3 Op-amps and Applications Page |1

3.1 Introduction
Operational Amplifiers or Op-amps as they are more commonly called are one of the basic
building blocks of Analog Electronic Circuits. About a third of all linear ICs are Operational
Amplifiers. The typical Op-amp is a high-gain dc amplifier usable from 0 to over 1 MHz.
Operational amplifiers are linear devices that have all the properties required for nearly ideal
DC amplification and are therefore used extensively in signal conditioning, filtering and to
perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration and
differentiation. This chapter focuses on the basic building block of Op-amp, it’s
characteristics and applications.

3.2 Introduction to Op-amp

An Operational Amplifier is fundamentally a voltage amplifying device designed to be used
with external feedback components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and
input terminals. These feedback components determine the resulting function or “operation”
of the amplifier and by virtue of the different feedback configurations whether resistive,
capacitive or both, the amplifier can perform a variety of different operations, giving rise to
its name of “Operational Amplifier”.

Fig. 3.1: Symbol of Op-amp

Fig. 3.1 shows the symbol of the Op-amp. An Operational Amplifier basically
consists of two high impedance input terminals, one is called the Inverting Input, marked
with a negative or “minus” sign, (–) and the other one is called the Non-Inverting Input,
marked with a positive or “plus” sign (+). The operational amplifier has an output terminal
which can both sink and source either a voltage or a current. In a linear operational amplifier,
the output signal is the product of the amplification factor (amplifier gain (A)) and the input
signal Vi.
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3.2.1 Ideal characteristics of Op-amp

The Op-amp said to be ideal if it has the following characteristics.

Vout
 Infinite open-loop gain G =
Vin
 Infinite input impedance R in, and so zero input current
 Zero input offset voltage
 Infinite output voltage range
 Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate
 Zero output impedance Rout
 Zero noise
 Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
 Infinite power supply rejection ratio

3.3 Op-Amp Input modes

The operational amplifier works in different modes of operation. They are

Single ended operation: In this mode, input is applied to one of the input terminals while the
other is connected to ground. If the input is applied to the Non-inverting input, then it results
in an output having the same polarity as that of the input and the same is shown in Fig. 3.2. If
the input applied to the inverting input, then it results in an output having the phase opposite
to that of the applied signal and the same is shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2: Circuit diagram of single ended mode

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Differential operation: In this mode two opposite polarity signal are applied to the inputs.
This type of operation is also referred as double ended operation. Input signal at each input
terminal causes signal to appear at both output terminals and is shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Circuit diagram of Differential mode

Common mode operation: Fig. 3.4 shows the circuit diagram of common mode operation. If
same signal is applied to both the input terminals, then it results in an output signal whose
magnitude will be zero.

Fig. 3.4: circuit diagram of common mode

3.4 Op-Amp parameters

An ideal op-amp is assumed to respond equally for both ac and dc input voltages. However, a
practical op-amp has some output dc voltage even if both the inputs are grounded. There are
various parameters which are responsible for this voltage and some of these parameters are
discussed in this section.

 Input impedance: it is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage to change in

input current. Ranges from 10kΩ to 100MΩ.
 Output impedance: it is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage to change in
output current. Ranges from tens of ohms to hundreds of ohms.
 Gain: Ratio of output voltage to input voltage. Open loop gain Range from 104 to 106.
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Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR): The relative sensitivity of an op-amp to a

difference signal as compared to a common mode signal is called common mode
rejection ratio. The CMRR lies in the range of 60-100 dB

Ad
CMRR= ………(3.1)
Ac
Where, Ad = differential voltage gain
Ac = common mode voltage gain
 Output voltage swing: This is the peak output voltage without distortion. This is a
function of supply voltage and may range about 50-80% of the supply voltage.
 Input offset voltage: This is a parameter defining the differential DC voltage required
between the inputs of an amplifier, especially an operational amplifier (op-amp), to
make the output zero (for voltage amplifiers, 0 volts with respect to ground or
between differential outputs, depending on the output type).
 Input offset Current: The input offset current Iio is the difference between the currents
into inverting and non-inverting terminals of a balanced amplifier. For 741-IC
maximum Iio is 200nA.
Iio = | IB1 – IB2 |

As the matching between two input terminals is improved, the difference between IB1
and IB2 becomes smaller, i.e. the Iio value decreases further. For a precision OPAMP
741-IC, Iio is 6nA.
 Input common mode swing: This is the maximum range of input that can be
simultaneously applied to both the inputs without covering cut-off or saturation of
amplifier stages. It could be as high as the supply voltage but usually limited to or
of the supply voltage.

