SIMPLE STRAIN

Stress-Strain diagram
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-
compression-testing machine. As the axial load is gradually
increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length
is measured at each increment of the load and this is continued
until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the original
cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress
σ and the strain ε can be obtained. The graph of these quantities
with the stress σ along the y-axis and the strain ε along the x-
axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain
diagram differs in form for various materials. The diagram shown
below is that for a medium-carbon structural steel.

Metallic engineering materials are classified as either

ductile or brittle materials. A ductile material is one having
relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like
structural steel and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a
relatively small strain up to the point of rupture like cast iron
and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken
as the dividing line between these two classes.

Stress-strain diagram of a medium-carbon structural steel

 Hooke’s Law for axial deformation
From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the
stress-strain curve is a straight line. This linear relation
between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed
by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within
the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to
strain or

σ ∝ ε or σ = kε

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of

Elasticity E or Young's Modulus and is equal to the slope of the
stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

Example 1.
A uniform bar of length L, cross-sectional area A, and unit
mass ρ is suspended vertically from one end. Show that its total
elongation is δ = ρgL2/2E. If the total mass of the bar is M,
show also that δ = MgL/2AE.

Given:
Length: L
Cross-sectional area: A
Unit mass: ρ
Mass: M
Find:

δ = ρgL2/2E - total elongation

δ = MgL/2AE

Solution
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

From the figure:

𝛿 = 𝑑𝛿
𝑃 = 𝑊𝑦 = (𝜌𝐴𝑦)𝑔
𝐿 = 𝑑𝑦

Thus,

(𝜌𝐴𝑦)𝑔𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝛿 =
𝐴𝐸
𝐿
𝜌𝑔 𝐿 𝜌𝑔 𝑦 2
𝛿= ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = [ ]
𝐸 0 𝐸 2 0
𝜌𝑔 2
𝛿= [𝐿 − 02 ]
2𝐸
𝜌𝑔𝐿2
𝛿=
2𝐸

Given the total mass M

𝑀 𝑀
𝜌= =
𝑉 𝐴𝐿
𝑀 2
𝜌𝑔𝐿2 𝐴𝐿 ∙ 𝑔𝐿
𝛿= =
2𝐸 2𝐸
𝑀𝑔𝐿
𝛿=
2𝐴𝐸
Example 2:

A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a

length of 150 m is suspended vertically from one end. It supports
a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of steel
is 7850 kg/m3 and E = 200 × 103 MN/m2, find the total elongation of
the rod.

Given:
Cross-sectional area of the steel rod: A = 300 mm2

Length of the steel rod: L = 150m

Tensile load: P = 20kN

Mass of steel: M = 7850 kg/m3

Elastic Modulus of the steel rod: E = 200 × 103 MN/m2

Find:

Total elongation of the rod: δ = ?

Solution:

Elongation due to its own weight:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿1 =
𝐴𝐸

3465.3825(75000)
𝛿1 =
300 (200000)
𝛿1 = 4.33 mm
Elongation due to applied load:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿2 =
𝐴𝐸
20000(150000)
𝛿2 =
300(200000)

𝛿2 = 50 mm

Total elongation

𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2
𝛿 = 4.33 + 50 = 54.33 mm

Example 3:

A steel wire 30 ft long, hanging vertically, supports a load

of 500 lb. Neglecting the weight of the wire, determine the
required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 20 ksi and the
total elongation is not to exceed 0.20 in. Assume E = 29 × 106 psi.

Given:

Length: L = 30ft

Load: P = 500lb

Elastic modulus of the steel wire: E = 29 × 106 psi

Find:

Diameter (stress not greater than 20 ksi & elongation not greater
than 0.20in): d = ?
Solution:

Based on maximum allowable stress:

𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
500
20000 =
1 2
4 𝜋𝑑
𝑑 = 0.1784 in

Based on maximum allowable deformation:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
500(30 × 12)
0.20 =
1 2 6)
(
4 𝜋𝑑 29 × 10
𝑑 = 0.1988 in

Use 𝑑 = 0.1988 in
Example 4:

A steel tire, 10 mm thick, 80 mm wide, and 1500.0 mm inside

diameter, is heated and shrunk onto a steel wheel 1500.5 mm in
diameter. If the coefficient of static friction is 0.30, what
torque is required to twist the tire relative to the wheel? Neglect
the deformation of the wheel. Use E = 200 GPa.

