
x
1 ⎛ 1⎞
23 = x3 - 3 - 3 ⎜ x − ⎟ 1
x ⎝ x⎠ x2 +
x
2 = 16 + 2
1
8 = x3 - 3 - 3 (2) 1
x x2 + 2 = 18
x
1
8 = x3 - 3 - 6 2
x ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
⎜ x + ⎟ = (18)2 (take square on both sides)
⎜ 2⎟
1 ⎝ x ⎠
8+6 = x3 - 3
x
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
1 (x ) + ⎜
2 2
⎟ + 2 x x2 x 2 = 324
14 = x3 - 3
⎜ 2⎟ x
x ⎝x ⎠
1 1
x4 + +2 = 324
x3 - 3 = 14 x4
x
1
x4 + = 324 - 2
1 1 x4
8. If x - = 4, Find the value of x +4
X x4
1
x4 + = 322
x4
Assignment
I. Add 9) (a - 3b + 4c) + (-7c - a + 4b)

1) 45b + 25c + 18b + 40c 10)(2x + 5y) + (4x - 8z) + (15z - 2y)
2) 14d + 3d + 25e + 2e + e + d II
II. Subtract
3) 15a - (4a + 3a - 5a) 1) 38xy - 25xy
4) 5x + 3y - (2x - 5y) 2) Subtract 2a2 - 3b2 from 3a2 + 2b2
5) ( x + 2y + 3z) + (4x - y + z) 3) Subtract -2y2 + 3xy - 5 from 3x2 - 4xy + 7y2 - 5
6) (2x + 5y) + (4x - 8z) + (15z - 6y) + (z - 2x) 4) Subtract 2a - 3b - c from 3a - 2b + 4c
7) (5x2 - 3y2 + z) + (-x2 + 2y2 - 4z) 5) Subtract 3x - 4x2 + 2y2 from 4y2 - 2x + 8x2
8) (-2x + 3y - 3z) + (-6y - 5x + z)

III
III. Simplify V.
1) 230a + 420b + 370c + 225a - 510c - 110b
10a
1)
2) 15d - (4d + 3d - 5d) 2a
3) 2a - 3(a - (a - b))
2) -3ax  -6x
4) 48m + 24m n + 12m - 6m - 12m n
2 2 2 2 2
3) 15xy -5
5) 8x + 3z - 6y - 5z + 4x + 8y
8ac
6) 3x2y - 2xy - 2x2y - 3xy - 2x2y + xy 4) −
2bc
7) 10x + 14 - 7y2 - 11a + 2x - 4 - 3y2 - 4a + 8
IV - 5m x - 6n - 7p
IV. 5)
- 28 mn
1) 7pq2 x 5r
2) 5yzx x (-5ab) 6) 4a8  2a3
3) (4x2 + 3y2) x (-2z) 7) -15a8  3a5
4) 3ax -9b 8a
4
8) -7
5) -7p x 4q2 12a
6) 2ab x -7pq 2 3
3p x 4p x 5p x p
9)
7) p2q3 x 3p3q2 4
6p x 10p
8) (3b2 - 2b)3b2
2
25m n
9 5y x 2y3y2 10)
3 2
5m n
10)ab-1 x ba-1

Elasticity - Elastic, plastic materials, stress, strain and their units and
young’s modulus Exercise 2.5.10
Elastic material 11 Rubber Epichlorohydrin
The Elastic materials are those materials that have the 12 Nylon
ability to resist a distorting or deforming influence or force,
13 Terpene
and then return to their original shape and size when the
same force is removed. 14 Isoprene Rubber
Linear elasticity is widely used in the design and analysis 15 Poilbutadiene

of structures such as beams, plates and sheets. 16 Nitrile Rubber
Elastic materials are of great importance to society since 17 Vinyl stretch
many of them are used to make clothes, tires, automotive 18 Thermoplastic elastomer
spare parts, etc.
19 Silicone rubber
Characteristics of elastic materials
20 Ethylene-propylene-diene rubber (EPDM)
When an elastic material is deformed with an external 21 Ethylvinylacetate (EVA or foamy gum)
force, it experiences an internal resistance to the
deformation and restores it to its original state if the 22 Halogenated butyl rubbers (CIIR, BIIR)
external force is no longer applied. 23 Neoprene
To a certain extent, most solid materials exhibit elastic Plastic Material
behavior, but there is a limit of the magnitude of the force
Plastic Material Classification
and the accompanying deformation within this elastic
recovery. “Plastic material” is a term that refers to a large class of
polymers, separated into various groups and sub-groups.
A material is considered as elastic if it can be stretched
Before starting the chapter on the uses and subsequent
up to 300% of its original length.
recycling of plastic, let us establish a general classification
For this reason there is an elastic limit, which is the of these thermosetting resins or thermo-plastics (the two
greatest force or tension per unit area of a solid material big groups into which we include elastomers) by detailing
that can withstand permanent deformation. their properties, their make-up, their aspect, and their
For these materials, the elasticity limit marks the end of final uses, while explaining which ones are recyclable.
their elastic behavior and the beginning of their plastic Thermoplastics
behavior. For weaker materials, the stress or stress on
Remember that thermoplastic is a material whose
its elasticity limit results in its fracture.
structure and viscosity can be modified both ways through
The elasticity limit depends on the type of solid considered. heating or cooling. This large family of materials is
For example, a metal bar can be extended elastically up commonly used by many industries and is easily
to 1% of its original length. integrated into France’s recycling cycles.
However, fragments of certain gummy materials may The following polymers are some examples of plastic
undergo extensions of up to 1000%. The elastic properties material:
of most solid intentions tend to fall between these two
1 Polyolefins
extremes.
2 Vinyl polymers
Maybe you might be interested How to Synthesize an
Elastolic Material? 3 Polystyrenes
Examples of elastic materials 4 Acrylate and methacrymate polymers
1 Natural gum 5 Polyamide
2 Spandex or lycra 6 Polycarbonates
3 Butyl Rubber (GDP) 7 Celluloid
4 Fluoroelastomer 8 Linear polyesters
5 Elastomers
9 Polyfluorethane
6 Ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR)
10 Polyacetal
7 Resilin
11 Polysulfone
8 Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)
12 Polyphenylene sulfide
9 Chloroprene
10 Elastin 13 Modified polyphenylene oxide (PPO)
42

Thermosetting plastic Poisson's ratio
Thermosetting plastic is a compound that, during It is a ratio between lateral strain and linear strain.
condensation polymerisation (and/or implementation), when
Lateral strain 1
submitted to a catalyst or a temperature increase, irreversibly Poisson’s ratio = =
cures. the structure, shape, or rigidity of the manufactured Linear strain m
plastic object can not be modified again, and the material is
rarely recycled. Examples
This type of plastic includes the following types of 1 Calculate the tensile strain when a force of 3.2 kN
compounds: is applied to a bar of original length 280 cm
extends the bar by 0.5 mm (Fig 1 & Fig 2)
1 Unsaturated polyster
2 Phenol formaldehyde resins
3 Melamine resins
4 Polyepoxides
5 Polyimide
6 Polyurethane
7 Polyorganosiloxanes
Generally in any industry the material used are elastic in
nature. Hence if a material is subjected to an external
load, it undergoes deformation. During the deformation
process the material will offer a resistance against the
deformation. In case if the material fails to put up full
resistance to the external load, the deformation continues
until rupture takes place. Hence it is important to have a
considerable knowledge about the materials and their
properties for designing and fabricating.
Strain
When an external forces acting on a material, there is a
change in its dimension and shape. The deformation is
called strain. Thus, strain is the ratio between the change
in dimension of a material to its original dimension. It has
no unit. It is represented by e (Epsilon)
Change in dimension ( )
Strain =
Original dimension ( )
Linear or Longitudinal strain
It is the ratio between the change in length of the material
to its original length.
Change in length ( )
Linear Strain =
Original length ( )
Lateral Strain
It is the ratio between change in cross sectional area of
material to its original area.
Change in area
Lateral Strain =
Original Area
Volumetric Strain
It is the ratio between change in volume of material to its
original volume. Force = 3.2 kN
Change in volume Original length (L) = 280 cm
Volumetric Strain =
Original Volume Increased length( ) = 0.5 mm = 0.05 cm

Increased length = 400 /18
Tensile Strain = = 22.22 Newton / mm
Original Length
Force required to
0.05 compress the = Spring stiffness Deflection
=
280 spring into 6 mm
Load required = 22.22  6
= 0.0001786 = 133.32 N
2 A steel rod used for brake operation is 1.50 m long. 5 Calculate the tensile strain when a force of 3.2
When it is subjected to a tensile force the extension KN is applied to a bar of original length 2.8 m
produced is 0.5 mm. Find the strain in the rod. extends the bar by 0.5 mm.
Extension Force F = 3.2 KN
Tensile strain =
Original length Original length L = 280 cm
0.5 ⎛ mm ⎞ Increased length( ) = 0.5 mm = 0.05 cm
= ⎜ ⎟
1.5 x 1000 ⎝ mm ⎠ Tensile strain =?
Strain in the brake rod = 0.0003 
Strain =
L
3 A helical spring is loaded with a force of 600
Newton and is compressed by 30mm. What would 0.05
be the load required to compress it to 10 mm (Fig3) =
280
= 0.0001786
6 A metal bar is 2m long. When 5.5 tonne is applied

its length becomes 1.995 m. Find the compressive
strain?
Force F = 5.5 KN
Original length L1 =2m
Final length L2 = 1.995 m
Increased length( ) = 2 - 1.995 = 0.005 m

Compressive strain =
L
0.005
=
Solution 2
Applied load = 0.0025
Spring stiffness =
Deflection
7 When a steel rod of 4mm diameter experienced
600 ⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞ the load of 200 Kg. It is found to be elongated by
= ⎜ mm ⎟ = 25⎜ mm ⎟
30 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 1.5 mm from the original length of 1500 mm.
Calculate the strain.
Load required to compress the spring by 10 mm
Force F = 200 Kg.
= spring stiffness x deflection
Original length L1 = 1500 mm
= 25 (N/mm) x 10(mm)
 = 1.5 mm
Load required = 250 N
Strain =?
4 Helical spring is loaded with a force of 400 New-

ton and it is compressed by 18 mm. What would Compressive strain =
be the load required to compress it to 6 mm? L
Given force = 400 Newton 0.005

=
Deflection = 18 mm 2
Spring Stiffness = Force / Compressed length = 0.001

8 An iron rod of length 1 metre and 1 cm diameter 2 Compressive stress: When a material is subjected to
gets elongated by 1 cm. When a force of 100 Kg two equal and opposite axial pushes, the material tends
is applied at one end. Calculate the strain to decrease in length. The resistance offered against
developed in the rod. the decrease in length is called compressive stress.
The corresponding strain is called compressive strain.
Force F = 100 Kg.
(Fig 5)
Original length L1 = 1 m = 100 cm
 = 1 cm
Strain =?

Compressive strain =
L
1 Axial push
= Compressiv e stress 
100 Area of cross section
= 0.01 Decrease in length

Compressive stress 
Stress Original length
The internal opposite force to the external load per unit Eg.
area is known as stress. The unit of stress depends upon 1 Compressive stress on connecting rod on the first part
the force applied and area of original cross-section of of power stroke
material. It is represented by (Sigma)
2 Compressive stress on push rod during valve opening
Forced applied 3 Clutch lining when the clutch is engaged
 Stress 
Area of original cross section
3 Shear stress: When a material is subjected to two
equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across
Load (or) Force ⎛ N Kg ⎞
= ⎜ or ⎟ the resisting section, the body tends to be sheared off
Area ⎜ ⎟
⎝ mm2
cm 2 ⎠ across the cross section. The stress included is called
shear stress. It is represented by  . The corresponding
F ⎛ N Kg ⎞ strain is called shear strain. (Fig 6)
Shear stress (τ ) = ⎜ or ⎟
A ⎜ ⎟
⎝ cm2 cm2 ⎠
Types of Stress
1 Tensile stress
2 Compressive stress
3 Shear stress
4 Torsional Stress
1 Tensile stress: When a material is subjected to two
equal and opposite axial pulls, the material tends to
increase in length. The resistance offered against this
F ⎛ N Kg ⎞
increase in length is called tensile stress. The Shear stress (τ ) = ⎜ or ⎟
A ⎜ ⎟
corresponding strain is called tensile strain. (Fig 4) ⎝ cm 2
cm2 ⎠
Eg.
1 Rivets
2 Gudgeon Pin
3 Spring shackle pin
4 Brake rod rivets
E.g.: 5 Chassis rivets
1 When brake is applied the brake rod is under tensile 6 Fly wheel holding bolts
stress.
7 Swivel pins
2 During tightening of bolt or nut.
8 Gear box shaft
3 Belt driving the fan.
9 Axle shaft
4 Crane rope (When rope is pulling)

4 Torsional stress: When a shaft is subjected to the 3 A load of 600 kg is placed on a hollow cast iron
action of two equal and opposite couples acting in cylinder of 200 mm outer diameter and 100 mm
parallel planes, then the shaft is said to in torsion. The internal diameter. Find the stress on the cylinder.
stress set up by the torsion is known as torsional shear
stress. Hollow cylinder
Eg. Outer diameter (D) = 200 mm = 20 cm
1 Rear axle Outer radius (R) = 10 cm
2 Crank shaft Internal diameter (d) = 100 mm = 10 cm
3 Coil springs Inner radius (r) = 5 cm
4 Propeller shaft Weight = 600 kg
5 Starter motor armature shaft Force(F)
Stress =
Examples Area(A)
1 A steel wire 3 mm dia. is loaded in tension with a
weight of 50 kg. Find out the stress developed. Area = π (R + r) (R − r)
Diameter of the steel wire = 3 mm 22

= × (10 + 5) × (10 − 5)
Radius = 1.5 mm 7
Weight = 50 kg 22
= × 15 × 5
7
Force(F) 1650
= = 235.7cm 2
Stress = 7
Area(A)
Area of circular wire (A) =  r2 600

Stress = kg/cm2
235.7
22
= × 1.5 × 1.5
7 = 2.546 kg/cm2
49.5
= = 7.07 mm2 4 Calculate the minimum cross section area of a
7
M.S. bar to withstand a load 6720 kg. Take the
50 maximum stress of the material as 698.2 kg/cm2.
Stress =
7.07 Weight = 6720 kg
= 7.072 Kg/mm2 Maximum stress = 698.2 kg/cm2
2 A force of 500 N is applied on a metallic wire of Force(F)

5mm diameter. Find the stress. Stress =
Area(A)
Diameter of the wire = 5 mm
Radius = 2.5 mm 6720
Area(A) =
Force = 500 Newton 698.2
= 9.625 cm2
Force(F)
Stress = To calculate diameter
Area(A)
Area of circular wire (A) =  r2 πd 2

Area =
4
22
= × 2.5 × 2.5
7 7
d2 = 4 x 9.625 x
137.5 22
= = 19.64mm2
7
134.75
500 =
Stress = 11
19.64
= 25.46 N/mm2 d2 = 12.25
d = 3.5 cm

5 A load of 300 kg hanging from a rod of 3 metre Thickness of the plate = 5 mm = 0.5 cm
length and 5 mm diameter extends it by 4 mm.
Diameter of the punch = 30 mm = 3 cm
Find the stress in the material and the strain it
causes. Shear stress = 400 kg/cm2
Length of the rod = 3 m = 3000 mm Force = Shear stress x area
Increased length = 4 mm Shear area = Circumference x thickness
Diameter = 5 mm; = Dt
Radius = 2.5 mm 22
= x 3 x 0.5
Weight = 300 kg 7
Strain Change in length 33

= = = 4.71 mm2
Original length 7
4 Required force = 400 x 4.71
== = 0.00133
3000
= 1885.71 kg
Force(F)
Stress = 8 What force will be required to shear off a bar of
Area(A) 30 mm dia. if the ultimate shear stress of the
material is 35 kg/mm2.
Area of circular rod (A) = r2
Diameter of the bar = 30 mm
22
= × 2.5 × 2.5 Shear stress = 35 kg/mm2
7
137.5 Force(F)
= Stress() =
7 Area(A)
= 19.643 mm2
F
300 35 =
Stress = π × 15 × 15
19.643
F = 35 x  x 15 x 15 kg
= 15.273 kg/mm2
= 24750 kg
6 Find the force required to punch a hole of 10 mm 9 A Hole of 2 cm dia is to be punched out of a plate
dia. in a 1 mm thick plate, if the allowable shear of 1.4 cm thick. If the force applied to the punching
stress is 50 N/mm2. die is 12 KN. Calculate the shear stress.
Thickness of the plate= 1 mm
Dia. of the hole = 2cm
Dia. of the punch = 10 mm
Thickness = 1.4 cm
Shear stress = 50 Newton/mm2 Force = 12 KN
Force = Shear stress x area Shear stress =?
Shear area = Circumference x thickness Punched out area = Circumference of the hole
 Thickness
= dt
= 2 r  t unit2
22
= x 10 x 1 = 2 1  1.4
7
= 2.8 cm2
220 F
= = 31.43 mm2 Shear stress ( ) =
7 A
Force = 50 x 31.43
12KN
= 1571.5 Newton =
2.8 π cm2
7 A hole of 30 mm diameter is punched in a plate of = 1.364 KN/cm2
5 mm thickness. If the shear stress is 400 kg/cm2.
Find the force required to punch the hole.