 Input bias current: The current flowing into each of the two input terminals when
they are traced to the same voltage level is called input bias current. Typical value is
80nA.

Fig. 3.5: Input bias circuit

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IB1 + IB2
IB = ………(3.2)
2

 Power supply voltage rejection ratio: The ratio of change in the output voltage due to
change in the supply voltage is power supply rejection ratio.

ΔVo
PSRR = ………(3.3)
ΔVCC
 Frequency response: Some op-amps have unity gain of for low frequencies; the gain
could be reduced by providing the negative feedback which in turn increases the
frequency response. Thus the bandwidth can vary from a few hertz to a few
megahertz.
An ideal Op-amp should have infinite bandwidth. That means that if it`s open
loop gain is 90dB with dc signal its gain should remain the same for ac signal for
different range of frequencies. However, in practical Op-amp the gain decreases at
higher frequencies. This is because of presence of capacitance that is produced due to
the physical characteristics of the device and the internal construction of Op-amp.

A OL
A= ………(3.4)
1 +  f f1 
2

ϕ = - tan -1  f f1  ………(3.5)

Fig. 3.6: Frequency response

The magnitude characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.6. It is seen that for
i. For frequency f<<f1, the magnitude of the gain is 20 log AOL in dB.
ii. At frequency f = f1 the gain is 3 dB down from the dc value of AOL in dB. The
frequency f1 is called the corner frequency.
iii. For f>> f1, the gain rolls off at the rate of -20dB/decade or -6dB/octave.

 Open loop op amp frequency response: The point at which the frequency starts to roll
off is known as the break point [typically the -3dB point is known as the break point].
Most op amps have their bandwidth limited as a result of what is called compensation
which is added.
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 Slew rate: The rate of change of output voltage with respect to time is called slew
rate. The typical value for 741 op amp is 0.5V/µsec. It is given by

dVo
Slew rate, S = v/µsec ………(3.6)
dt
Pin Diagram of IC 741 Op-Amp
In 1965, Fairchild Semiconductor introduced the A709, the first widely used monolithic op
amp. Although successful, this first-generation op amp had many disadvantages. These led to
an improved op amp known as the A741. Because it is inexpensive and easy to use, the A741
has been an enormous success.

The IC package of 741 op-amp is shown in Fig. 3.8. The pin configuration of the IC 741
operational amplifier is shown Fig. 3.8. It comprises of eight pins where the function of each
pin is discussed below.

 Pin1: Offset null

 Pin2: Inverting (-) i/p terminal
 Pin3:Non-inverting (+) i/p terminal
 Pin4: -ve voltage supply (-VCC)
 Pin5: Offset null
 Pin6: O/p voltage
 Pin7: +ve voltage supply (+VCC)
 Pin8: Not connected
 Fig. 3.7: 741 IC package Fig. 3.8: 741 Pin configuration

3.5 Op-amp Applications

Op amps are used in a wide variety of applications. Some of the more common applications
are voltage follower, selective inversion circuit, current-to-voltage converter, active rectifier,
integrator, a whole wide variety of filters, voltage comparator etc.

3.5.1 Inverting OPAMP circuits

Op-amp with open loop gain offers very high gain as high as 1,000,000. However, this very
high gain is of no real use as it makes the amplifier both unstable and hard to control, as the
smallest of input signals, just a few micro-volts, (μV) would be enough to cause the output
voltage to saturate and swing towards one or the other of the voltage supply rails losing
complete control of the output.