10 A square rod of 10 mm side is tested for a tensile Elasticity and Elastic limit
load of 1016 kg. Calculate the tensile stress?
When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to
Side of square rod a = 10 mm under go some deformation. If the external force is removed
and the body comes back to its original shape and size
Tensile force F = 1016 kg (Which means the deformation disappers completely).
Tensile stress  =? The body is known as elastic body. This property by virtue
of which certains materials return back to their original
Force(F) position after the removal of the external force is called
Stress() =
Area(A) elasticity.
The body will regain its previous shape and size only when
Force the deformation caused by the external force is with in a
=
a
2 certain limit. Thus there is a limiting value of force up to and
within which the deformation completely disapperas on the
1016 removal of the force. The value of stress corresponding to
=
10x10 this limiting force is known as elastic limit of the material.
= 10.16 Kg/mm2 If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the
limit, the material loses to some extent its property of
11 A M.S. tie bar 3.5 cm dia. is under a state of stress elasticity. If now the force is removed, the material will not
which carries a load of 6720 kg. Find the intensity return to its original shape and size and there will be a
of stress in the material. residual deformation in material.
d = 3.5 cm Yield point
r = 1.75 cm The yeild point of a material is the point at which there is

a marked increase in elongation without increase in load.
F = 6720 kg
Hooke’s law
Force(F)
Stress() = Robert Hooke discovered a relationship between stress
Area(A) and strain. According to Hooke’s law stress is proportional
to strain within elastic limit.
Force Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
=
πr 2
The ratio of stress to strain within elastic limit is known as
young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity. This is ex-
6720 pressed by a symbol “E”. The unit of Young’s modulus is
=
3.14 x 1.75 x 1.75 same that of stress.
6720 Stress
=  Young' s modulus (E) 
9.616 Strain
= 698.8 Kg/cm 2
Modulus of Rigidity
12 A rivet of 10 mm dia. is subjected to a double shear The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is known as
force of 1.5 KN. Find the shear stress in the rivet. “modulus of rigidity” represented by symbol “N”.
dia. of the rivet = 10 mm Shear stress

 Modulus of Rigidity (N) 
r = 5 mm Shear strain
Shear stress = ?
Bulk Modulus
Double shear force is acting on the rivet, consider
the area as double. When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular
forces of the same intensity, the ratio of volumetric stress
F to the volumetric strain is known as Bulk Modulus. It is
Stress = usually represented by the letter K.
2Area
1.5 Volumetric stress

=  Bulk Modulus (K) 
2x3.14x5x5 Volumetric strain
= 0.00955 KN/mm2

Relationship between three moduli for a given π 2
material == × 2.5
4
The relationship between three moduli for a given material
is as follows : π × 6.25
= cm2
4
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
E = 2N⎜1+ ⎟ = 3 K ⎜1− ⎟. Force applied
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ m⎠  Stress =
Where
4500
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity π × 6.25
=
N = Modulus of rigidity 4
K = Bulk modulus
4500× 4
1 = π
= Poisson’s ratio × 6.25
m
2880
Example =
π
1 A steel rod of 10 mm diameter and 175 mm long
is subjected to a tensile load of 15 kN. If E = 2 x105 2880
 Stress = Kg/cm2
N/mm2, calculate the change in length. π
Tensile load = 15 kN = 15000 N Change in length

 Strain =
Original length
22
Area of cross section = (r2) =  5  5 mm2 = 78.57
7 0.008 8 1000
= =
20 20
15000N
 Stress = = 191 N/mm2
0.785×100mm2 8 4
= =
20×1000 10000
Stress
Young's modulus E = 4
Strain  Strain =
10000
191N/mm2 Stress
E = 2  105 N/mm2 =  Young’s modulus =
Strain
Strain
191
 Strain = 2880 4
2 ×105 = ÷
π 10000
175 ×191 2880 10000
Change in length = mm = ×
2 ×105 π 4
= 0.167 mm. 7200000
=
π
2 A bar of steel 2.5 cm diameter was subjected to
compressive load of 4500 kg. The compression in = 2292000 Kg/cm2
a length of 20 cm was found to be 0.008 cm. Find = 2.292 x 106 Kg/cm2
the Young’s modulus of elasticity of bar.
3 A force of 10 tonnes is applied axially on a rod of
Solution
12 cm dia. the original length is 100 mm.If modulus
Diameter of bar d = 2.5 cm of elasticity is 2 x 1012 kg/cm2. Calculate stress
and strain developed in the rod.
Force applied i.e. compressive load = 4500 kg
Solution
Original length of bar = 20 cm
Force applied = 10 tonnes = 10 x 1000 kg
Change in length = 0.008 cm
= 104 kg
π
 Area of original cross-section = d2 Diameter (d) = 12 mm = 1.2 cm
4
Young’s modulus (E) = 2 x 1012 kg/cm2

Force applied
Stress = Strain =
1.36
104 =
=
π 12 12 100
× ×
4 10 10 = 0.0136
104 × 4 × 10 × 10 Stress
= Youngs modulus =
π × 12× 12 Strain
1500
106 E =
= 0.0136
36 π
= 110300 kg/cm2
= 8841 kg/cm2
 Stress = 8841 kg/cm2 5 What force is required to stretch a steel wire of 10
mm long and 10 mm dia. to double its length. E
We know
of steel is 205 KN/cm2.
Stress d = 10 mm = 1 cm
= Young’s modulus
Strain r = 0.5 cm
Strain x Young’s modulus = Stress L1 = 1 cm

Stress L2 = 2 cm
Strain =
Young's Modulus  = L2 - L1 = 2 - 1 = 1 cm
8841 E = 205 KN/cm2
=
2 ×1012
1
Strain = = =1
=4420.5
1
12
10
Stress
= 4420.5 x 10-12 E =
Strain
Stress = 8841 kg/cm2
Stress
Strain = 4420.5 x 10-12 205 =
1
4 A bar of 100 cm elongates to 101.36 cm when a Stress = 1 x 205 = 205 KN/cm2
load of 15000 kg is applied to it. Take the area of
cross section of bar as 10 cm2. Find the stress,
Force(F)
strain and youngs modulus. Stress =
Area(A)
L1 = 100 cm
L2 = 101.36 cm Force
205 =
= L2 - L1 3.14 x 0.5 x 0.5
= 101.36 - 100 = 1.36 cm Force = 205 x 3.14 x 0.5 x 0.5

F = 15000 kg = 161 KN
A = 10 cm2 6 A wire of 1.6 cm diameter is subjected to a tensile
load of 2000 Kg. Find the stress and strain if
Force(F) youngs modulus = 2 x 106 kg/cm2.
Stress =
Area(A) F = 2000 kg
15000 d = 1.6 cm
=
10 r = 0.8 cm
= 1500 kg/cm2 E = 2 x 106 Kg/cm2

E = 2 x 106 kg/cm2
F
Stress = Rectangular rod length = 2 cm
A
Breadth = 1 cm
2000
= Force(F) Force
πr 2 Stress() = =
Area(A) lxb
2000
= 2000
3.14 x 0.8 x 0.8 =
2 x1
2000 = 1000 kg/cm2
=
2.0096
Stress
= 995.2 kg/cm2 E =
Strain
Stress
Youngs modulus = 1000
Strain 2 x 106 =
Strain
995.2 1000
2 x 106 = Strain =
Strain 6
2 x 10
995.2 = 0.0005
Strain =
6
2 x 10
= 0.0005 = Strain
7 A tensile load of 2000 kg is applied on a


rectangular rod of 2 cm x 1 cm whose length is 2 = 0.0005
metres. Calculate the elongation in length as E = 200
2 x 106 Kg/cm2.
  = 200 x 0.0005
F = 2000 Kg.
= 0.1 cm
L1 = 2 m = 200 cm  Elongated length = 0.1 cm
Assignment
Strain
1 Find the compressive strain if a metal bar is 150 cm 2 Calculate the intensity of stress if a mild steel rod having
long. When 2.5 KN is applied, its length becomes a cross sectional area of 40 mm2 is subjected to the
148.6 cm. load of 1000 kg.
2 Calculate the strain if a metallic bar is 150 cm long. 3 Calculate the tensile stress if a square rod of 10 mm
When 2500 kg is applied its length becomes 150.5 side is tested for a tensile load of 1000 kg.
cm.
4 Calculate the maximum stress if a bar of 9 cm2 cross
3 Find the strain it causes if a load of 300 kg hanging sectional area 300 cm long carries a tensile load of
from a rod of 3 metres length and 5 mm diameter 3500 kg.
extends it by 4 mm.
5 Find out the stress on the rod. if a load of 500 kg is
4 A tensile force of 10 kg is applied on a copper wire of placed on a M.S.rod of dia. 35 mm.
diameter 1 cm. So that the length of wire increases by
6 A metallic bar of 8 cm diameter is under stress carrying
5 mm. If the original length of wire was 2 metres, findout
a load of 8620 N. Calculate the intensity of stress.
the strain.
7 A steel wire 2 mm diameter is loaded in tension with a
Stress
weight of 20 kg. Find out the stress developed.
1 Calculate the intensity of stress in the material if a
8 A rod having a cross sectional area of 25 mm2 is
copper rod of 40 mm diameter is subjected by tensile
subjected to a load of 1500 kg. Find out stress on the
load of 4000 Newtons.
rod.

9 A square rod of 10 mm side is tested for a tensile load 4 A wire 2800 mm long is stretched by 0.5 mm, when a
of 2500 kg. Calculate the tensile stress of the rod. weight of 9 kg is hung on it, its diameter is 2 mm.
Calculate stress and youngs modulus for the substance
Youngs modulus
of the wire.
1 A piece of wire 2 m long, 0.8 mm2 in cross section
5 A force of 1000 kg is applied axially on rod of 12 mm
increases its length by 1.6 mm on suspension of 8 kg
diameter the original length is 100 mm. If modulus of
weight from it. Calculate the stress, strain and youngs
elasticity is 2 x 1012 kg/cm2. Calculate the stress and
modulus.
strain developed in the rod.
2 A wire of 16 mm dia. is subjected to a tensile load of
6 A steel wire 3.2 mm diameter and 3.65 metre long
2000 kg. Find the stress and strain if young’s modulus
stretches by 2.03 mm under the load of 115 kg.
E = 2 x 1016 kg/cm2.
Calculate the stress and youngs modulus of elasticity.
3 A wire is of 2 metres long and its area of cross section
7 A mass of 10 kg is hung from a vertical wire 300.25 cm
is 0.78 mm2. If 78 kg weight is suspended on this
long and 0.0005 sq. cm cross section. When the load
wire, then the length of the wire is increased by
is removed the wire is found to be 300 cm long. Find
1.4 mm. Find out stress, strain and youngs modulus
the modulus of elasticity for the wire material.
of elasticity.

Elasticity - Ultimate stress and working stress Exercise 2.5.11
Ultimate stress and Working stress A metal (say mild steel) is subjected to increasing load and
The minimium load at which a material develops failure is the extensions are measured with an extensometer. On
called as ultimate load or breaking load. The stress plotting a graph between the loads and elongations produced,
produced in a material at ultimate load is called as ultimate in the beginning, there is a straight-line relationship. It
stress or breaking stress. continues up to ‘a’ which is called the limit of proportionality,
i.e. up to ‘a’ in Fig 2 ‘Stress is proportional to strain’.
Ultimate load Point b denotes the elastic limit. Below this point, the body
 Ultimate stress =
Area of original cross section regains its original shape, if the load is removed. Beyond
this point the body does not recover its original shape
The load which is considered safe for the machine element
completely, even if the load is removed.
is known as safe load or working load and the
corresponding stress at this load is called as safe stress Upto a point beyond the elastic limit, a considerable
or working stress. amount of elongation takes place even with a slight
increase in load. The point C where it occurs, is called the
Safe load yield point.
 Safe stress =
At ‘d’ the maximum or the ultimate load is reached. After
Factor of safety (Fig 1) this, a waist or local contraction is formed in the specimen,
and fracture occurs as illustrated in Figure.
Example
A standard steel bar of 30 mm square cross section is
subjected to tensile stress. If the factor of safety is 4 and
ultimate stress is 370 N/mm2 determine the load to which
the bar is subjected. (Fig 3)
The ratio of ultimate stress to working stress (i.e. safe

stress) is known as factor of safety. The ratio of ultimate
load to the safe load may also be termed as factor of
safety. It has no unit. Hence it is expressed in a number.
Ultimate stress Ultimate stress

Factory of safety = = Factor of safety = 4
Working stress Working stress
or
370
Working stress = N/mm2
Ultimate load 4
Factor of safety =
Safe load Area of cross section = 900 mm2
Stress-Strain graph (a2 = 302 = 900, a = =30)
Load-extension graph (Fig 2) Load = Working tensile stress x area
370
= 900 mm2 x N/mm2
4
= 83250 N
Example
1 A rod of  60 mm is subjected to a maximum
tensile load of 1600 kg. Calculate the stress and
strength of the material. If the factory of safety is
5.
Dia. of rod = 60 mm
Tensile load F = 1600 kg
53

F 1600 Factor of safety (FS) = 4
i Stress = =
A π × 30 × 30 Ultimate stress
FS. =
= 0.5658 kg/mm2 Ans. Working stress
ii Factor of safety =5
25 kg/mm 2
4 =
Ultimate stress W.S
Factor of safety =
Working stress
25
WS = kg/mm2
Ultimate stress 4
5=
0.5685 kg/mm 2 = 6.25 kg/mm2
Ultimate stress = 5  0.5658 kg/mm2 F

Stress =
Strength of the material = 2.829 kg/mm2 A
2 Find the safe load which can be suspended from F kg

6.25 kg/mm2 =
a 4.2 mm dia. wire. If the ultimate stress is 25 kg/ π × 2.1 × 2.1mm2
mm2 and the factor of safety is 4.
F = 6.25   2.1  2.1 kg
Dia. of wire d = 4.2 mm
Safe load F = 86.6 kg
Ultimate stress U.S = 25 kg/mm2
Assignment
1 A = 60 x 15 mm2 4 F = 19000 N
Rm = 370 N/mm 2 Rm = 420 N/mm2
F = ______ N Factor of safety = 5
Rm = Ultimate d = ______ mm
stress
F = Breaking Force 5 F = 35000 N
Working shear
2 A = 25 x 6 mm2 stress = 110 N/mm2
F = 63000 N b = 10 mm
Rm = ______ N/mm2 l = ______ mm
6 Ultimate tensile
stress = 420 N/mm2
d = 10 mm
3 A = 490.87 mm 2
Shear force Max
F = 206.22 kN = ______ N
d = ______ mm
7 F = 140 kN (Tensile)
Rm = ______ N/mm2
Factor of safety = 4
Ultimate tensile
stress = 500 N/mm2
Ultimate shear
stress = 400 N/mm2
d = ______ mm