As the open loop DC gain of an operational amplifier is extremely high it could

therefore be afforded to lose some of this high gain by connecting a suitable resistor across
the amplifier from the output terminal back to the inverting input terminal to both reduce and
control the overall gain of the amplifier. This then produces and effect known commonly
as Negative feedback, and thus produces a very stable Operational Amplifier based system.
Negative Feedback is the process of “feeding back” a fraction of the output signal
back to the negative or inverting input terminal of the op-amp by connecting an
external Feedback Resistor called Rƒ. This feedback connection between the output and the
inverting input terminal forces the differential input voltage towards zero.
This effect produces a closed loop circuit to the amplifier resulting in the gain of the
amplifier now being called its Closed-loop Gain. Then a closed-loop inverting amplifier uses
negative feedback to accurately control the overall gain of the amplifier, but at a cost in the
reduction of the amplifiers gain.
This negative feedback results in the inverting input terminal having a different signal
on it than the actual input voltage as it will be the sum of the input voltage plus the negative
feedback voltage giving it the label or term of a Summing Point. Therefore the real input
signal must be separated from the inverting input by using an Input Resistor, Rin.
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Fig. 3.9 shows the circuit diagram of Inverting Operational amplifier circuit. In
this Inverting Amplifier circuit the operational amplifier is connected with feedback to
produce a closed loop operation. When dealing with operational amplifiers there are two very
important rules to remember about inverting amplifiers, these are:

“No current flows into the input terminal”

“V1 always equals V2”.

However, in real world op-amp circuits both of these rules are slightly broken.

This is because the junction of the input and feedback signal (X) is at the same
potential as the positive (+) input which is at zero volts or ground then, the junction is
a “Virtual Ground”. Because of this virtual ground node, the input resistance of the amplifier
is equal to the value of the input resistor, R in and the closed loop gain of the inverting
amplifier can be set by the ratio of the two external resistors.

By using the above two rules, the equation for calculating the closed-loop gain of an
inverting amplifier can be found.
V2 = 0 ………(3.7)
V1 = V2 ………(3.8)
From Eq. (3.7) and (3.8), it is clear that voltages V1 = V2 = 0 V

Fig. 3.9: Inverting OPAMP circuit

Hence, I1 = If ………(3.9)
Current through R1 is

Vi - V1
I1 = ………(3.10)
R1
Current through Rf is
 V1 - Vo
If = ………(3.11)
Rf
Substituting Eq. (3.10) & (3.11) in Eq. (3.9)

Vi - 0 0 - Vo
=
R1 Rf

Vi - Vo
= ………(3.12)
R1 Rf

Rearranging Eq. (3.12),

Rf
Vo = -Vi ………(3.13)
R1
Vo R
Af = =- f ………(3.14)
Vi R1
The gain of inverting amplifier Af is given as in Eq. (3.14). Negative sign indicates that the
output is inversion with respect to the input.

Example 3.1: In Fig. 3.10, R1 = 10 KΩ, Rf = 100 KΩ, Vi = 1V. A load of 25 kΩ is connected
to the output terminal. Calculate (a) I1 (b) Vo (c) IL (d) Total current Io into the output pin.

Solution:
(a) I1 = Vi/R1 = 1 v/10 k = 0.1mA
(b) Vo = - Rf/R1 (Vi) = - (100k/10k) (1v) = -10v
(c) IL = Vo/RL = 10/25k = 0.4 mA
The direction of IL is shown in Fig. 3.11.
(d) I1 as calculated above 0.1m A. Therefore, total current I0 = I1+IL = 0.1mA + 0.4mA =
0.5 m A.

In an inverting amplifier, for a positive input, output will be negative; therefore, the
direction of Io is as shown in Fig. 3.10.
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Fig. 3.10: Inverting OPAMP circuit

3.5.2 Non inverting OPAMP circuits

Fig. 3.11 shows the circuit diagram of Non-inverting amplifier. In this configuration, the
input voltage signal, Vi is applied directly to the non-inverting (+) input terminal which
means that the output gain of the amplifier becomes “Positive” in value, in contrast to the
“Inverting Amplifier” circuit, whose output gain is negative. The result of this is that the
output signal is “in-phase” with the input signal.

Feedback control of the non-inverting operational amplifier is achieved by applying a

small part of the output voltage signal back to the inverting (–) input terminal via a Rƒ –
R2 voltage divider network, again producing negative feedback. This closed-loop
configuration produces a non-inverting amplifier circuit with very good stability, very high
input impedance, Rin approaching infinity, as no current flows into the positive input
terminal, (ideal conditions) and low output impedance, Rout.

Fig. 3.11: Non inverting OP AMP

V2 = Vi
V1 = V2
Hence, V1 = Vi
Therefore, I1 = If ………(3.15)

0 - V1 -V -V
I1 = = 1 = i ………(3.16)
R1 R1 R1

V1 - Vo V - Vo
If = = i ………(3.17)
Rf Rf

Substituting Eq. (3.16) and (3.17) in Eq. (3.15) to get

 -Vi V - Vo
= i
R1 Rf

Rearranging the above equation,

1 1  Vo
Vi  +  =
 R1 Rf  Rf

 R + R1  V0
Vi  f  =
 R1R f  R f

Vo  R 
Af = = 1 + f 
Vi  R1 

From the equation above, it is clear that the overall closed-loop gain Af of a non-
inverting amplifier will always be greater but never less than one (unity), it is positive in
nature and is determined by the ratio of the values of Rf and R2.

If the value of the feedback resistor Rf is zero, the gain of the amplifier will be exactly
equal to one (unity). If resistor R2 is zero, the gain will approach infinity, but in practice it
will be limited to the operational amplifiers open-loop differential gain, (Ao).

3.5.3 Summing amplifier

The Summing Amplifier is another type of operational amplifier circuit configuration that is
used to combine the voltages present on two or more inputs into a single output voltage. The
circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.12.

If more input resistors are added at the input, each equal in value to the original input
resistor (Rin), this operational amplifier circuit called a Summing Amplifier, “summing
inverter” or even a “voltage adder” circuit.

Fig. 3.12: Summing amplifier circuit

VA = VB = 0, Hence the total current If is given by

If  I1  I2  I3 ………(3.18)
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V1 V V
I1 = , I 2 = 2 , I3 = 3 ………(3.19)
R1 R2 R3

and If   Vo (where, Vo is output voltage) ………(3.20)

Rf

Substituting Eq. (3.19) & (3.20) in Eq. (3.18),

-Vo V V V
= 1 + 2 + 3
Rf R1 R2 R3

Rf R R
Vo = -  V1  + f  V2  + f  V3  ...……(3.21)
R1 R2 R3

For R1 = R2 = R3 = Rf = R Eq. (3.21) simplified as

Vo = - (V1 + V2 + V3) ………(3.22)

Adder is a circuit that will amplify each individual input and produce an output
voltage signal that is proportional to the algebraic sum of the individual inputs. More inputs
can be added if required by keeping Rin as their respective input impedance. When the
summing point is connected to the inverting input of the op-amp the circuit will produce the
negative sum of input voltages.

This operational amplifier circuit will amplify each individual input voltage and
produce an output voltage signal that is proportional to the algebraic “SUM” of the three
individual input voltages V1, V2 and V3. More inputs could be added if required as each
individual input “see’s” their respective resistance Rin as the only input impedance.
This is because the input signals are effectively isolated from each other by the
“virtual earth” node at the inverting input of the op-amp. A direct voltage addition can also be
obtained when all the resistances are of equal value and Rf is equal to Rin.
Note that when the summing point is connected to the inverting input of the op-amp
the circuit point is connected to the non-inverting input of the op-amp, it will produce the
positive sum of the input voltages.
A Scaling Summing Amplifier can be made if the individual input resistors are “NOT” equal.
Then the equation would be as in Eq. (3.21).
To make the math’s a little easier; rearranging the Eq. (3.21) to make the feedback
resistor Rf the subject of the equation giving the output voltage as in Eq. (3.23).

V V V 
Vo  R f  1  2  3  ………(3.23)
 R1 R 2 R 3 

This allows the output voltage to be easily calculated if more input resistors are
connected to the amplifiers inverting input terminal. The input impedance of each individual
channel is the value of their respective input resistors, i.e., R1, R2, R3 … etc.
 Sometimes a summing circuit is needed to just add together two or more voltage
signals without any amplification. By putting all of the resistances of the circuit above to the
same value R, the op-amp will have a voltage gain of unity and the output voltage will be
equal to the direct sum of all the input voltages.
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit indeed, enabling us to effectively
“Add” or “Sum” (hence its name) together several individual input signals. If the inputs
resistors, R1, R2, R3 etc., are all equal a “unity gain inverting adder” will be made. However,
if the input resistors are of different values a “scaling summing amplifier” is produced which
will output a weighted sum of the input signals.
Example 3.2: Find the output voltage for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.13. Assume Rf =10KΩ.