8 Ultimate tensile 13 A steel rod whose diameter is 1 cm and 60 cm in length.
strength This rod is pulled at both ends by a force of 700 kg. If
= 370 N/mm2 modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.1 106 kg/cm2, find out
Shear force increase in length of rod and strain produced in it.
= 380 kN 14 A steel rod 1.5 metres long and of 30 mm diameter is
R = 30 mm pulled at both ends by a force of 1500 kg. If modulus of
Thickness of plate elasticity of steel is 2.4 106 kg/cm2, determine increase
punched in length of rod and strain produced in it.
= ______ mm 15 A steel rod of 1.5 cm diameter and 8 metres long pulled
by a forced of 80 kg at both ends. Find out the
9 Ultimate tensile expansion and strain on the rod. The coefficient of
strength = 330 N/mm2 elasticityE=2.10106 kg/cm2.
s = 3 mm 16 Find out the load which can be suspended from a 3.2
F = 60 kN mm dia wire taking the factor of safety as 2. Ultimate
(Shear force) stress is 25 kg/mm2.
d = ______ mm 17 A rod of 60 mm dia is subjected to a maximum tensile
load of 1600kg. Calculate the stress and strength of the
material if the factor of safety is 5.
10 F = 43180 N 18 A wire of length 3.5 m and diameter 0.35 mm is
s = 2.5 mm stretched by a force of 2kg weight. If the elongation is
4 mm. Calculate the young's modulus of the material of
Ultimate tensile wire.
strength
= 220 N/mm2 19 A mass of 1kg is suspended from a metal wire 100 cm
long and 0.5 mm diameter. An increase in length of wire
d = ______ mm equal to 2 mm is observed. Calculate the young's
modulus of wire.
20 A 4 metre long copper wire of diameter 3 mm is used to
11 d = 12 mm
support a mass of 50kg. What will be the elongation of
F = 36.2 kN the wire. Young's modulus of elasticity for copper is
7x1010 N/mm2.
Ultimate tensile
strength = ____ N/mm2 21 Calculate the change in length of a rod of dia 16 mm and
160 mm long when it carries a load of 40KN. Take E =
200000 N/mm2.
12 Tensile load
= 15000 N 22 A hollow C.I. column with a wall thickness of 2 cm is
subjected to an axial compressive load of 80 tonnes. If
Ultimate tensile the maximum stress is not to be exceeded 1 tonne per
strength cm2, determine the internal diameter of column. Calculate
= 9.5 N/mm2 compressive strain, if E = 950 tonnes per cm2.
s = 20 mm
Width `b' = ______ mm

Heat treatment and advantages Exercise 2.6.12
Heat treatment and its purpose Lower critical temperature
The properties of steel depend upon its composition and The temperature, at which the change of structure to
its structure. These properties can be changed to a austenite starts - 723°C, is called the lower critical
considerable extent, by changing either its composition or temperature for all plain carbon steels.
its structure. The structure of steel can be changed by Upper critical temperature
heating it to a particular temperature, and then, allowing
it to cool at a definite rate. The process of changing the The temperature at which the structure of steel completely
structure and thus changing the properties of steel, by changes to AUSTENITE is called the upper critical
heating and cooling, is known as ‘heat treatment of steel’. temperature. This varies depending on the percentage of
carbon in the steel. (Fig 2)
Structure of steel when heated (Fig 1)
Example
If steel is heated, a change in its structure commences 0.57% and 1.15% carbon steel: In these cases the lower
from 723°C. The new structure formed is called ‘Austenite’. critical temperature is 723°C and the upper critical
Austenite is non-magnetic. If the hot steel is cooled temperature is 800°C.
slowly, the old structure is retained and it will have fine
grains which makes it easily machinable. For 0.84% carbon steel, both LCT and UCT are 723°C.
This steel is called eutectoid steel.
Three stages of heat treatment
• Heating
• Soaking
• Quenching
When the steel on being heated reaches the required
temperature, it is held in the same temperature for a period
of time. This allows the heating to take place throughout
the section uniformly. This process is called soaking.
Soaking time
This depends upon the cross-section of the steel, its
chemical composition, the volume of the charge in the
furnace and the arrangement of the charge in the furnace.
A good general guide for soaking time in normal conditions
If the hot steel is cooled rapidly the austenite changes into is five minutes per 10 mm of thickness for carbon and low
a new structure called ‘Martensite’. This structure is very alloy steels, and 10 minutes per 10 mm of thickness for
fine grained, very hard and magnetic. It is extremely wear- high alloy steels.
resistant and can cut other metals.
Heating steel
Critical temperatures (Fig 2)
This depends on the selection of the furnace, the fuel used
for heating, the time interval and the regulation in bringing
the part up to the required temperature. The heating rate
and the heating time also depend on the composition of
the steel, its structure, the shape and size of the part to
be heat-treated etc.
Preheating
Steel should be preheated at low temperatures up to
600°C as slowly as possible.
Quenching
Depending on the severity of the cooling required, different
quenching media are used.
The most widely used quenching media are:
• brine solution
• water
• oil
• air
56

Brine solution gives a faster rate of cooling while air cooling Advantages
has the slowest rate of cooling.
The following are the advantages of this type of hardening.
Brine solution (Sodium chloride) gives severe quenching • The hardening devices are brought to the workpiece.
because it has a higher boiling point than pure water, and
the salt content removes the scales formed on the metal • It is advantageous for large workpieces.
surfaces due to heating. This provides a better contact • Short hardening time.
with the quenching medium and the metal being heat- • Great depth of hardening.
treated.
• Small distortion.
Water is very commonly used for plain carbon steels.
While using water as a quenching medium, the work • Low fuel consumption.
should be agitated. This can increase the rate of cooling. Disadvantages
The quenching oil used should be of a low viscosity. The following are the disadvantages.
Ordinary lubricating oils should not be used for this • Not suitable for small workpieces because of the
purpose. Special quenching oils, which can give rapid and danger of hardening throughout.
uniform cooling with less fuming and reduced fire risks, are
commercially available. Oil is widely used for alloy steels • The workpieces must be stress-relieved before
where the cooling rate is slower than plain carbon steels. hardening.
Cold air is used for hardening some special alloy steels.

Heat treatment - Different heat treatment process – Hardening, tempering,
annealing, normalising, case hardening Exercise 2.6.13
Heat treatment processes and purpose For annealing, the hypoeutectoid steel is heated to
30°C to 50°C above the upper critical temperature, and
Because steel undergoes changes in structure on heating
it is 50°C above the lower critical temperature for
and cooling, its properties may be greatly altered by
hypereutectoid steel. (Fig 3)
suitable heat treatment.
The soaking time at this temperature is 5 mts/10 mm
The following are the various heat treatments and their of thickness for carbon steel.
purposes.
The cooling rate for carbon steel is 100°C to 150°C/hour.
Hardening: To add cutting ability.
The cooling is done in the furnace itself by switching off
To increase wear resistance. the furnace or the steel is covered either in sand or dry
Tempering: To remove extreme brittleness lime and dry ash.
caused by hardening to an extent. Purpose of annealing
To induce toughness and shock Annealing is done:
resistance. • to obtain softness
Annealing: To relieve strain and stress. • to improve machinability
To eliminate strain/hardness. • to increase ductility
To improve machinability. • to relieve internal stresses
To soften the steel. • to reduce or eliminate structural in homogeneity
Normalising: To refine the grain structure of • to refine grain size and to prepare the steel for sub-
the steel. sequent heat treatment processes.
Annealing and normalising Annealing temperature
The treatments that produce equilibrium conditions are Carbon content % Temperature °C
annealing and normalising.
<0.12 875 to 925
The treatments that produce non-equilibrium conditions
are hardening and tempering (usually done in conjunction 0.12 to 0.25 840 to 970
with each other). 0.25 to 0.50 815 to 840
Annealing 0.50 to 0.90 780 to 810
In this process, steel is heated to a suitable temperature 0.90 to 1.3 760 to 780
depending upon its carbon content (Fig 3), and is held at
that temperature for sufficient time, and then slowly Normalising
cooled to room temperature.
Due to continuous hammering or uneven cooling, strains
and stresses are formed in the internal structure of
steel. These should be removed from forgings or castings;
as otherwise, they may fail at any time while in use.
Normalising is done to produce a fine grain for uniformity
of the structure and for improved mechanical properties.
The normalising process
In this process, the steel is heated to a suitable temperature
depending upon its carbon content, (Fig 4) and held at
that temperature, and then, cooled freely in the air.
Normalising is usually done, before machining and
before hardening, to put the steel in the best condition for
these operations.
The steel is heated to a temperature (30 to 40°C above
the upper critical temperature) at which only austenite is
The heating, soaking (holding at that temperature) and present even in the case of high carbon steel. This is
slow cooling cause the grains to become large, and in because this process is the first step towards producing
the process, produce softness and ductility. the final properties, and it is necessary to start with
austenite to ensure uniformity.
58

The increase in carbon content will result in an increase
in the hardness produced by the treatment.
Steel with less than about 0.15% carbon will not respond
to this treatment.
Process of hardening
In order to produce the desired effect, sufficient carbon
must be put into the solid solution to cause internal
distortion when it is trapped in the iron by quenching.
When the carbon content is less than 0.83%, the steel is
heated to only just above its upper critical point (heating).
When its carbon content is more than 0.83% the steel is
heated only to just above its lower critical point (heating).
Fig 6 illustrates the temperatures to which steels are
The heated piece for normalising should not
heated before quenching, and the quenching temperature
be kept at any wet place, in wet air or kept
of steels with different carbon content.
in forced air as they will induce some hardness.
Hardening & tempering

If a piece of steel is heated to a sufficiently high temperature,
all the carbon will be dissolved in the solid iron to form a
solid solution, called austenite of the steel. When it is
slowly cooled, the change in the arrangement of the iron
atoms will cause a solid solution called ferrite to be
produced. The solid solution can only contain up to
0.006% carbon, and so the excess carbon will be forced
to leave the solid solution, and produce cementite. This
will, with ferrite, form a laminated structure called pearlite.
The principle of hardening
If steel is cooled rapidly (quenched) the excess carbon
will not have sufficient time to leave the solid solution
with the result that it will be trapped in the iron, and so
cause an internal distortion. This internal distortion is the
cause for the increase in the hardness of steel with Soaking time
a corresponding reduction in its strength and ductility. After heating, the steel is held at that temperature for
This is the basis of the hardening process. some time. Normally 5 mts are allowed as soaking time
The mechanical properties produced as a result of this for 10 mm thickness of steel.
treatment will depend upon: Cooling
• the carbon content of the steel Then the steel is cooled in a suitable quenching medium
• the temperature to which it is heated at a certain minimum rate called the critical cooling rate.
The critical cooling rate depends upon the composition
• the duration of heating of the steel. This cooling transforms all the austenite into
• the temperature of the steel at the start of quenching a fine, needle-like structure called martensite, (the
appearance of which is shown in Fig 7).
• the cooling rate produced by quenching.
The structure of steel treated this way is very hard and
The effect of carbon content upon the hardness produced
strong, but very brittle.
by the hardening process is illustrated in Fig 5.
The quenching medium
The quenching medium controls the rate of cooling.
For a rapid quenching a solution of salt or caustic soda
in water is used.
For very slow quenching a blast of air is sufficient.
Oil gives an intermediate quenching.
Water and oil are the most common quenching media
used.
Air quenching is suitable only for certain special alloy
steels.

This method is not, however, suitable for accurate
temperature assessment.
In a manufacturing plant, when heat treating is done on
a production basis, modern methods are used. Tempering
is done in controlled-atmosphere furnaces with the
temperatures controlled by modern instruments. Under
such conditions, it is possible to obtain accurate and
uniform results in any number of pieces.
Table 1
Tempering temperature
Temper colour Temperature in °C
Pale straw 230
Dark straw 240
Brown 250
Brownish purple 260
Tempering
Purple 270
After hardening, steel is usually reheated to a suitable Dark purple 280
temperature below the lower critical point (heating) to
improve its toughness and ductility but it is done at the Blue 300
expense of hardness and strength. It is done in order to Fig 9 illustrates the appearance of the microstructure of
make the steel more suitable for service requirements. hardened, and then tempered steel.
Purpose of tempering the steel
Steel, in its hardened condition, is generally too brittle and
too severely strained. In this condition, steel cannot be
used, and hence it has to be tempered.
The aims of tempering are:
• to relieve the steel from the internal stresses and
strains
• to regulate the hardness and toughness
• to reduce the brittleness
• to restore some ductility.
Generally, tempering in the lower temperature range for
Process of tempering
an increased time provides greater control in securing
The tempering temperature depends upon the properties the desirable mechanical properties. Such heat treatment
required, but it is between 180°C and 650°C. (Fig 8) The may not be feasible under all conditions. For precision
duration of heating depends upon the thickness of the work, where results justify the method, and for certain
material. Tools are usually tempered at a low temperature. combination of mechanical properties, tempering for long
The temperature itself is judged by the colour of the oxide periods of time in a lower temperature range provides
film produced on the surface during heating. (Table 1) a reliable method of getting the desired results.
Fig 10 illustrates how the mechanical properties of hardened
steel can be modified by tempering.
Surface Hardening of Steels
Most of the components must have a hard, wear-resisting
surface supported by a tough, shock-resisting core for
better service condition and longer life. This combination
of different properties can be obtained in a single piece of
steel by surface hardening. (Fig 11)
Types of surface hardening
• Case hardening
• Nitriding
• Flame hardening
• Induction hardening

Case hardening
Parts to be hardened by this process are made from a
steel with a carbon content of 0.15% so that they will not
respond to direct hardening.
The steel is subjected to treatment in which the carbon
content of the surface layer is increased to about 0.9%.
When the carburised steel is heated and quenched, only
the surface layer will respond, and the core will remain soft
and tough as required. (Fig 12)
The surface which must remain soft can be insulated
against carburising by coating it with suitable paste or by
plating it with copper.
Case hardening takes place in two stages. The lid is fitted to the box and sealed with fireclay and
• Carburising in which the carbon content of the surface tied with a piece of wire so that no carbon gas can escape
is increased. and no air can enter the box to cause decarburisation.
• Heat treatment in which the core is refined and the The carburising medium can be wood, bone, leather or
surface hardened. charcoal, but an energiser, such as barium carbonate, is
added to speed up the process.
Carburising
Liquid carburising
In this operation, the steel is heated to a suitable
Carburising can be done in a heated salt-bath. (Sodium
temperature in a carbonaceous atmosphere, and kept at
carbonate, sodium cyanide and barium chloride are typical
that temperature until the carbon has penetrated to the
depth required. carburising salts.) For a constant time and temperature of
carburisation, the depth of the case depends on the
The carbon can be supplied as a solid, liquid or gas. cyanide content.
In all cases, the carbonaceous gases coming from these Salt-bath carburising is very rapid, and is not always
materials penetrate (diffuse) into the surface of the workpiece suitable because it produces an abrupt change in the
at a temperature between 880° and 930°C. carbon content from the surface to the core. This produces
Pack carburising (Fig 13) a tendency for the case to flake.
This is suitable for a thin case, about 0.25 mm deep. Its
The parts are packed into a suitable metal box in which
advantage is that heating is rapid and distortion is minimised.
they are surrounded by the carburising medium.

Gas carburising If the part is not required to resist shock, it is unnecessary
The work is placed in a gas-tight container which can be to carry out the core refining operation; in these conditions,
a coarse martensite at the surface may not cause trouble,
heated in a suitable furnace, or the furnace itself may be the
and so this part may be quenched directly after carburising.
container.
The carburising gas is admitted to the container, and the Fig 15 illustrates the appearance of the structure
exit gas in vented. across its section produced by case hardening.
The gas such as methane or propane may be fed directly

into the container in which the work is placed.
In a continuous gas carburising furnace, the carburising,
quenching and tempering processes are carried out in
sequence in the same closed furnace as they progress on
a conveyer from one operation to the next.
Fig 14 illustrates the appearance of the structure across its
section produced by carburising.
Nitriding
In the nitriding process, the surface is enriched not with
carbon, but with nitrogen. There are two systems in
common use, gas nitriding and salt bath nitriding.
Gas nitriding
The gas nitriding process consists of heating the parts at
500°C in a constant circulation of ammonia gas for up to
100 hours.
Heat treatment During the gas nitriding process the parts are in an
After the carburising has been done, the case will contain externally heated gas-tight box, fitted with inlet and
about 0.9% carbon, and the core will still contain about outlet bores for the ammonia gas which supplies the
0.15% carbon. There will be a gradual transition of carbon nitrogen. At the completion of the 'soaking' the
content between the case and the core. ammonia is still circulated until the temperature of the
Owing to the prolonged heating, the core will be coarse, steel has fallen to about 150°C, when the box is opened,
and in order to produce a reasonable toughness, it must be and the cooling completed in air. Nitriding causes a
refined. film to be produced on the surface but this can be
removed by light buffing operation.
To refine the core, the carburised steel is reheated to about
870°C and held at that temperature long enough to produce Nitriding in salt-bath
a uniformity of structure, and is then cooled rapidly to Special nitriding baths are used for salt-bath nitriding.
prevent grain growth during cooling. This process is suitable for all alloyed and unalloyed
The temperature of this heating is much higher than that types of steel, annealed or not annealed, and also for cast
suitable for the case, and, therefore, an extremely brittle iron.
martensite will be produced.
Process
The case and the outer layers of the core must now
be refined. The completely stress-relieved workpieces are preheated
(about 400°C) before being put in the salt-bath (about
The refining is done by reheating the steel to about 520°C-570°C). A layer 0.01 to 0.02 mm thick is formed
760°C, to suit the case, and quenching it. on the surface which consists of a carbon and nitrogen
Tempering compound. The duration of nitriding (half an hour to
three hours) depends on the cross-section of the
Finally the case is tempered at about 300°C to relieve the workpiece . (It is much shorter than for gas nitriding.)
quenching stresses. After being taken out of the bath, the workpieces are
quenched and washed in water, and dried.

Advantages Induction hardening
The parts can be finish-machined before nitriding because This is a production method of surface hardening in which
no quenching is done after nitriding, and, therefore, the part to be surface-hardened is placed within an
they will not suffer from quenching distortion. induction coil through which a high frequency current is
passed. (Fig 18) The depth of penetration by the heating
In this process the parts are not heated above the critical
becomes less, as the frequency increases.
temperature, and, hence warping or distortion does not
occur.
The hardness and wear- resistance are exceptional. There
is a slight improvement in corrosion-resistance as well.
Since the alloy steels used are inherently strong when
properly heat treated, remarkable combinations of strength
and wear-resistance are obtained.
Flame hardening
In this type of hardening, the heat is applied to the surface
of the workpiece by specially constructed burners. The
heat is applied to the surface very rapidly, and the work
is quenched immediately by spraying it with water.
(Figs16 and 17) The hardening temperature is generally
about 50° C higher than that for full hardening.
The depth of hardening for high frequency current is 0.7 to

1.0mm. The depth of hardening for medium frequency
current is 1.5 to 2.0mm. Special steels and unalloyed
steels with a carbon content of 0.35 to 0.7% are hardened.
After induction hardening of workpieces, stress-relieving
is necessary.
Advantages
The following are the advantages of this type of hardening.
• The depth of hardening, distribution in width and the
temperature are easily controllable.
• The time required and the distortion due to hardening
are very small.
• The surface remains free from scale.
• This type of hardening can easily be incorporated in
mass production.
Heat treatment of high speed steel
High speed steels get their name from the fact that they
may be operated as cutting tools at much higher
speeds than is possible with plain carbon tool steels.
Since the maximum hardness of high speed steel is
obtained on tempering at high temperatures, it can be
operated as a cutting tool in the same temperature range
without loss of hardness. That is, the rise in temperature
due to friction will not reduce the temper of the tool point
as it cuts into the steel. Tool steels are often annealed
for softening before machining or forming, and also for
obtaining grain refinement.
Annealing
The workpiece is maintained at the hardening temperature
for a very short period only, so that the heat is not Soak at 900°C for about four hours. Then cool slowly at
conducted to more than the necessary depth into the not more than 20°C per hour to 600°C. It may then be
workpiece. cooled to room temperature in still air.
Steels used for surface hardening by the flame hardening

method will have a carbon content of 0.35% to 0.7%.

Hardening
Preheat to 850° C slowly to prevent cracking. Then heat
rapidly in a salt-bath furnace approximately to 1250°C
depending upon the alloy used. This rapid heating in a
salt-bath furnace reduces grain growth and prevents
oxidation of steel during heating. Quench in an air blast
or oil depending on the mass of the component. When a
salt bath furnace is not available, this can be minimised
in a double chamber muffle furnace (Fig 19) by using the
excess fuel to give a carburising atmosphere. However,
this reduces the combustion efficiency, and there may
be some difficulty in reaching the hardening temperature.
With high temperature salts available, modern practice
favours the use of the salt-bath furnace. (Figs 20 and 21)
Secondary hardening (Tempering )

This is sometimes called tempering. However, this term is
not strictly true. Not only does secondary hardening
increase the toughness of the steel, it also increases
the hardness whereas tempering increases the toughness
at the expense of hardness. The effect of secondary
hardening helps these steels to work effectively at higher
temperatures than plain carbon tool steels.
Heat treatment of non ferrous metals
Annealing
Like steel, non-ferrous metals can be softened by heating
and allowing to cool. However, since they cannot be
hardened by rapid cooling, the rate of cooling is
comparatively unimportant. In fact, copper components
are often quenched in water. This not only saves time
but also cleans the black oxide film from the surface of
the components because of the rapid contraction.
Hardening
Only a very few non-ferrous alloys can be hardened by
heating and quenching like steel, and most non-ferrous
metals are hardened by cold working. As anyone, who
has worked as a coppersmith will know, the metal starts
to work-harden as it is beaten to shape and it must be
annealed from time to time to prevent it from cracking.

Assignment A
1 a What is two purpose of Hardening. iv What is the heating method for normal hardening?
b What is the purpose of normalising. a Temperature controlled furnace
c Write four annealing purposes. b Electric induction coil heat
d What is the purpose of tempering. c By use of Oxy-Acetylene torche
e What is the purpose of annealing. d By Ammonia gas
f Which cooling process is suitable for annealing. v Which quenching medium for hardening of H.S
g Which cooling process is suitable for normalising. Steel?
h What type of structure in the normalising process. a Water spray
i What reason the steel is reheated (after hardening) b Still air
to a suitable temperature (180°C to 650°C). c Bath of water
j Why steel is reheated. d Air blast or oil
2 i What is the heating method for nitriding? vi Which quenching medium for hardening of carbon
a Temperature controlled furnace steel?
b Electric induction coil heat a Water spray
c By use of Oxy-Acetylene torche b Still air
d By Ammonia gas c Bath of water
d Air blast or oil
ii What is the heating method for flame hardening?
a Temperature controlled furnace vii Which quenching medium for normalising low carbon
or medium carbon steel?
b Electric induction coil heat
a Water spray
c By use of Oxy-Acetylene torche
b Still air
d By Ammonia gas1 Hardening Process
c Bath of water
iii What is the heating method for induction hardening?
d Air blast or oil
a Temperature controlled furnace
viii Which quenching medium for flame hardening?
b Electric induction coil heat
a Water spray
c By use of Oxy-Acetylene torche
b Still air
d By Ammonia gas
c Bath of water
d Air blast or oil
B MCQ
1 The process of changing the structure of a metal by 3 The quenching oil viscosity should be.
heating and cooling is A normal B medium
A Heat treatment B Machining C low D high
C Hot rolling D Melting
4 Which relieves stress and strain.
2 The three stages of heat treatment is Heating, Soaking, A Hardening B Normalising
and
C Tempering D Annealing
A Smelting B Quenching
C Hardening D Tempering

5 Which process produce equilibrium conditions. 8 What is the purpose of Nitriding process.
A Annealing and Normalising A partial B whole
B Hardening and Tempering C case D surface
C Annealing and Hardening 9 Which temperature change structure to austenite.

D Normalising and Tempering A lower B upper
C higher D larger
6 Which quenching medium is commonly used.
A Water & Lead B Water & Oil 10 Which temperature change structure of steel to
austenite
C Water & Brine solution D Lead & Brine solution
A lower B upper
7 Which process is used to reduce the brittleness.
C smaller D lesser
A Annealing B Normalising
C Tempering D Case hardening
Key Answers
A
f Room temperature
1 a i To add cutting ability
ii To increase water resistance g Air
h Grain
b To refine grain structure of the steel
i Ductility
c i To relieve strain and stress
j Tempering
ii To eliminate strain/hardness
2 i d ii c iii b iv a v d vi c vii b viii a
iii To improve machinability
iv To soften the steel B MCQ
d i To remove extreme brittleness caused by hardening 1 A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 A

ii To reduce toughness and shock resistance 6 B 7 C 8 D 9 A 10 B
e Ductility

Profit and loss - Simple problems on profit & loss Exercise 2.7.14
Definition of 'profit and loss statement (P&L) 8 Cost price: (C.P)
A profit and loss statement (P&L) is a financial statement ⎛ 100 ⎞
that summarizes the revenues, costs and expenses C.P = ⎜ x S.P ⎟
incurred during a specific period of time, usually a year. ⎝ (100 + Gain %) ⎠
These records provide information about a company's 9 Cost price: (C.P)
ability - to generate profit by increasing revenue, reducing
costs, or both. The P&L statement is also referred to as ⎛ 100 ⎞
C.P = ⎜ x S.P ⎟
"statement of profit and loss", "income statement",
⎝ (100 − Loss %) ⎠
"statement of operations", "statement of financial results"
and "income and expense statement". 10 If an article is sold at a gain of say 35%, then S.P.=135%
of C.P.
Profit and loss
11 If an article is sold at a loss of say, 35% then S.P=65%
Important facts of C.P.
Cost price Example
The price, at which an article is purchased is called its cost 1 A dealer bought a television set for Rs.10,000 and
price, abbreviated as C.P. sold it for Rs.12,000. Find the profit/loss made by
Selling price him for 1 television set. If he had sold 5 television
sets, find the total profit / loss
The price at which an article is sold, is called its selling
prices, abbreviated as S.P. Solution
Profit or gain Selling price of the television set = Rs.12,000
If S.P. is greater than C.P., the seller is said to have a profit Cost price of the television set = Rs.10,000
or gain. S.P. > C.P., there is a profit
Loss Profit = S.P. - C.P
If S.P. is less than C.P., the seller is said to have incurred = 12000-10000
a loss. Profit = Rs.2,000
Discount Profit on 1 television set = Rs.2000
The reduction given to the selling price of a product is the Profit on 5 television sets = 2000 x 5
discount.
= Rs.10,000
Important formulae
2 Sanjay bought a bicycle for Rs.5000. He sold it for
1 Profit or Gain=(S.P)-(C.P) Rs.600 less after two years. Find the selling price
2 Loss=(C.P)-(S.P) and the loss percent.
3 Loss or gain always depends on C.P. Solution
4 Profit/gain is always expressed in %. Cost price of the bicycle = Rs.5000
⎛ Gain x 100 ⎞ Loss = Rs.600

Gain% = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ C.P. ⎠ Selling price = Cost price - loss
5 Loss percentage: (Loss %) = 5000 - 600

Selling price of the bicycle = Rs.4400
⎛ Loss x 100 ⎞
Loss % = ⎜ ⎟ Loss
⎝ C.P. ⎠ Loss % = x 100
C.P.
6 Selling price: (S.P)
= 600 x 100
5000
⎛ 100 + Gain% ⎞
SP = ⎜ x C.P ⎟ Loss = 12%
⎝ 100 ⎠
3 A man bought an old bicycle for Rs.1250. he spent
7 Selling price: (S.P) Rs.250 on its repairs. He then sold it for Rs.1400.
Find his gain or loss %.
⎛ (100 − loss %) ⎞
SP = ⎜ x C.P ⎟ Solution
⎝ 100 ⎠
Cost price of the bicycle = Rs.1250
67

Repair Charges = Rs.250 Loss = Rs.5
Total cost price = 1250+250 = Rs.1500 S.P. = C.P. - Loss
Selling price = Rs.1400 = 50 - 5 = 45
C.P > S.P, there is a loss Selling price of the pen = Rs.45
Loss = Cost price - Selling price 6 Find the total amount if 12% of it is ₹ 1080
1500 - 1400 = 100 Let the total amount be 'x '
Loss = Rs.100 Given: 12% of the total amount = Rs.1080
Loss 12
Loss % = x 100 xx = 1080
C.P. 100
100 1080x100
= x 100 x =
1500 12
20 2 = ₹ 9000
= = 6 % (or) 6.67%
3 3 
The total amount = Rs.9000
Loss = 6.67% Applications of profit and loss
Profit percentage or loss percentage is always In this section, we learn to solve problems on applications
calculated on the cost price of the article. of profit and loss.
i Illustration of the formula for S.P.
4 A fruit seller bought 8 boxes of grapes at Rs.150
each. One box was damaged. He sold the Consider the following situation
remaining boxes at Rs.190 each. Find the profit/
Rajesh buys a pen for Rs.80 and sells it to his friend.
loss percent.
If he wants to make a profit of 5%, can you say the price
Solution
for which he would have sold?
Cost price of 1 box of grapes = Rs.150
(Rajesh bought the pen for Rs.80 which is the cost price
Cost price of 8 boxes of grapes = 150 x 8 (C.P.). When he sold, he makes a profit of 5% which is
= Rs.1200 calculated on the C.P.)
Number of boxes damaged =1 5

 Profit = 5% of C.P. = x 80 = Rs.4
Number of boxes sold =8-1=7 100
Selling price of 1 box of grapes = Rs.190 Since there is a profit, S.P > C.P.
Selling price of 7 boxes of grapes = 190 x 7 S.P. = C.P. + Profit
= Rs.1330 = 80 + 4 = Rs.84
S.P.>C.P, there is a profit  The price for which Rajesh would have sold = Rs.84
Profit = Selling price - Cost price The same problem can be done using the formula.
= 1330-1200
(100 + Profit %) x C.P
= 130 Selling price (S.P) =
100
Profit = Rs.130
(100 + 5)
Profit = x 80
Percentage of profit = x 100 100
C.P
105
130 = x 80 = Rs. 84
= x 100 100
1200
ii Illustration of the formula for C.P
= 10.83 Consider the following situation
Profit = 10.83% Suppose a shopkeeper sells a wrist watch for Rs. 540
5 Ram, the shopkeeper bought a pen for Rs.50 and making a profit of 5%, then what would have been the
then sold it at a loss of Rs.5. Find his selling price. cost of the watch?
Solution
Cost price of the pen = Rs.50

(The shopkeeper had sold the watch at a profit of 5% on = Rs. 514.29
the C.P. Since C.P. is not known, let us take it as Rs.
100)
The watch would have cost Rs. 514.29 for the shopkeeper.
Profit of 5% is made on the C.P. The above problem can also be solved by using the formula
method
 Profit = 5% of C.P.
⎛ 100 ⎞
=
5
x 100 = Rs. 5 C.P. = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x S.P
100 ⎝ 100 +Profit % ⎠
We know S.P. = C.P + Profit

= ⎛⎜ ⎞
100
x 540 ⎟
= 100 + 5 ⎝ 100 + 5 ⎠
= Rs. 105
100
Here, if S.P. is Rs.105, then C.P. is Rs. 100 = x 540 = Rs. 514.29
105
540 x 100
When S.P. of the watch is Rs. 540, C.P =
105
We now summarize the formulae to calculate S.P. and C.P. as follows.
1 When there is a profit 1 When there is a loss
⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞
C.P = ⎜ ⎟ x S.P. C.P = ⎜⎝ 100 − Loss% ⎟⎠ X S.P.
⎝ 100 + Profit% ⎠
2 When there is a profit 2 When there is a loss
⎛ 100 + Profit% ⎞ ⎛ 100 − Loss% ⎞

S.P = ⎜ ⎟ x C.P. S.P = ⎜ ⎟ X C.P.
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Example
= 80 x15200
1 Hameed buys a colour T.V. set for Rs. 15,200 and 100
sells it at a loss of 20%. What is the selling price
of the T.V. set? = Rs. 12,160
Solution 2 A scooty is sold for Rs. 13600 and fetches a loss of

15%. Find the cost price of the scooty.
Method - I
Method - I
Loss is 20% of the C.P.
Loss of 15% means,
20 x 15200 = Rs. 3040 If C.P. is Rs. 100, Loss = Rs. 15
100
Therefore, S.P. would be
S.P = C.P - Loss (100-15) = Rs. 85
15200 - 3040 = Rs.12160 If S.P. is Rs. 85, C.P. is Rs. 100
Method - II When S.P is Rs. 13600 then
C.P = Rs 15,200
C.P = 100 x13600 = Rs. 16000
Loss = 20% 85
100 − Loss% Method - II