Fig. 3.13: Summing amplifier circuit

Solution: Using the previously found formula for the gain of the circuit
Gain (Av) = Vout/Vin = - (Rf/Rin)
Gain is calculated as,
Substitute the values of the resistors in the circuit as follows,
A1 = - (10k/1k) = -10
A2 = - (10k/2k) = -5Ω
We know that the output voltage is the sum of the two amplified input signals and is
calculated as:
Vout = (A1 × V1) + (A2 × V2)
Vout = (-10 x 2m) + (-5 x 3m) = -35mV
Then the output voltage of the Summing Amplifier circuit above is given as -35 mV and is
negative as it’s an inverting amplifier.
Example 3.3: Find the output voltage for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.14. Assume Rf =10KΩ.
 B a s i c E l e c t r o n i c s P a g e | 14

Fig. 3.14: Summing amplifier circuit

Solution:

-Vo = V1 (RF/R1) + V2 (RF/R2)

= 5m (10k/1k) + 10m (10k/2k)

= 5m [10] + 10m [5]

= 50m + 50m

-Vo = 100mV

3.5.4 Subtractor
Subtractor is a circuit whose output voltage will be proportional to the “Difference” between
the two input voltage signals of V1 and V2. The Subtractor performs the subtraction with a
single op-amp circuit and the circuit is shown in Fig. 3.15.

Fig. 3.15: Circuit diagram of Subtractor

 The input signals applied are V1 and V2. The potential at the non-inverting terminal is
V
 Due to virtual ground concept, the voltage at the inverting terminal is V
 The current flowing through resistance R1 and R2 are I1 and I2 respectively

Step 1: Reduce V2 to zero and find V01.

 Fig. 3.16: Circuit diagram by Keeping V2=0
Rf
Vo1 = -  V1  ………(3.24)
R1

Step 2: Reduce V1 to zero and find V02

Fig. 3.17: Circuit diagram by Keeping V1=0

 R 
It is a Non-inverting type with gain A f  1  f 
 R1 

Vo2 = V (Af)

 R 
Vo2 = V 1+ f  ………(3.25)
 R1 

 Rf 
But, V = V2  
 R2  Rf 

Substituting V back in Eq. (3.25),

 Rf  Rf 
Vo2 = V2   1 + 
 R 2 1 + R f R 2    R1 
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For R1 = R2,

Rf
Vo2 = (V2 ) ………(3.26)
R1

Step 3: Find the output voltage Vo

Vo = Vo1 + Vo2

Rf R
Vo = -  V1  + f  V2 
R1 R1

Rf
Vo   V2  V1 
R1

If Rf = R1 then Vo = (V2 – V1)

If all the resistors are all of the same Ohmic value, that is: R1= R2 = R3 = R4 then the
circuit will become a Unity Gain Differential Amplifier and the voltage gain of the amplifier
will be exactly one or unity. Then the output expression would simply be Vout = V2 – V1.
Also note that if input V1 is higher than input V2 the output voltage sum will be negative, and
if V2 is higher than V1, the output voltage sum will be positive.
The Differential Amplifier circuit is a very useful op-amp circuit and by adding more
resistors in parallel with the input resistors R1 and R3, the resultant circuit can be made to
either “Add” or “Subtract” the voltages applied to their respective inputs. The differential
amplifier finds applications in Wheatstone Bridge Differential Amplifier, Light Activated
Differential Amplifier, Instrumentation Amplifier etc.