S.P = xC.P.
100 Loss = 15%
S.P. = Rs. 13600
100 − 20
= x15200
100 ⎛ 100 ⎞
C.P. = ⎜ ⎟ x S.P
⎝ 100 − Loss% ⎠

100 Solution
= x 13600
100 − 15 Method - I
100 The discount is given in percentage

= x 13600
85 Hence, the M.P. is taken as Rs. 100
= Rs. 16000 Rate of discount = 5%
Hence the cost price of the scotty is Rs. 16000 5
Amount of discount = x 100
Discount 100
Discount is the reduction in value on the marked price or Selling price = M.P - Discount
list price of the article.
= 100 - 5 = Rs. 95
The market price of a product is Rs.550
If S.P. is Rs. 95, then M.P. is Rs.100
Amount paid by pooja to the shop keeper is Rs. 440
When S.P. is Rs. 5225
Discount = Rs. 550 - Rs. 440
100
= Rs. 110 M.P. = x 5225
95
= Marked price - Selling price M.P of the almirah = Rs. 5500
Hence we conclude the following Method - II
Discount = Marked price - Selling price S.P = Rs. 5225
Selling price = Marked price - Discount Discount = 5%
Marked price= Selling price + Discount M.P =?
= ⎛⎜ ⎞
Example 100
M.P ⎟ x S.P.
⎝ 100 − Discount% ⎠
1 A bicycle marked at Rs. 1500 is sold for Rs. 1350.
What is the percentage of discount? ⎛ 100 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ x 5225
Marked price = Rs. 1500 ⎝ 100 − 5 ⎠
Selling price = Rs. 1350 = Rs. 5500
Amount of discount = Marked price - Selling price 4 A shopkeeper allows a discount of 10% to his
customers and still gains 20%. Find the marked
= 1500 - 1350
price of an article which costs Rs.450 to the
= Rs. 150 shopkeeper.
Discount for Rs. 1500 = Rs. 150 Solution
150 Method - I
Discount for Rs. 100 = x 100
1500 Let M.P be Rs. 100
Percentage of discount = 10% Discount = 10% of M.P
2 The list price of a Frock is Rs.220. A discount of = 10 of M.P = 10 x 100

20% on sales is announced. What is the amount 100 100
of discount on it and its selling price? = Rs. 10
Discount S.P = M.P - Discount

Amount of discount = x M.P.
100% = 100 - 10
= Rs. 90
Amount of discount = 20 x 220 = Rs. 44
100 Gain = 20% of C.P.
Selling price of the frock = Marked price - Discount
20
220 - 44= Rs. 176 = x 450 = Rs. 90
100
3 An almirah is sold at Rs. 5225 after allowing a S.P = C.P + Gain
discount of 5%. Find its marked price. = 450 + 90 = Rs. 540

If S.P. is Rs. 90, then M.P is Rs. 100 Method - II
540 x 100 Discount = 10%

M.P. = = Rs. 600
90 Gain = 10%
The M.P. of an article = Rs. 600 M.P. = Rs. 220
Method - II 100 - Discount%

C.P. = x M.P
Discount = 10%, Gain = 20% 100 +Gain %
C.P. = Rs. 450 , M.P. = ?
100 - 10
= x 220
100 + Gain% 100 +10
M.P = x C.P
100 − Discount%
90
=
=
(100 + 20)x450 110
x 220
(100 − 10)
= Rs. 180
120 6 A trader buys an article for Rs. 1200 and marks it
= x 450
90 30% above the C.P. He then sells it after allowing
a discount of 20%. Find the S.P. and profit
= Rs. 600
percent.
5 A dealer allows a discount of 10% and still gains
Solution
10%. What is the cost price of the book which is
marked at Rs. 220? Let C.P. of the article be Rs. 100
Solution M.P. =30% above C.P. = Rs. 130
Method - I If C.P is Rs. 100, then M.P. is Rs. 130
M.P = Rs.220 When C.P. is Rs. 1200,
Discount = 10% of M.P 1200 X 130
M.P. = = Rs. 1560
10 100
= x 220
100
20
= Rs. 22 Discount = 20% of 1560 = x1560
100
S.P = M.P - Discount
20
= 220 - 22 Discount = 20% of 1560 = x1560
100
= Rs. 198
= Rs. 312
Let, C.P. be Rs. 100
S.P = M.P. - Discount
Gain = 10% of C.P.
= 1560 - 312
10 = Rs. 1248
= x 100
100
Profit = S.P - C.P
= Rs. 10
= 1248 - 1200
S.P. = C.P + Gain
= Rs. 48
= 100 + 10
Profit
= Rs. 110 Profit % = x 100
C.P.
If S.P. is Rs. 110, then C.P is Rs. 100
When S.P. is Rs. 198, = 48 x 100
1200
198 x 100
= = 4%
110
= Rs. 180

Summary
Percent means per hundred. A fraction with its denominator 100 is called a percent.
In case of profit, we have Profit = S.P - C.P. In case of loss, we have Loss = C.P - S.P.
Profit Loss
Profit % = x 100 Loss % = x 100
C.P. C.P.
⎛ 100 + Pr ofit% ⎞ ⎛ 100 − Loss% ⎞

S.P = ⎜ ⎟ x C.P. S.P = ⎜ ⎟ x C.P.
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞
C.P = ⎜ ⎟ x S.P. C.P = ⎜ ⎟ x S.P.
⎝ 100 + Pr ofit % ⎠ ⎝ 100 − Loss% ⎠
100
M.P. = x S.P
100 − Discount %
S.P. = 100 − Discount % x M.P

100
C.P.= 100 − Discount % x M.P
100 + Profit %
100 + Profit %
M.P.= x C.P
100 − Discount %
Discount
Discount percent = x 100
M.P.
Discount is the reduction given on the Marked price.
Selling price is the price payable after reducing the discount from the marked price.
Discount = M.P. - S.P.
Assignment
1 Find the cost price if the product is sold at Rs. 572 6 Find out the profit amount if the C.P. and S.P. are Rs.
with a profit of Rs. 72. 2500 and Rs. 2700 respectively.
2 Find the C.P if the product is sold at Rs.1973 with a 7 Calculate the percentage of loss if the C.P. and S.P
profit of Rs. 273 are Rs. 40 and Rs. 38 respectively.
3 Find the selling price if the cost price is Rs. 7282 with 8 A computer table bought at Rs. 1150 with Rs. 50 as a
a profit of Rs. 208 transport charge. Calculate the S.P. if the profit is of
5%
4 Find out the S.P. if the C.P. is Rs. 9684 with a loss of
Rs. 684 9 By selling a table for Rs. 1320 with a gain of 10%.
Find the C.P.
5 Find out the profit percentage if the C.P is Rs. 320 and
S.P is Rs. 384. 10 The C.P. of 16 bolts is equal to the S.P. of 12 bolts.
Find the gain percent.
Key Answers
1 Rs. 500 6 Rs. 200
2 Rs. 2246 7 5%
3 Rs. 7490 8 Rs. 1260
4 Rs. 9000 9 Rs. 1200
5 Rs. 20% 10 33 13 %

Profit and loss - Simple and compound interest Exercise 2.7.15
Interest 100I
r=
When we borrow (or lent) money we pay (or receive) some Pn
additional amount in addition to the original amount. This
additional amount that we receive is termed as Interest. It 100 I
is denoted as 'I'. Money can be borrowed/lent deposited n=
Pr
in banks to get Interest. The amount borrowed//lent is
called the principal. (P) 100I
P=
The principal added to the Interest is called the Amount(A). rn
Amount = Principal + Interest 'n' is always calculated in years. When 'n' is given in
A=P+I months or days, convert it into years.
Interest depends on principal and duration of time. But it Example :

also depends on one more factor called the rate of interest. 12 Months = 1 year
Rate of interest is the amount calculated annually for `100.
(ie) if rate of interest is 10% per annum, then interest is 6 1
6 Months = year = year
12 2
₹ 10 for ₹ 100 for 1 year.
So, 3 1
3 Months = year = year
12 4
Interest depends on
Amount deposited or borrowed/lent - Principal - P 146 2
146 days = year = year
365 5
Period of time - mostly expressed in years - n
Example
Rate of interest - r
This interest is termed as Simple interest. 1 Vimal invested ₹ 3000 for 1 year at 7% per annum.
Find the simple interest and the amount received
When the interest is paid on the principal only, it is called by him at the end of one year.
simple interest.
Solution
Calculation of interest
Principal (P) = ₹ 3,000
If 'r' is the rate of interest, Principal is 100,
Number of years (n) =1
r
The interest for 1 year = 100 x 1 x Rate of interest (r) = 7%
100
Pnr
r Interest(I) =
for 2 years = 100 x 2 x 100
100
3000 x 1 x 7
r =
for 3 years = 100 x 3 x 100
100
I = 210
r
for n years = 100 x n x Amount(A) =P+I
100
So, = 3000 + 210
Pnr Amount received by him (A) = ₹ 3,210
I=
100 2 Ramani invested ₹ 5000 for 2 years at 11% per
A=P+I annum. Find the simple interest and the amount
received by him at the end of 2 years.
Pnr
A=P+ Solution
100
⎛ nr ⎞
A = P ⎜1 + ⎟ Number of years (n) = 2 yrs
⎝ 100 ⎠
Interest = Amount - Principal Rate of interest (r) = 11%
The other formulae derived from Pnr
Interest(I) =
Pnr 100
I=
100
73

5000 x 2 x 11 ⎛ 3x8 ⎞
= = 7500⎜1 + ⎟
100 ⎝ 2 x 100 ⎠
= 1100 ⎛ 28 ⎞
= 7500⎜ ⎟
I = ₹ 1100 ⎝ 25 ⎠
= 300 x 28
Amount(A) =P+I
= 8400
= 5000 + 1100
A = ₹ 8400
Amount received by him (A) = ₹ 6,100
Interest (I) =A-P
3 Find the simple interest and the amount due
= 8400 - 7500
on ₹ 7,500 at 8% per annum for 1 year 6 months.
Interest(II) = ₹ 900, Amount = ₹ 8,400
Solution
4 Find the simple interest and the amount due
on ₹ 6,750 for 219 days at 10% per annum.
Number of years (n) = 1 yr. 6 months
Solution
6 Principal (P) = ₹ 6,750
=1 yrs
12
Number of years (n) = 219 days
1 3
=1 yrs = yrs. 219 3
2 2 = year = year
365 5
r = 8%
r = 10%
Pnr
Interest(I) = Pnr
100 I =
100
3
7500 x x8 6750 x 3 x 10
= 2 =
100 5 x 100
7500 x 3 x 8 = 405
=
2 x 100 I = ₹ 405
= 900 Amount =P+I
I = ₹ 900 = 6750 + 405
Amount =P+I Amount due on = ₹ 7,155
= 7500 + 900 Interest(II) = ₹ 405, Amount = ₹ 7,155
Amount due on = ₹ 8,400 5 Ravi borrowed ₹ 4000 on 7 th june 2006 and
Interest = ₹ 900, Amount = ₹ 8,400 returned it on 19th August 2006. Find the amount
he paid, if the interest is calculated at 5% per
Alternative method annum.
Principal (P) = ₹ 7,500 Solution
3 Principal (P) = ₹ 4,000
Number of years (n) = yrs
2
r = 5%
Rate of interest (r) = 8%
Number of days, June = 24(30 - 6)
⎛ nr ⎞
A = P ⎜1 + ⎟ July = 31
⎝ 100 ⎠
August = 18
⎛ 3 ⎞ Total number of days = 73
⎜ x8⎟
⎜
= 7500 1 +
2 ⎟ n = 73 days
⎜ 100 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 73
= year
365

1 100 x 1000
= year =
5 10000 x 5
Number of years = 2 years.
⎛ nr ⎞
Amount = P ⎜1 + ⎟ Alternative method
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ nr ⎞
⎛
= 4000⎜1 +
1x 5 ⎞
⎟ A = P ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎝ 5 x 100 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ nx5⎞
= 4000⎜1 + ⎟ 11000 = 10000⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ 101 ⎞ 11 20 + n
= 4000⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 100 ⎠ 10 20
= 4,040 11
x 20 = 20 + n
Amount = ₹ 4,040 10
6 Find the rate percent per annum when a principal 22 = 20 + n

of ₹ 7,000 earns a S.I. of ₹ 1,680 in 16 months. 22 - 20 = n
Solution Number of years = 2
Principal (P) = ₹ 7,000 8 A sum of money triples itself at 8% per annum
over a certain time. Find the number of years.
n = 16 months
Solution
16 4
= yr = yr Let principal be ₹ P
12 3
Amount = triple the principal
I = ₹ 1,680
= ₹ 3P
r =?
r = 8%
100I
r = n =?
Pn
I =A-P
100 x 1680 = 300 - 100
=
4
7000 x I = ₹ 200
3
100 I 100 x 200
100 x 1680 x 3 n = =
= Pr 100 x 8
7000 x 4
= 18 200
n = = 25
8
Rate of interest (r) = 18%
Number of years = 25
7 Vijayan invested `10,000 at the rate of 5% simple
interest per annum. He received ₹ 11,000 after 9 A certain sum of money amounts to ₹ 10,080 in 5
some years. Find the number of years. years at 8%. Find the principal.
Solution Solution
A = ₹ 10,080
A = ₹ 11,000
n = 5 years
P = ₹ 10,000
r = 8%
r = 5%
P =?
I =A-P
= 11,000 - 10,000 ⎛ nr ⎞
Amount (A) = P ⎜1 + ⎟
= 1,000 ⎝ 100 ⎠
I = ₹ 1,000 ⎛ 5x8⎞
₹ 10080 = P ⎜1 + ⎟
100 I ⎝ 100 ⎠
n =
Pr

⎛ 5x8⎞ 50000 x 1 x 4
₹ 10080 = P ⎜1 + ⎟ =
100
= ₹ 2,000
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛7⎞ Suppose he fails to pay the simple interest ₹ 2,000 at the

₹ 10080 = P⎜ ⎟ end of first year, then the interest ₹ 2,000 is added to the
⎝5⎠
old principal ₹ 50,000 and now the sum = P + I = ₹ 52,000
5 becomes the new principal for the second year for which
₹ 10080 x 7 =P the interest is calculated.
7,200 =P Now in the second year he will have to pay an interest of
Principal = ₹ 7,200 Pxnxr

Simple interest =
10 A certain sum of money amounts to ₹ 8,880 in 6 100
years and ₹ 7,920 in 4 years respectively. Find
52000 x 1 x 4
the principal and rate percent. = = `2,080
100
Solution
Therefore Rajesh will have to pay more interest for the
Amount at the end of 6 years = Principal + second year.
interest for 6 years
This way of calculating interest is called compound Interest.
= P + I6 = 8880
If the interest is paid on the principal as well as on the
Amount at the end of 4 years = Principal + accrued interest, it is called compound interest.
interest for 4 years
Generally in banks, insurance companies, post offices
= P + I4 = 7920 and in other companies which lend money and accept
I2 = 8880 - 7920 deposits, compound interest is followed to find the interest.
= 960 Example
Interest at the end of 2 years = `960 Ram deposited ₹ 8,000 with a finance company for 3
years at an interest of 15% per annum. What is the
960 compound interest that Ram gets after 3 years?
Interest at the end of 1st years =
2
Solution
= 480 Step 1 :
Interest at the end of 4 years = 480 x 4 Principal for the first year = ₹ 8,000
= 1,920
Pxnxr
P + I4 = 7920 Interest for the first year =
100
P + 1920 = 7920
80000 x 1 x 15
P = 7920 - 1920 =
100
P = 6,000 = ₹ 1,200
Principal = `6,000 Amount at the end of first year =P+I
100I = 8,000 + 1,200
r =
Pn = ₹ 9,200
100 x1920 Step 2 :

=
6000 x 4 Principal for the 2nd year = ₹ 9,200
Rate of interest (r) = 8% Pxnxr
Interest for the 2nd year =
Compound Interest 100
Rajesh borrowed ₹ 50,000 from a bank for a fixed time 9200 x 1 x 15
period of 2 years. at the rate of 4% per annum. =
100
Rajesh has to pay for the first year. = ₹ 1,380
Pxnxr
Simple interest =
100