3.5.5 Voltage follower

Fig. 3.18 shows the circuit diagram of Voltage follower. If the feedback resistor Rf, is made
zero (Rf = 0), and resistor R2 is infinity (R2 = ∞), then the circuit would have a fixed gain of
“1” as all the output voltage would be present on the inverting input terminal (negative
feedback). This would then produce a special type of the non-inverting amplifier circuit
called a Voltage Follower or also called a “unity gain buffer”.
As the input signal is connected directly to the non-inverting input of the amplifier the
output signal is not inverted resulting in the output voltage being equal to the input
voltage, Vout = Vin. This then makes the voltage follower circuit ideal as a Unity Gain
Buffer circuit because of its isolation properties.
The advantage of the unity gain voltage follower is that it can be used when
impedance matching or circuit isolation is more important than amplification as it maintains
the signal voltage. The input impedance of the voltage follower circuit is very high, typically
above 1MΩ as it is equal to that of the operational amplifiers input resistance times its gain
( Rin x Ao ). Also its output impedance is very low since an ideal op-amp condition is
assumed.
Vout = A (Vin) ………(3.27)

(Vin = V+) and (Vout = V-)

Therefore, Gain, (Av) = Vout /Vin = +1 ………(3.28)

Voltage follower is an op-amp circuit which has a voltage gain of 1. This means the op-amp
does not provide any amplification to the input signal.

As the output directly follows the input the circuit is called unity gain amplifier,
buffer amplifier, isolation amplifier. The purpose of voltage follower is it provides high input
impedance and hence it draws very little current from the circuit attached to it.

It has low output impedance and hence provides high current output.

Fig. 3.18: Voltage follower circuit

V1 = Vin
V2 = V1 (virtual ground)
And V0 = V2
Therefore, V0 = Vin
As the output follows the input, name of the circuit is voltage follower.

Advantages
1. Very high input resistance
2. Very low output resistance
3. Large bandwidth

3.5.6 Integrator
Operational amplifiers can be used as part of a positive or negative feedback amplifier or as
an adder or Subtractor type circuit using just pure resistances in both the input and the
feedback loop. But if there is need to change the purely resistive (Rf) feedback element of an
inverting amplifier into that of a frequency dependent impedance (Z) type complex element,
such as a Capacitor C. What would be the effect on the op-amps output voltage over its
frequency range? That will be seen in this part of the chapter.
By replacing this feedback resistance with a capacitor, now there is an RC network
connected across the operational amplifiers feedback path producing another type of
 B a s i c E l e c t r o n i c s P a g e | 18

operational amplifier circuit commonly called an Op-amp Integrator circuit as shown in Fig.
3.19.
As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that
performs the mathematical operation of Integration, i.e. it could be made for the output to
respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator produces an output
voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input voltage.

Fig. 3.19: Circuit diagram of Integrator

In other words, the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time
a voltage is present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges
the capacitor as the required negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.
When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the
uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit allowing
maximum current to flow via the input resistor R as potential difference exists between the
two plates. No current flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting
in zero output. As the impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the gain ratio
of Xc/R is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less than one, (voltage follower
circuit).
As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the input
voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of charge. The capacitor
charges-up at a rate determined by the RC time constant, (τ) of the series RC network.
Negative feedback forces the op-amp to produce an output voltage that maintains a virtual
earth at the op-amp’s inverting input.
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which is at
earth potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is negative), the potential voltage, Vc
developed across the capacitor slowly increases causing the charging current to decrease as
the impedance of the capacitor increases. This results in the ratio of Xc/R increasing
producing a linearly increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase until the
capacitor is fully charged.
At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of DC
current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor (Xc/R) is now infinite resulting in
infinite gain. The result of this high gain (similar to the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the
output of the amplifier goes into saturation as shown below. (Saturation occurs when the
output voltage of the amplifier swings heavily to one voltage supply rail or the other with
little or no control in between).

Fig. 3.20: Waveforms of input and output signals

The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is determined by
the value of the resistor and the capacitor, “RC time constant”. By changing this RC time
constant value, either by changing the value of the Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the time in
which it takes the output voltage to reach saturation can also be changed for example.

Fig. 3.21: Waveforms of input and output signals

3.5.6.1 Op-amp Integrator Ramp Generator

If a square wave is applied to the input of an Integrator amplifier, then the capacitor will
charge and discharge in response to the changes in the input signal. This results in the output
signal being that of a saw tooth waveform whose output is affected by the RC time constant
of the resistor/capacitor combination because at higher frequencies, the capacitor has less
time to fully charge. This type of circuit is also known as a Ramp Generator. The circuit
diagram and the waveforms of input and output signal are shown in Fig. 3.22 and 3.23
respectively.
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Fig. 3.22: Circuit diagram of Ramp generator

Fig. 3.23: Waveforms of input and output signals

From first principals, the voltage on the plates of a capacitor is equal to the charge on the
capacitor divided by its capacitance giving Q/C. Then the voltage across the capacitor is
output Vout therefore: -Vout = Q/C. If the capacitor is charging and discharging, the rate of
charge of voltage across the capacitor is given as:
V1 = V2 = 0 (Virtual ground) ………(3.29)

I1 = If (current flowing into op-amp is zero because of Infinite i/p impedance) ……….(3.30)

Vin - V1 V
I1 = = in ………(3.31)
R1 R1
d dV
If = C  V1 - Vout  = - C out .………(3.32)
dt dt
Substituting I1 and IF in Eq. (3.30),

Vin dV
= - C out ………(3.33)
R dt

dVout 1
=-  Vin  ………(3.34)
dt RC

Integrating on both side,

 1 t
Vout    0 Vin dt + Vout  0  ………(3.35)
RC

1 t
Vout    0 Vin dt ………(3.36)
RC
From Eq. (3.36) it is clear that the output voltage is proportional to the integral of input
voltage.

3.5.7 Differentiator
The basic operational amplifier differentiator circuit is the exact opposite to that of the op-
amp integrator circuit. Here, the positions of the capacitor and resistor have been reversed.
The capacitor C is connected to the input terminal of the inverting amplifier while the
feedback resistor R forms the negative feedback element across the operational amplifier.
Fig. 3.24 shows the circuit diagram of a Differentiator circuit.
This operational amplifier circuit performs the mathematical operation
of Differentiation that is it “produces a voltage output which is directly proportional to the
input voltage’s change with respect to time”. In other words, the faster or larger the change to
the input voltage signal, the greater the input current, the greater will be the change in the
output voltage, becoming more of a “spike” in shape.
As with the integrator circuit, there is a resistor and capacitor forming an RC Network
across the operational amplifier and the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor plays a major role in
the performance of an Op-amp Differentiator.
The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor. The capacitor blocks
any DC content so that there is no current flow to the amplifier, resulting in zero output
voltage. The capacitor allows only AC signal.
At low frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor is “High” resulting in a low output
voltage (R/Xc) from the op-amp which in turn results in low gain. At higher frequencies the
reactance of the capacitor is much lower resulting in a higher output voltage and higher gain
from the differentiator amplifier.
However, at high frequencies an op-amp differentiator circuit becomes unstable and
will start to oscillate. This is mainly due to the first-order effect, which determines the
frequency response of the op-amp circuit causing a second-order response which, at high
frequencies gives an output voltage far higher than what would be expected. To avoid this,
the high frequency gain of the circuit needs to be reduced by adding an additional small value
capacitor across the feedback resistor R.
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Fig. 3.24: Circuit diagram of Differentiator

V1 = V2 = 0 (Virtual Ground)

Therefore I1 = If ………(3.37)

The current through the capacitor C is,

d
I1  C  Vin  V1 
dt

dVin
I1  C ………(3.38)
dt
The current through the Resistor R is,

Vi - Vout V
If = = - out ………(3.39)
R R
Substituting the values of I1 and IF in Eq. (3.37)

dVin V
C = - out
dt R

dVin
Vout = - RC ………(3.40)
dt

The output voltage Vout is a constant –RC times the derivative of the input
voltage Vin with respect to time. The minus sign (–) indicates a 180o phase shift and this is
because, the input signal is connected to the inverting input terminal of the operational
amplifier.

The Op-amp Differentiator circuit in its basic form has two main disadvantages
compared to the previous operational amplifier integrator circuit. One is that it suffers from
instability at high frequencies as mentioned above and the other is that the capacitive input
makes it very susceptible to random noise signals and any noise or harmonics present in the
source circuit will be amplified more than the input signal itself. This is because the output is
proportional to the slope of the input voltage. Hence an additional circuit to achieve the
closed-loop stability is required.