Amount at the end of 2nd year =P+I
⎛ r ⎞
= 9,200 + 1,380 P⎜1 + ⎟ x 1x r
Interest for the 2 year
nd
= ⎝ 100 ⎠
= ₹ 10,580 100
Step 3 : (using the S.I. formula)
Principal for the 3rd year = ₹ 10,580 ⎛ r ⎞ r

= P⎜1 + ⎟x
⎝ 100 ⎠ 100
Pxnxr Amount at the end of 2nd year = P + I
Interest for the 3rd year =
100
⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞ r
10580 x 1 x 15 = P⎜1 + ⎟ + P⎜1 + ⎟x
= ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ 100
100
= ₹ 1,587 ⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞
= P⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜1 + ⎟
Amount at the end of 3rd year =P+I ⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠
= 10,580 + 1,587 2
⎛ r ⎞
= ₹ 12,167 = P⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
Hence, the compound interest that Ram gets after 3 years
is Step 3 :
A - P = 12,167 - 8,000 = ₹ 4,167 2

⎛ r ⎞
Deduction of formula for compound interest Principal for the 3 year = P⎜1 +
rd ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
The above method which we have used for the calculation
2
of compound interest is quite lengthy and cumbersome, ⎛ r ⎞
especially when the period of time very large. Hence we P⎜1 + ⎟ x 1x r
Interest for the 3 year = ⎝ 100 ⎠
rd
shall obtain a formula for the computation of amount and
100
compound interest.
(using the S.I. formula)
Example
2
If the principal is P, Rate of interest per annum is r% ⎛ r ⎞ r
= P⎜1 + ⎟ x
and the period of time or the number of years is n, ⎝ 100 ⎠ 100
then we deduce the compound interest formula as
follows: Amount at the end of 3rd year = P + I
2 2
Step 1: ⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞ r
= P⎜1 + ⎟ + P⎜1 + ⎟ x
Principal for the first year =P ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ 100
2
Pxnxr ⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
Interest for the first year =
100 = P⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
P x 1x r Pr
= = ⎛ r ⎞
3
100 100 = P⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
Amount at the end of first year =P+I
Similarly, Amount at the end of n th year is
Pr n
=P+ ⎛ r ⎞
100 A = P⎜1 + ⎟ and C.I. at the end of 'n' years is given
⎝ 100 ⎠
by
= P⎛⎜1 +
r ⎞
⎟ Compound Interest (C.I) = A – P
⎝ 100 ⎠
n
Step 2 : ⎛ r ⎞
(ie.) Compound Interest (C.I) = P⎜1 + ⎟ -P
⎝ 100 ⎠
= P⎛⎜1 +
r ⎞
Principal for the 2nd year ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠

To compute compound interest A is given by
Case 1 : Compounded Annually 5
⎛ r ⎞ ⎡ 1 ⎛ r ⎞⎤
When the interest is added to the principal at the end of A = P⎜1 + ⎟ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟⎥ and C.I = A - P
each year, we say that the interest is compounded ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎣ 4 ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦
annually. 1
for 5 years for years
Here, 4
n Example
⎛ r ⎞
A = P⎜1 + ⎟ and C.I = A - P Find the C.I. on ₹ 15,625 at 8% p.a. for 3 years
⎝ 100 ⎠
compounded annually.
Case 2 : Compounded half-yearly (semi-annually)
Solution
When the interest is compounded half-yearly, there are
We know,
two conversion periods in a year each after 6 months. In
such situations, the half-yearly rate will be half of the annual 3
rate, that is (). ⎛ r ⎞
Amount after 3 years = P⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
In this case,
3
⎛ 8 ⎞
= 15625 ⎜1 +
2n
⎛ 1 ⎛ r ⎞⎞ ⎟
A = P⎜⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟⎟ and C.I = A - P ⎝ 100 ⎠
⎝ 2 ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎟⎠
3
⎛ 2 ⎞
Case 3 : Compounded quarterly = 15625 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 25 ⎠
When the interest is compounded quarterly, there are four
conversion periods in a year and the quarterly rate will be ⎛ 27 ⎞
one-fourth of the annual rate, that is (). = 15625 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 25 ⎠
In this case, 27 27 27
=15625 x x x
4n 25 25 25
⎛ 1 ⎛ r ⎞⎞
A = P⎜⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ and C.I = A - P = ₹ 19,683
⎝ 4 ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎠
Now, compound interest= A - P
Case 4 : Compounded when time being fraction of a
year = 19,683 - 15,625
When interest is compounded annually but time = ₹ 4,058

being a fraction. To find the C.I. when the interest is compounded
In this case, when interest is compounded annually but annually or half-yearly.
1 Let us see what happens to `100 over a period of one year
time being a fraction of a year, say 5 years, then amount if an interest is compounded annually or half-yearly.
4
S. No. Annually Half yearly
1 P = ₹ 100 at 10% per annum compounded P = ₹ 100 at 10% per annum compounded
annually. half-yearly.
2 The time period taken is 1 year. The time period is 6 months or 1/2 year.
100 x 10 x 1 100 x 10 x 1
3 I= = ₹ 10 I= 2 = 10
100 ₹
100
4 A = 100 + 10 = ₹ 110 A = 100 + 5 = ₹ 105
For the next 6 months, P = ₹ 105
105 x 10 x 1
So, I = 2 = 5.25 and
₹
100
A = 105 + 5.25 = ₹ 110.25
5 A = ₹ 110 A = ₹ 110.25

Thus, if interest is compounded half-yearly, we compute
23 23 21
the interest two times and rate is taken as half of the = 20000 x x x
annual rate. 20 20 20
= ₹ 27,772.50
Example
1 Find the compound interest on ₹ 1000 at the rate C.I =A-P
of 10% per annum for 18 months when interest is = 27,772.50 - 20,000
compounded half-yearly.
Compound Interest= ₹ 7,772.50
Solution
Here, P = ₹ 1000, r = 10% per annum. Inverse problems on compound interest
18 3 ⎛ r ⎞
n
and n = 18 months = years = years = 1 12 years
12 2 We have already learnt the formula, A = P⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
2n
⎡ 1 ⎛ r ⎞⎤ Where four variable A, P, r and n are involved. Out of these
 Amount after 18 months = P ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ 2 ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦ four variables, if any three variables are known, then we
can calculate the fourth variable.
3
2x
⎡ 1 ⎛ 10 ⎞⎤ 2 Example
= 1000 ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ 2 ⎝ 100 ⎠⎦ 1 At what rate per annum will ₹ 640 amount
3 to ₹ 774.40 in 2 years, interest being compounded
⎡ 10 ⎤ annually?
= 1000 ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ 200 ⎦
Solution
3
⎛ 21 ⎞ Given : P = ₹ 640, A = ₹ 774.40, n = 2 years , r = ?
= 1000 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠ We know,
21 21 21 n
= 1000 x x x ⎛ r ⎞
20 20 20 A = P⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
= ₹ 1157.625
2
= ₹ 1157.63 ⎛ r ⎞
774.40 = 640 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
C.I = A - P
= 1157.63 - 1000 2
774.40 ⎛ r ⎞
Compound Interest = ₹ 157.63 = ⎜1 + ⎟
640 ⎝ 100 ⎠
2 Find the compound interest on ₹ 20,000 at 15% per 2
77440 ⎛ r ⎞
1 = ⎜1 + ⎟
annum for 2 years. 64000 ⎝ 100 ⎠
3
Solution 2
121 ⎛ r ⎞
= ⎜1 + ⎟
1 100 ⎝ 100 ⎠
Here, P = ₹ 20,000, r = 15% per annum. and n = 2
3 2 2
years. ⎛ 11 ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜1 + ⎟
2 ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
1 ⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎛ r ⎞⎞
Amount after 2 years A = P⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ r
11
3 ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎠ = 1+
10 100
2
⎛ 15 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎛ 15 ⎞ ⎞
= 20000 ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ r 11 - 10
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎠ =
100 10
2
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ r 1
= 20000 ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜1 + ⎟ =
⎝ 20 ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠ 100 10
2
⎛ 23 ⎞ ⎛ 21 ⎞ 100
= 20000 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ r =
10
⎝ 20 ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠
Rate r = 10% per annum

2 In how much time will a sum of ₹ 1600 amount 2
⎛ 4 ⎞
to ₹ 1852.20 at 5% per annum compound interest. = P ⎜1 + ⎟ - 1632
⎝ 100 ⎠
Solution
104 104
Given : P = `1600, A = ₹ 1852.20, r = 5% per annum, =Px x - 1632
100 100
n=?
We know, P = 1.0816P - 1632
n 1.0816P - 1632 = P
⎛ r ⎞
A = P⎜1 + ⎟ 1.0816P - P = 1632
⎝ 100 ⎠
0.0816P = 1632
n
⎛ 5 ⎞
1852.20 = 1600 ⎜1 + ⎟
P = 1632
⎝ 100 ⎠
0.0816
n
1852.20 ⎛ 105 ⎞ = 20,000
= ⎜ ⎟
1600 ⎝ 100 ⎠
Principal = ₹ 20,000
n
185220 ⎛ 21 ⎞ Difference between simple interest and compound
= ⎜ ⎟ interest
160000 ⎝ 20 ⎠
n
When P is the Principal, n = 2 years and r is the rate of
9261 ⎛ 21 ⎞ interest.
= ⎜ ⎟
8000 ⎝ 20 ⎠ 2
⎛ r ⎞
3 n Difference between C.I and S.I for 2 years = P⎜ ⎟
⎛ 21 ⎞ ⎛ 21 ⎞ ⎝ 100 ⎠
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠ Example
n = 3 years Find the difference between simple interest and
3 Find the principal that will yield a compound compund interest for a sum of ₹ 8,000 lent at 10% p.a.
interest of ₹ 1632 in 2 years at 4% rate of interest in 2 years.
per annum. Solution
Solution Here, P = ₹ 8000, n = 2 years, r = 10% p.a.
Given : C.I = ₹ 1632, n = 2 years, r = 4% p.a Difference between compound interest and simple interest
P=? ⎛ r ⎞
2
for 2 years = P⎜ ⎟
We know, ⎝ 100 ⎠
Amount - Principal = Compound interest 2
⎛ 10 ⎞
A-P = C.I = 8000 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
-P = C.I - A
2
+ P = A - C.I ⎛ 1⎞
= 8000 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠
n
= P⎛⎜1 +
P
r ⎞ - C.I
⎟ 1 1
⎝ 100 ⎠ = 8000 x x
10 10
= ₹ 80
Assignment A
1 If principal = Rs. 5000, Interest = Rs. 500. Find the 4 If principal = Rs. 8450, Interest is 750. Calculate the
amount. amount.
2 If principal = Rs. 12500, Amount= Rs. 17500. Find the 5 If principal = Rs. 12000, Amount= Rs. 15600. Find the
Interest. Interest.
3 If the amount is Rs. 25000, its interest is 6000,
calcaulate its principal.

Assignment B
Convert the following
1 6 Months = _______ year. 6 292 days into year.
2 10 Months = _______ year. 7 The month of July and August = ____ days
3 259 days into week. 8 2 year 6 months = ____ years
4 22 weeks into days. 9 15 years = ____ months
5 170 days into year. 10 144 Months = _____ years.
Assignment C
1 Ramani invested Rs. 1000 for 2 years at 10% per 9 In how many years will a sum of ₹ 5,000 amount to
annum. Find the simple interest. ₹ 5,800 at the rate of 8% per annum.
2 Find the S.I. and the amount on ₹ 5,000 at 10% per 10 A sum of money doubles itself in 10 years. Find the
annum for 5 years. rate of interest.
3 Find the S.I. and the amount on ₹ 1,200 at 12½% per 11 A sum of money doubles itself in 12½ per annum over
annum for 3 years. a certain period of time. Find the number of years.
4 Kamesh invested ₹ 10,000 in a bank that pays an 12 A certain sum of money amounts to ₹ 6,372 in 3 years
interest of 10% per annum. He withdraws the amount at 6%. Find the principal.
after 2 years and 3 months. Find the interest, he
13 A certain sum of money amounts to ₹ 6,500 in 3 years
receives.
and ₹ 5,750 in 1½ years respectively. Find the principal
5 Find the amount when ₹ 2,500 is invested for 146 days and the rate percent.
at 13% per annum.
14 Find the S.I. and the amount on ₹ 3,600 at 15% per
6 Find the S.I. and the amount on ₹ 12,000 from May annum for 3 years and 9 months.
21" 1999 to August 2nd 1999 at 9% per annum.
15 Find the principal that earns ₹ 2,080 as S.I. in 3¼ years
7 Shanthi deposited ₹ 6,000 in a bank and received 7500 at 16% p.a.
at the end of 5 years. Find the rate of interest.
8 Find the principal that earns ₹ 250 as S.I. in 2½ years
at 10% per annum.
Assignment D
1 Find the amount and compound interest in the following cases:
Sl. No. Principal in Rs. Rate % per annum Time in years

a 1000 5% 3
b 4000 10% 2
c 18000 10% 2½
2 Sankari borrowed Rs. 8,000 from Alex for 2 years at 6 Find the amount that Manimegalai would receive if she
12½% per annum. What interest did sankari pay to invests Rs. 80,000 for 18 months at 10% per annum,
Alex if the interest is compounded annually. the interest being compounded half-yearly.
3 Find the compound interest on Rs. 24000 compounded 7 Find the compound interest on Rs. 15625 for 9 months
semi annually (half yearly) for 1½ years at the rate of at 16% per annum compounded quarterly.
10% per annum.
8 Raju took a loan of Rs. 80,000 from a bank. If the rate
4 Find the amount that Divakar would receive if he invests of interest is 10% p.a. Find the difference in amounts
Rs. 8192 for 18 months at 12½% per annum, the he would be paying after 1½ years if the interest
interest being compounded half-yearly. compounded annually is Rs. 92400, compounded half
5 Anbu took a loan of Rs.80,000 from a bank for 1½ yearly is Rs. 92610
years at 10% per annum. What interest did Anbu pay
to bank if the interest is compounded annually.

9 Guna borrowed Rs. 26400 from a bank to buy a scooter 11 Find the difference between simple interest and
at the rate of 15% p.a. compounded yearly. What compound interest on ₹ 6400 for 2 years at 6¼% p.a.
amount will he pay at the end of 2 years and 4 months compounded annually.
to clear the loan.
12 Find the difference between compound interest and
10 Find the difference between simple interest and simple interest for 2 years on a sum of money lent at
compound interest on ₹ 2400 at 2 years at 5% per 5% p.a. is ₹ 5. Find the sum of money lent.
annum compounded annually.
Assignment E
I MCQ 9 A man buys an item at Rs. 1200 and sells it all the
loss of 20 percent. Then what is the selling price of
1 Reduction from original selling price is called ____
that item.
A loss B list price
A 660 B 760
C profit D markdown
C 860 D 960
2 A man buys an article for Rs. 27.50 and sells it for Rs.
10 A plot is sold for Rs. 18,700 with a loss of 15%. At
28.60. Find his gain percent
what price it should be sold to get profit of 15%.
A 1% B 2%
A Rs. 25300 B Rs. 22300
C 3% D 4%
C Rs. 24300 D Rs. 21300
3 A TV is purchased at Rs.5000 and sold at Rs. 4000,
11 A man gains 20% by selling an article for a certain
find the lost percent.
price. If he sells it at double the price, the percentage
A 10% B 20% of profit will be
C 25% D 28% A 130% B 140%
4 A person incurs a loss of 5% be selling a watch for Rs. C 150% D 160%
1140. At what price should the watch be sold to earn
12 If the cost price of 12 pens is equal to the selling price
5% profit.
of 8 pens, the gain percent is?
A Rs. 1200 B Rs. 1230
A 12% B 30%
C Rs. 1260 D Rs. 1290
C 50% D 60%
5 A book was sold for Rs. 27.50 with a profit of 10%. If it
13 Ryan buys a clock for Rs. 75 and sells it for Rs. 100.
were sold for Rs.25.75, What would have been
His gain percent is _______
percentage of profit and loss?
A 2% profit B 3% profit A 25% B 33 13 %
C 2% loss D 3% loss C 20% D 37 12 %
6 Alfred buys an old scooter for Rs. 4700 and spends 14 A bat is bought for Rs. 120 and sold for Rs. 105, the
Rs. 800 on its repairs. If he sells the scooter for loss percent is _____
Rs. 5800 his gain percent is ________
A 15 13 % B 14 15 %
A 6.19% B 6.17%
C 15% D 16 2 3 %
C 5.4545% D 3.5111%
15 A man bought apples at the rate of 8 for Rs.34 and
7 If the cost price is 25% of selling price. Then what is sold them at the rate of 12 for Rs. 57. How many
the profit percent? apples should be sold to earn a net profit of Rs. 45?
A 150% B 200% A 90 B 100
C 300% D 350% C 135 D 150
8 The cost price of 20 articles is the same as the selling 16 A tradesman sold an article at a loss of 20%. Had he
price of x articles. If the profit is 25%, find out the value sold it for Rs. 100 more , he should have gained 5%.
of x. The cost price of the article was ________
A 13 B 14 A Rs. 360 B Rs. 400
C 15 D 16 C Rs. 425 D Rs. 450

17 At what percentage above the cost price must an article 2 Rs. 1200 is lent out at 5% per annum simple interest
be marked so as to gain 33% after allowing a customer for 3 years. Find the amount after 3 years
a discount of 5%?
A Rs. 1380 B Rs. 1290
A 35% B 38%
C Rs. 1470 D Rs. 1200
C 40% D 42%
3 Interest obtained on a sum of Rs. 5000 for 3 years is
18 A shopkeeper earns a profit of 12% on selling a book Rs. 1500. Find the rate percent.
at 10% discount on the printed price. The ratio of the
A Rs. 8% B Rs. 9%
cost price and the printed price of the book is
C Rs. 10% D Rs. 11%
A 45:56 B 45:51
C 47:56 D 47:51 4 Rs. 2100 is lent at compound interest of 5% per annum
for 2 years. Find the amount after two years.
19 By selling a bicycle for Rs. 2,850 a shopkeeper gains
A Rs. 2300 B Rs. 2315.25
14%. If the profit is reduced to 8%, then the selling
price will be C Rs. 2310 D Rs. 2320
A Rs. 2600 B Rs. 2700
5 Find the difference between the simple interest and
C Rs. 2800 D Rs. 3000 the compound interest at 5% per annum for 2 years
on principal of Rs. 2000?
20 A person sold a horse at a gain of 15%. Head he
A Rs. 5 B Rs. 10.5
bought it for 25% less and sold it for Rs. 600 less, he
would have made a profit of 32%. The cost price of the C Rs. 4.5 D Rs. 5.5
horse was:
6 A bank offers 5% compound interest calculated on half
A Rs. 3750 B Rs. 3250
yearly basis. A customer deposits Rs. 1600 each on
C Rs. 2750 D Rs. 2250 1st January and 1st july of a year. At the end of the year,
the amount he would have gained by way of interest is:
21 If a man were to sell his chair for Rs. 720, he would
A Rs. 120 B Rs. 121
lose 25%. To gain 25% he should sell it for:
C Rs. 122 D Rs. 123
A Rs. 1200 B Rs. 1000
C Rs. 960 D Rs. 900 7 There is 60% increase in an amount in 6 years at simple
interest. What will be the compound interest of
22 If harsh sold a match ticket for Rs. 340 at a profit of Rs. 12,000 after 3 years at the same rate?
25%, at what price did he purchase the ticket?
A Rs. 2160 B Rs. 3120
A 280 B 255
C Rs. 3972 D Rs. 6240
C 300 D 272
8 What is the difference between the compound interest
23 Eleven bags are bought for Rs. 1000 and sold at 10 for on Rs. 5000 for 1 12 years at 4% per annum
Rs. 1100. What is the gain or loss in percentage? compounded yearly and half-yearly?
A 10% B 21% A Rs. 2.04 B Rs. 3.06
C 25% D 20% C Rs. 4.80 D Rs. 8.30
24 A man buys an article for Rs. 27.50 and sells it for rs. 9 The compound interest on Rs. 30,000 at 7% per annum
28.60. Find its gain percent? is Rs. 4347. Their period (in years) is
A 1% B 2%
A Rs.2 B Rs.2 12
C 3% D 4%
C Rs.3 D Rs.4
II MCQ
10 What will be the compound interest on a sum of Rs.
1 Find the simple interest on Rs. 5200 for 2 years at 6% 25000 after 3 years at the rate of 12 p.c.p.a?
per annum.
A Rs. 9000.30 B Rs. 9720
A Rs. 450 B Rs. 524
C Rs. 10123.20 D Rs. 10483.20
C Rs. 600 D Rs. 624

11 At what rate of compound interest per annum will a 12 Albert invested an amount of Rs. 8000 in a fixed deposit
sum of Rs. 1200 become Rs. 1348.32 in 2 years? scheme for 2 years at compound interest rate 5 P.C.P.A.
How much amount will Albert get on maturity of the
A 6% B 6.5%
fixed deposit?
C 7% D 7.5%
A Rs. 8600 B Rs. 8620
C Rs. 8820 D Rs. 8940
Key Answers
A 3 Rs. 3783/- 8 Rs. 210/-
1 Rs. 5500/- 4 Rs. 9826/- 9 Rs. 36659.7/-
2 Rs. 5000/- 5 Rs. 92400/- 10 Rs. 6/-
3 Rs. 19000/- 6 Rs. 92610/- 11 Rs. 25/-
4 Rs. 9200/- 7 Rs. 1951/- 12. Rs. 2000/-
5 Rs. 3600/-
E MCQ
B I II
1 1 6 292 1 A 1 D
2 365
2 D 2 A
2 5
6
7 62
3 B 3 C
3 37 8 2 12
4 C 4 B
4 154 9 180 5 B 5 A
5 34
73
10 12 6 C 6 B
7 C 7 C
C
8 D 8 A
1 Rs. 200/- 9 2 years
9 D 9 A
2 Rs. 2500/-, Rs. 7500/- 10 10%
10 A 10 C
3 Rs. 450/-, Rs. 1650/- 11 8 years
11 B 11 A
4 Rs. 2250/- 12 Rs. 5400/-
12 C 12 B
5 Rs. 2630/- 13 Rs. 5000/- ,10%
13 B
6 Rs. 216/-, Rs. 12216/- 14 Rs. 2025/-,
14 A
Rs. 5625/-
15 A
7 5% 15 Rs. 4000/-
16 B
8 Rs. 1000/-
17 C
D 18 A
1 a Rs. 1157.63, Rs. 157.63 19 B
b Rs. 4840/-, Rs. 840/- 20 A
c Rs. 22869/-, Rs. 4869/- 21 A
2 Rs. 2125/- 22 D
23 B
24 D

Estimation and costing - Simple estimation of the requirement of material etc.,
as applicable to the trade Exercise 2.8.16
Estimation is the method of calculating the various Reference table
quantities and the expenditure to be incurred on a particular
job or process. A refereance table may mean a set of references that are
author may have cited (or) gained inspiration from whilst
In case the funds available are less than the estimated writing an article, similar to a bibliography.
cost the work is done in part or by reducing it or
specifications are altered, It can also mean an information table that is used as a
quick and easy reference for things that are difficult to
The following essential details are required for preparing remember such as comparing imperial with metric
an estimate. measurements. This kind of data is known as reference
Drawings like plan, elevation and sections of important data.
parts. Estimation of Bush
Detailed specifications about workmanship & properties
of materials, etc. Fig 1
Standard schedule of rates of the current year.

Estimating is the process of preparing an approximation
of quantities which is a value used as input data and it is
derived from the best information available.
An estimate that turns out to be incorrect will be an
overestimate if the estimate exceeded the actual result,
and an underestimate if the estimate fell short of the actual Raw Material Cost
result.
Size of Raw material =  90 x 80 mm
A cost estimate contains approximate cost of a product
90 mm = 9 cm
process or operation. The cost estimate has a single total
80 mm = 8 cm
value and it is inclusive of identifiable component
values. Volume of Raw material =  r2 h cm3
Hand box and reference table
22
A hand book is a type of reference work, or other collection = x 4.52 x 8 cm3
7
of instruction. That is intended to provide ready reference.
The term originally applied to a small portable book = 509.14 cm3
containing information useful for its owner, but the oxford Density of material = 7.8 gm/cm3
english disctionary defines as “any book .... givng
information such as facts on a particular subject, guidence Welght of Raw material = Volume of raw material x
in some art or occupation, instruction for operating a density of raw material
machine etc. A handbook is sometimes referred to as a = 509.14 x 7.8 gm/cm3
pocket reference.
= 3971.3 gms say 3.971 kg
Hand book may deal with any topic, and arc generally
having compact information in a particular field (or) Raw material cost = Rs. 140/kg
technique. They are designed to be easily consulted and Total raw material cost = 3.971 x 140
provides quick answer in a certain area.
= Rs. 555.94 say Rs.556
Example of engineering hand book include parry’s
cheorikal engineers hand book, mark standard hand book
for machine engineer and the CRC hand book of chemistry
and physics.
85

ESTIMATION SHEET
Operation Operation Lathe Estimated Rate Rs.100

No. description time per hr.
01 Setting and aligning job on lathe - 10 min 16.66
02 Set speed and feed - 2 min 3.32
03 Align cutting tool in position - 2 min 3.32
04 Turn the job - 50 min 83.00
05 Chamfer 45º angle corner - 8 min 13.28
06 Reverse the job on Lathe - 10 min 16.66
07 Turn the job - 20 min 33.34
08 Chamfer 45º on other side - 20 min 33.34
09 Centre drilling - 10 min 16.66
10 Mount drill chuck and drill Drilling 3 min 4.98

using tail stock
11 Set drill rpm Drilling 2 min 3.32
12 Drill holes Drilling 20 min 33.34
13 Set the boring tool Drilling 15 min 24.90
14 Bore to the required diameter 8 min 13.28
15 Check the bore dia 10 min 16.66
16 Deburr the job and clean the - 10 min 16.66

machine
18 Total estimation 200 min Rs. 332.72

Rounded off
Rs. 333
100
Machining cost =  200 = Rs. 333.33 say Rs. 333
60
Total Cost = Total raw material cost + Machining cost
= 556 + 333
Total Estimation Cost = Rs. 889/-

1 Estimating
Estimating means to determine the quantities of various
items required to execute a job and to asses the cost of
the execution. The estimator keeping in view the
requirements arrived at during initial planning, chalk out a
list of items and quantities. The cost is determined by him
by consulting the price catalogue and schedule of labour
rates. The various steps to form an estimate are:
i Chalk out a list of items and quantities required.
ii Consult the rate catalogues for pricing the various
items.
iii Assess the exact number of worker required to complete
the job and after consulting the schedule of labour rates
add the labour cost to the estimate under preparation.
It should be noted that number of workmen required is
dependent upon the time limit fixed to complete the
services.
iv Add supervision charges and executor's profit.
v In case of Govt. organization, where the work is to be
executed by the contractor, the tenders are floated
only after correctly specifying the description of each
item, to avoid any misunderstanding while execution.
For preparing an estimate the following are necessary.
2 Drawing : The necessary drawings of the building with
dimension are required for execution of the work and
also for estimation. (Fig 1) For the electrical installation Determination of Conductor size
the layout of the wiring should be shown on a separate
drawing along with the position of the points etc. Before making an estimate it is necessary to find out the
size of wire, cable or aluminium conductor. The following
3 Specifications of materials : Specification gives the essential points are to be considered while calculating the
details of materials, brand name, grade of quality, size:
rating of current and voltage, quality certification like
BIS or ISO etc. Specification helps both the wireman a Current carrying capacity
and the consumer to select the material according to b Voltage drop
commercial practice, cost and the requirement.
c Minimum permissible size
Price Catalogue
There have been discussed separately in the following
It is in the form of a booklet in which rates of various terms articles.
are indicated. The price catalogue is required to be
amended as and when there is variation in the market. Current carrying capacity
Schedule of labour rates In any circuit the value of the current will be more as
compared to sub - circuits. In sub circuits as the load
It is also in the form of booklet indicating the labour rates. decreases, the current is also reduced. Thus it is very
Schedule of rates and estimating data necessary to divide the services into groups in accordance
with the amount of current which will flow through them.
Almost all the Govt. departments have published schedule Afterwards, size of wire in each group is determined.
of rates or estimating data to facilitate the process of
estimating. In these schedules or data, the estimated cost Voltage drop
including labour charges for per meter run of wiring, As in known to the readers that the voltage drop is there
overhead lines etc. With various sizes of wire, aluminium as when the current flows through the wiring and the same
conductor, pole etc. are given. With the help of such a should be as low as permissible and economical. The
document, only overhead charges viz. supervision, voltage drop can be determined by Ohm's law. As the
departmental charges, etc. are required to be added after resistance is inversely proportional to area, so the voltage
working one cost of the any services. drop will be less if the area of wire is more.

Minimum permission size It should be noted that the maximum voltage drop should
not be more than as given below.
Due to mechanical reason the minimum permissible size
of wire, U/G cables and conductors should be as follows: a Lighting circuit. In any circuit
a Wire : The area of aluminium wire should not be less i at 200 volt supply, voltage drop should not be more
than 1.5 sq.mm and its single strand should not be less than 5 V.
than 1.40 mm diameter.
ii at 210 volts, supply voltage drop should not be more
b U/G Cable : The area of conductor for two core cable than 5.1 volts;
should not be less than 6 sq.mm and for 25 sq.mm. The
iii at 220 volts supply, voltage drop should not be more
area of conductor for three and half cores cable should
than 5.4 volts.
be 50 sq.mm or more.
iv at 30 volts supply, voltage drop should not be more
A.C.S.R. The size of A.C.S.R should not be less than
than 5.6 volts
6 6
inch or mm having total area of cross section v at 250 volts supply, voltage drop should not be more
0.83 1 21.08
than 6.0 volts.
as 20-71 sq.mm.
From, the above it will be seen that the permissible voltage
Conductor size calculation for internal domestic
drop in a lighting circuit is 2% of the supply voltage plus
wiring
one volt.
The important point to be considered is the current
b Industrial loads : The maximum voltage drop at the
carrying capacity, the voltage drop is usually of very small
extreme and equipment or motor should not be more
magnitude and will not have much effect for small domestic
than 5% of the declared supply voltage.
wiring. For multi - storeyed building, factories and industries,
the voltage drop is required to be ascertained. If the voltage In tables 1 various size of wires, current rating and voltage
drop is much the house - hold appliance and motors will drop if loaded fully are given. Considering the load in
not work. amperes and voltage drop, suitable size of wire with
required insulation is selected.
Table 1
Current ratings and voltage drop for vulcanised rubber PVC or polythene insulated or tough rubber PVC
lead sheathed singles core aluminium wires or tables
Size of 2 Cables 1c. or 3 or 4 cables of 4 Cables d.c

Conductor Single -phase a.c balanced 3 - phase
Normal Number Current Approx. Current Approx. Current Approx.

area and rating in length of rating in length of rating in length of
sq.mm diameter amperes run for 1 amperes run for 1 amperes run for 1
of wire in volt - drop volt - drop volt - drop
mm in meters in meters in meters
1.5 1/1.40 10 2.3 9 2.9 9 2.5
2.5 1/1.80 15 2.5 12 3.6 11 3.4
4.0 1/2.24 20 2.9 17 3.9 15 4.1
6.0 1/2.80 27 3.4 24 4.3 21 4.3
10.0 1/3.55 34 4.3 31 5.4 27 5.4
16.0 7/1.70 43 5.4 38 7.0 35 6.8
25.0 7/2.24 59 6.8 54 8.5 48 8.5
35.0 7/2.50 69 7.2 62 9.3 55 9.0
50.0 7/.3.0 91 7.9 82 10.1 69 10.0
19/1.80