By applying a Square-wave, Triangular or Sine-wave type signal to the input of a

differentiator amplifier circuit the shape of resultant output signal will be changed and it`s
final shape is dependent upon the RC time constant of the Resistor/Capacitor combination
and the same is shown in Fig. 3.25.

Fig. 3.25: Waveforms of input and output signals

3.5.8 Op-amp Comparator

A comparator finds its importance in circuits where two voltage signals are to be compared.
A comparator is also an important circuit in the design of non-sinusoidal waveform
generators as relaxation oscillators.

In comparator there are two inputs. One is considered as the reference signal and the
other is the input. The output changes whenever the input exceeds/goes below the reference.

3.5.8.1 Non-inverting 741 IC Op-amp Comparator Circuit

A non-inverting 741 IC op-amp comparator circuit is shown in Fig. 3.26. It is called a non-
inverting comparator circuit as the sinusoidal input signal Vin is applied to the non-inverting
terminal. The fixed reference voltage Vref is given to the inverting terminal (-) of the op-amp.

When the value of the input voltage Vin is greater than the reference voltage Vref, the
output voltage Vo goes to positive saturation. This is because the voltage at the non-inverting
input is greater than the voltage at the inverting input.
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Fig. 3.26: Non-Inverting Comparator Circuit

When the value of the input voltage Vin is lesser than the reference voltage Vref, the
output voltage Vout goes to negative saturation. This is because the voltage at the non-
inverting input is smaller than the voltage at the inverting input. Thus, output voltage Vout
changes from positive saturation point to negative saturation point and vice-versa whenever
the difference between Vin and Vref changes. This is shown in the waveform below. The
comparator can be called a voltage level detector, as for a fixed value of Vref, the voltage
level of Vin can be detected.

Resistance R1 is connected in series with input voltage Vin and R is connected

between the inverting input and reference voltage Vref. R1 limits the current through the
clamp diodes and R reduces the offset problem.

Fig. 3.27: Non-Inverting Comparator Waveform

3.5.8.2 Inverting 741 IC Op-amp Comparator Circuit

An inverting 741 IC op-amp comparator circuit is shown in Fig. 3.28. It is called an inverting
comparator circuit as the sinusoidal input signal Vin is applied to the inverting terminal. The
fixed reference voltage Vref is given to the non-inverting terminal (+) of the op-amp. A
potentiometer is used as a voltage divider circuit to obtain the reference voltage in the non-
inverting input terminal. Both the ends of the POT are connected to the dc supply voltage
+VCC and -VEE. The wiper is connected to the non-inverting input terminal. When the wiper
is rotated to a value near +VCC, Vref becomes more positive, and when the wiper is rotated
towards -VEE, the value of Vref becomes more negative.

Let us see the working of the circuit when the reference voltage is positive. When the
value of the input voltage Vin is above than the reference voltage Vref, the output voltage Vout
goes to negative saturation. This is because the voltage at the inverting input is greater than
the voltage at the non-inverting input. When the value of the input voltage Vin is lesser than
the reference voltage Vref, the output voltage Vout goes to positive saturation. This is because
the voltage at the inverting input is smaller than the voltage at the non-inverting input. The
waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.29 when the reference voltage is positive and when the
reference voltage is negative.

Fig. 3.28: 741 IC Inverting Comparator Circuit

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Fig. 3.29: Op-Amp Inverting Comparator Waveform

3.5.8.3 Comparator Characteristics

1. Operation Speed – According to change of conditions in the input, a comparator circuit

switches at a good speed between the saturation levels and the response is instantaneous.

2. Accuracy – Accuracy of the comparator circuit causes the following characteristics: -

High Voltage Gain – The comparator circuit is said to have a high voltage gain characteristic
that results in the requirement of smaller hysteresis voltage. As a result, the comparator
output voltage switches between the upper and lower saturation levels.

a. High Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) – The common mode input voltage
parameters such a noise is rejected with the help of a high CMRR.
b. Very Small Input Offset Current and Input Offset Voltage – A negligible amount
of Input Offset Current and Input Offset Voltage causes a lesser amount of offset
problems. To reduce further offset problems, offset voltage compensating networks
and offset minimizing resistors can be used.