After deciding the type of wiring system the electrician has 10 Calculate the cost of accessories, base materials like
to prepare the following details as per the consumer’s batten/conduit/PVC casing and capping, cables,
interest, durability of wiring accessories, cost and available hardware and labour charges.
work force.
11 Calculate the total cost of wiring including 5%
1 Position of electrical points in each area of the house contingencies for the unforeseen items and variation in
based on consumer’s requirement. (Fig 2) prices.
2 Prepare a layout of wiring on the building plan. (Fig 3) In the above list, items 1 to 5,8 and 11 were
3 Calculate total connected load and type of load to dealt in various stages of skill development.
decide whether three phase or single phase supply is Let us consider item No.6 i.e. calculation of
required. length of different sizes of cables in the wiring.
4 Prepare a circuit diagram showing the connections and Before selection of sizes of cable and their
number of lighting and power circuits. Fig 4 shows the length we have to calculate the total load of
cubical wiring diagram model. the house and also to decide whether three
phase or single phase supply to be requisitioned
5 Prepare a list of electrical accessories to be procured. from local electricity board.
6 Calculate the length of different sizes of cables required
Total connected load : As this exercise is a part of
based on the load, voltage drop and number of cables
cognitive skill development in 1st Year. Let us assume the
in each circuit run.
total connected load to be 2400 watts.
7 Calculate the length of different sizes of batten/PVC
Assuming the total connected load is 2400w.
casing and capping/PVC/metal conduit required based
on the load, voltage drop and number of cables in each then current will be 2400w/240V = 10amp
circuit run.
(Assumption PF is unity and single phase supply)
8 Prepare a list of hardwares like screw, nails, etc.
Hence copper cable 3/0.036 could be selected for main
required to execute the job.
board connection which can safety carry 10 amp.
9 Calculate the labour charges for entire wiring.

a one tube light point
b one light point circuit - 1
c two fan points
d one 6 amps three-pin socket
Room No.2 should be provided with
a one tube light point
b one light point circuit - 2
c one fan point
d two 6 amp three-pin socket
Total connected load of Room No.1 & 2 will be
Circuit 1
Sl. Description Quantity Wattage Total
No. rating wattage
1 Tube light 1 50 50
(1200mm)
2 Light point 2 60 120
3 Fan points 2 60 120
4 6A 3 pin socket 1 100 100
390 watts
Circuit 2
Sl. Description Quantity Wattage Total
No. rating wattage
1 Tube light 1 50 50
(1200mm)
2 Light point 1 60 60
3 Fan point 1 60 60
4 6A 3 pin socket 2 100 200
370 watts
Total wattage = 390 + 370 = 760 watt of circuit 1 & 2

As this is well within 800 watt rating of a branch circuit we
can wire up the hall and sitout in one branch circuit.
Remember that each branch circuit termination should
have one phase cable and one neutral cable brought to the
DB.
Draw the position of switches, sockets, lamps and fans in
Length of cables : Main cable say from meter board to the the house plan (position of accessories shown in Fig 2)
DB
Then draw the layout diagram for the hall and sitout
2 x 1.5 = 3 m of size 3/0.36 copper cable keeping in view of the position of accessories. (Refer
(1.5m is taken as a rough value) layout diagram Fig 3)
At this stage we have to analyse the house plan as well as After drawing the layout diagram, draw the circuit diagram
the consumer’s requirement of electrical points. Only for the hall and sitout.
Room No.1 & 2 are taken in the following example. At this stage you may have to modify the layout diagram
According to the consumer the requirements are: in most of the cases considering economical use of cables
and the conduit and also considering aesthetic sense of
Room No.1 should be provided with
wiring layout.

After finalising the layout and the circuit diagram, analyse Say 90m of cable required
the cable runs, indicate in the layout diagram the number
As thumb rule length of cable = length of conduit x 3 = 25m
of cables to be drawn in each section of the conduit.
x 3 = 75m. This length is more or less the same as the
In this case understudy, the total load is of lighting, fan and one calculated.
3A pin sockets amounting to 760 watt which is less than
Required length of copper wire 14 SWG (For earthing)
5 amp as such cable selected is 1 sq.mm (1/1.12) or (1/
18) copper cable or say aluminium cable of 1.5 sq.mm Router K, H, F, E, D and A
(1/1.4). 0.8 + 0.9 + 1.8 + 0.9 + 0.8 + 1 + 0.8 + 0.9 + 1.5 + 1.5 +
Horizontal run 1.5 + 0.8 + 0.9 + 1 = 15.1 m
J -150cm 1.5m Say 20m or 600 grams
Total of 2 to 5 25m say 25m Now prepare a complete list of accessories required,
length of conduit required, length of the cable required and
1/1.2 copper cable required for
the required copper wire 14 SWG. Calculate the cost of
Conduit Run J = (2.5 + 0.9 + 0.8)2 = 8.4m the above materials. Say in this case Rs.2500/-.
-do- A = (1.5 + 0.9 + 0.8)7 = 22.4m Method of calculating labour charges
-do- B = 1.1 x 2 = 2.2m Work can be completed in two days by one electrician and
one helper.
-do- C = 1.05 x 4 + 1.85 x 2 = 7.9m
Electrician @ Rs.150/- 2 days = Rs.300
-do- D = (1.5 + 0.8 + 0.9)3 = 9.6m
Helper @ Rs.90/- 2 days = Rs.180
-do- F = (1.8 + 0.9 + 0.8)5 = 17.5m
Rs.480
-do- G = 2.2 x 2 = 4.4m
On the other hand if the consumer wishes to give wiring on
-do- H = (2.2 + 0.8)2 = 6.0m
contract, based on number of points, the calculation of
-do- K = (0.9 + 0.2)2 = 2.2m contract cost according to points.
80.6m

Estimation and Costing - Problems on estimation and costing
Exercise 2.8.17
1 What is the total estimation cost of M.S rod dia Area of square job = 60 x 60 mm = 6 x 6 = 36 cm2
50mm and length 500 mm, if cost of material
Area of cut sizes = 1.5 x 1.5 = 2.25 cm2
Rs.80/kg and the density of the M.S rod is
7.8gm/cm3. Lathe time taken to complete the = 1.5 x 3 = 4.5 cm2
component is 1hr 30minutes and lathe charge is
= 1.5 x 4.5 = 6.75 cm2
Rs. 80/hr.
Total area of cut size = 2.25 + 4.5 + 6.75 = 13.5 cm2
Volume = Area x Thickness
Volume of cut size = 13.5 x 4 = 54 cm3
Volume of square job = 36 x 4 = 144 cm3
Volume of job = Total volume - cut out volume
M.S rod dia(d) = 50 mm or 5 cm
= 144 - 54 = 90 cm3
r = 2.5 cm, l = 500 mm = 50 cm
Weight of job = 90 cm3 x 7.8 gm/cm3
Volume of M.S rod = r x l unit
2 3
= 702 gms = 0.702 kg
22 Material cost = 0.702 x 60 = Rs.42.12
= x 2.5 x 2.5 x 50
7
Machining cost = Rs.200/hr
= 981.875 cm3
Machining cost for 2hrs = 2 x Rs.200/hr = Rs.400
Weight of M.S rod = Volume x density of M.S rod
Total cost for job = Material cost + Machining
Weight = 981.875 x 7.8 cost
Weight of M.S rod = 7.659 kg = Rs. 42.12 + Rs.400
Cost of material = Rs.80/kg = Rs.442.12
cost of M.S. rod = 7.659 x 80 Total cost for job = Rs.442.12
= Rs.612.72
3 What is the estimation of milling cost of a
Weight of M.S rod = 7.659 kg rectangular block size 100 x 80 x 60 mm, if cost of
the milling is Rs.2/sq.cm.
Cost of material M.S.rod = Rs.612.72
80
Machining cost in lathe =  90 = Rs. 120
60
(1hr 30min = 90 mins)
Total Estimation of cost = Rs 120 + 612.72
= Rs 732.72 say Rs. 733
2 What is the total estimation cost of job as shown

in figure the density of the material is 7.8 gm/cm3
time taken in milling machine to complete the job
is 2 hours, charge for the milling machine is
Rs.200/hr and material cost is Rs.60/kg. Rectangular block size = 100 x 80 x 60 mm
= 10 x 8 x 6 cm
Surface area of 6 x 8 x 2 = 96 cm2
Total surface area of
rectangular block = 96 + 120 + 160
= 376 cm2
Milling cost = Rs.10/cm2
92

Milling cost of rectangular 5 What is the estimation cost of the job shown in
block = 376 cm2 x Rs.2/cm2 figure if the cost of material is Rs.140/kg and the
= Rs.752 density of the material is 7.8 gm/cm3. Machining
time taken for milling machine 3hr 25 mins and
Milling cost of rectangular block = Rs.752. machinig charge is Rs 180/hr.
4 What is the total estimation cost of component if
the filing & scraping cost is Rs.20/cm2 in the block
as shown in figure, the density of the material is
7.8 gm/cm 3 and the cost of the material is
Rs.130/kg.
Volume of blank = 78 x 48x 10 mm

= 7.8 x 4.8 x 1 cm
= 37.44 cm3
Volume of cut-out pieces = 2 no.of triangular pieces +
1 rectangular pieces
1
Volume of triangular pieces = x b x h x thickness
M.S block size = 90 x 48 x 18 mm 2
= 9 x 4.8 x 1.8 cm 1
= x 1.4 x 1.4 x 1
2
Volume of block = 9 x 4.8 x 1.8 cm3
= 0.98 x 2 pieces
= 77.76 cm3
= 1.96 cm3
r 2
Volume of half circle = x 1.8 cm3 = 2.83 cm3
2 Volume of rectangular piece= 2.8 x 2 x 1
2r = 5.6 cm3
Area of filing & scraping = x 1.8
2 Volume of job as per fig = volume of blank size of
2  3.142  20
job - (volume of 2 triangular
= x 1.8 = 113.112 cm3 pieces + volume of 1
2
rectangular piece)
Cost of filing & scraping = 113.112 x Rs.20 = Rs.226.22
= 37.44 - (1.96 + 5.6) cm3
Volume of the block = Volume of whole size - Volume
= 37.44 - 7.56 cm3
of cur piece
Volume of block = 77.76 - 2.83 = 74.93 cm3 = 29.88 cm3
Weight of block = Volume x density 180

Machining charge =  205
= 74.93 x 7.8 = 584.45 gms 60
= 0.58445 kg = Rs.615
Material cost = 0.58445 kg x Rs.130/kg Cost of material = Rs.140 /kg
= Rs.75.98 Weight of material = 29.88 x 7.8 gm/cm3
Total cost = Material cost + Filling & scraping cost = 233.064 gms
Total cost = 75.98 + 226.22 = 0.233 kg
= Rs.302.20 Material cost of job = 0.233 kg x Rs.140
Material cost of M.S plate as per fig = Rs.75.98 = Rs.32.62
Filing & scraping cost = Rs.226.22 Estimation cost of job = Rs.32.62 + 615
Total cost of material = Rs.302.20 = Rs.647.62

6 What is the estimation of labour charge for making Volume of smaller dia of mandrel = r2 x l
inside square of size 30 x 30 mm, if making charge
= 3.142 x 1 x 1 x 1.8 x 2 pieces
Rs.500/10cm2.
= 11.311 cm3
Total volume of mandrel = 84.834 + 11.311 cm3
= 96.145 cm3
Density of mandrel = 7.8 gm/cm3
Weight of mandrel = 96.145 x 7.8 gm/cm3
= 749.931 gms = 0.750 kg
Weight of mandrel = 0.75 kg
Estimation of mandrel cost = 0.75 x 240 = Rs. 180
9 What is the material cost of component as shown

Size of square hole = 30 x 30 mm in figure, if density of material is 7.8 gm/cm3.
= 3 x 3 cm = 9 cm2 Material cost Rs. 180/kg.
Making charge = Rs.500 per 10 cm2

Labour charge for making
500
square of 9 cm2 =  9 = Rs.450
10
Labour charge for making square hole = Rs.450
7 What is the total estimation cost for making the

component of 8 drilled hole dia 10mm and 4Nos
of M6 taps in the plate, if Rs.8 per drilled holes and
Rs.12 per drill & tap.
No.of drilled holes = 8 Nos
No.of tapped hloes = 4 Nos
Charge for making drilled hole = Rs.8 per hole
Charge for making tapped hole = Rs.12 per tapped hole Size of blank = 80 x 80 x 10 mm
Cost for making 8 drilled holes = 8 x Rs.8 = Rs.64 = 8 x 8 x 1 cm = 64 cm3
Cost for making 4 tapped holes = 4 x Rs.12 = Rs.48 1

Area of triangle cut = xbxh
2
Total estimation cost for making
8 drilled holes and 4 tapped = 64 + 48 1
holes = Rs.112 = x 4 x 4 cm2 = 8 cm2
2
8 What is the total estimation cost for mandrel, as For 2 triangle pieces = 2 x 8 cm2 = 16 cm2
shown in figure, if density is 7.8 gm/cm3 and
material cost is Rs. 240/kg. Volume = area x thickness
= 16 x 1 = 16 cm3
Volume of material = volume of blank size –
volume of 2 triangle cut-out
pieces
= 64 – 16 = 48 cm3
Density of material = 7.8 gm/cm3
Size of larger dia of mandrel = dia 30 mm
Weight of component = volume x density
radius = 1.5 cm
= 48 x 7.8
Size of smaller dia of mandrel = dia 20 mm
= 374.4 gms
radius = 1 cm
Volume of larger dia of mandrel = r2 x l Weight of the component = 0.374 kg
= 3.142 x 1.5 x 1.5 x 12 cm Cost of material = 0.374 x 180

= 84.834 cm3 = Rs. 67.32

Assignment
1 What is the material cost if cost is Rs.120/kg and

density of the material is 7.8gm/cm3.
4 What is the material cost and machining cost for

complete the job. Material density is 7.8 gm/cm3 and
material cost is Rs.90/kg. Labour time taken for complete
1
the job 6 hours he charged is Rs.300 per day of 8hrs.
2 What is the total manufacturing cost of bush for turning 2
1 hour 20 minutes and drilling the bush 25 minutes if
lathe charged for Rs.60/hr.
5 What is the estimation of labour charge for making 10

numbers centre gauge if each time taken for complete
1
2 hours, and labour charge is Rs.800 per 6 hrs.
2
3 Find the estimation of manufacturing cost of the
component, if density is 7.8 gm/cm3, and machining
cost Rs 380/hr and machining time 4hr 15mins.

Workshop Calculation & Science (As Per NSQF) : 2 Year

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WORKSHOP CALCULATION

(As Per NSQF)

Common for All Engineering Trades under CTS

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

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Copyright © 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

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New Delhi - 110 001

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MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. M. Sangara pandian - Training Officer (Retd.)

Shri. G. Sathiamoorthy - Jr.Training Officer (Retd.)

Shri. Nirmalya nath - Deputy General Manager,

Shri. G. Michael Johny - Assistant Manager,

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S.No Title Exercise No. Time allotment (Hrs)

1 Friction 2.1.01 - 2.1.03 14

2 Centre of Gravity 2.2.04 6

3 Area of cut out regular surfaces

4 Algebra 2.4.08 & 2.4.09 12

5 Elasticity 2.5.10 & 2.5.11 9

6 Heat Treatment 2.6.12 & 2.6.13 3

7 Profit and Loss 2.7.14 & 2.7.15 12

8 Estimation and Costing 2.8.16 & 2.8.17 12

LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

On completion of this book you shall be able to

• Demonstrate basic mathematical concept and principles to perform

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Exercise No. Title of the Exercise Page No.

2.1.01 Friction - Advantages and disadvantages, Laws of friction, co-efficient of

2.1.02 Friction - Lubrication 8

2.2.04 Centre of gravity - Centre of gravity and its practical application 14

Area of cut out regular surfaces and area of irregular surfaces

2.3.07 Area of irregular surfaces and application related to shop problems 29

2.4.08 Algebra - Addition , subtraction, multiplication & division 32

2.4.09 Algebra - Theory of indices, algebraic formula, related problems 36

2.5.11 Elasticity - Ultimate stress and working stress 53

2.6.12 Heat treatment and advantages 56

2.6.13 Heat treatment - Different heat treatment process – Hardening, tempering,

Profit and Loss

2.7.14 Profit and loss - Simple problems on profit & loss 67

2.7.15 Profit and loss - Simple and compound interest 73

Estimation and Costing

2.8.17 Estimation and costing - Problems on estimation and costing 92

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S.no. Syllabus Time Marks

1 Advantages and disadvantages, Laws of friction, co- efficient of friction, angle of

1 Centre of gravity and its practical application

1 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication & Divisions

1 Heat treatment and advantages

VII Profit and Loss 12 8

1 Simple problems on profit & loss

VIII Estimation and Costing 12 7

1 Simple estimation of the requirement of material etc., as applicable to the trade

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Laws of friction (Fig 3 & 4)

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the plane will be P = W

F 1 It causes wear and tear of the machine parts.

2 Workshop Calculation & Science : (NSQF) Exercise 2.1.01

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