Given:

Thickness: 10 mm

Wideness: 80 mm

Inside diameter: 1500.0 mm

Coefficient of static friction: π = 0.30

Elastic modulus of steel tire: E = 200 GPa

Find: Torque

Solution:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

𝑇(1500𝜋)
0.5𝜋 =
800(200000)
𝑇 = 53333.33 N
𝐹 = 2𝑇
𝑝(1500)(80) = 2(53333.33)
𝑝 = 0.8889 MPa → internal pressure

Total normal force, N:

𝑁 = 𝑝 × contact area between tire and wheel

𝑁 = 0.8889 × 𝜋(1500.5)(80)
𝑁 = 335214.92 N

Friction resistance, f:

𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁 = 0.30(335214.92)
𝑓 = 100564.48 N = 100.56 kN
Torque = f × 1⁄2 (diameter of wheel)
Torque = 100.56 × 0.75025
Torque = 75.44 kN ∙ m
Example 5:

An aluminium bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5

in2 carries the axial loads applied at the positions shown in
Fig. P-209. Compute the total change in length of the bar if E =
10 × 106 psi. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent
lateral buckling.

Given:
Cross-sectional area: A = 0.5 in2
Elastic modulus of aluminium bar: E = 10 × 106 psi
Axial load 1: P1 = 6000 lb (T) tension
Axial load 2: P2 = 1000 lb (C) compression
Axial load 3: P3 = 4000 lb (T) tension

Find:
Total change in length of the bar: δ = ?

Solution:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
𝛿 = 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 + 𝛿3
6000(3 × 12) 1000(5 × 12) 4000(4 × 12)
𝛿= − −
0.5(10 × 106 ) 0.5(10 × 106 ) 0.5(10 × 106 )
𝛿 = 0.0696 in
 Poisson’s ratio
The ratio of the proportional decrease in a lateral
measurement to the proportional increase in length in a sample
of material that is elastically stretched.

Poisson's ratio is a measure of the Poisson effect that

describes the expansion or contraction of a material in
directions perpendicular to the direction of loading. The value
of Poisson's ratio is the negative of the ratio of transverse
strain to axial strain.

𝜀𝑡
𝜇=| |
𝜀𝑙

Whereas; μ = Poisson’s ratio; εt = lateral strain;

εl = longitudal strain

Or simply
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Example 1:

A steel pipe of length L = 150cm outside diameter d2 = 15

cm, and inside diameter d1 = 11 cm is compressed by an axial
force 600 P= kN (see figure). The material has modulus of
elasticity 210 E = GPa and Poisson's ratio v = 0.30.

Determine the following quantities for the pipe: (1) the

shortening δ ; (2) the lateral strain ' ε ; (3) the increase 2dΔ
in the outer diameter and the increase 1 dΔ in the inner
diameter; (4) the increase t Δ in the wall thickness; (5) the
increase V Δ in the volume of material, and (6) the dilatation
e.
Solution:
The cross-sectional area A and longitudinal stress σ are
determined as follows:

𝝅 𝝅
𝑨= (𝒅𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒅𝟏 𝟐 ) = [(𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎)𝟐 − (𝟏𝟏𝒄𝒎)𝟐 ] = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟐 ,
𝟒 𝟒
𝑷 −𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵
𝝈= = = −𝟕𝟑. 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝑨 𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟐

Because the stress is well below the yield stress for steel
(from 200 MPa for structural steels up to 1,600 MPa for spring
steels), the material behaves linearly elastically and the axial
strain may be found from Hooke's law:

𝝈 −𝟕𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝜺= = = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝑬 𝟐𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗
(1) Knowing the axial strain, we can now find the change in
length of the pipe:

𝛿 = 𝜀𝐿 = (−0.35 × 10−3 )(1.2𝑚) = −0.42 × 10−3 𝑚 = −0.42𝑚𝑚

The negative sign for δ indicates a shortening of the pipe.
(2) The lateral strain is obtained from Poisson's ratio

𝜺′ = −𝒗𝜺 = −(𝟎. 𝟑𝟎)(−𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑

The positive sign for ε’ indicates an increase in the
lateral dimensions, as expected for compression.
 (3) The increase in outer diameter equals the lateral
strain times the diameter:

∆𝒅𝟐 = 𝜺′ 𝒅𝟐 = (𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎) = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎

Similarly, the increase in inner diameter is

∆𝒅𝟏 = 𝜺′ 𝒅𝟏 = (𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟏𝟏𝒄𝒎) = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎

(4) The increase in wall thickness is found in the same
manner as the increases in the diameters; thus,

∆𝒕 = 𝜺′𝒕 = (𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟐𝒄𝒎) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎

This result can be verified by noting that the increase in wall
thickness is equal to the following:
∆𝒅𝟐−∆𝒅𝟏 𝟏
∆𝒕 = 𝟐
= 𝟐 (𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟓 − 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟓) × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎, as expected

Note. Under compression, all three quantities increase (outer

diameter, inner diameter, and thickness).
(5) The change in volume of the material is calculated
from:
∆𝑽 = 𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒐 𝜺(𝟏 − 𝟐𝒗) = 𝑨𝑳𝜺(𝟏 − 𝟐𝒗)
= (𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒎𝟐 )(𝟏. 𝟐𝒎)(−𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎) = −𝟏𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝟑

The volume change is negative, indicating a decrease in volume,

as expected for compression.
(6) Finally, the dilatation is
∆𝑽 𝝈
𝒆= = 𝜺(𝟏 − 𝟐𝒗) = (𝟏 − 𝟐𝒗),
𝑽𝒐 𝑬
𝒆 = 𝜺(𝟏 − 𝟐𝒗) = (−𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒,
which is a 0.014% reduction in the volume of material.
Example 2:
A metal wire of length 1.5 m is loaded and an elongation of
2 mm is produced. If the diameter of the wire is 1 mm, find the
change in the diameter of the wire when elongated. = 0.24.

Given:
Original length of wire = L = 1.5 m
Elongation in wire= 2mm
Diameter of wire = D = 1 mm
Poisson's ratio = o = 0.24

Find:
Change in diameter = d =?

Solution:
Longitudinal strain = I/L = (2 x 10-3)/1 .5 = 1.33 x 10-3
Poisson's ratio = Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain
:. Lateral strain =Poisson's ratio x Longitudinal strain
:. Lateral strain = 0.24 x 1.33 x 10-3
Lateral strain = d/ D
:. d= Lateral strain x D = 3.2 x 10-4 x 1 x 10-3 = 3.2 x 10-7 m
Ans: The change in diameter is 3.2 x 10-7 m
Example 3:
A metallic wire (Y = 20 x 1010 N/m2 and = 0.26) of length 3 m and
diameter 0.1 cm is stretched by a load of 10 kg. Calculate the
decrease in diameter of the wire.
Given:
Original length of wire = L = 3 m
Diameter of wire = D = 0.1 cm = 0.1 x 10-2 m = 1 x 10-3 m
Radius of wire = r = 0.1/2 = 0.05 cm = 0.05 x 10-2 m = 5x 10-4m
Stretching load = 10 kg = 10 x 9.8 N
Youngs modulus of elasticity = Y = 20 x1010 N/m2 and Poisson's
ratio=0.26

Find:
Decrease in diameter = d

Solution:
Y = Longitudinal Stress / Longitudinal Strain
Y = F / (Ax Longitudinal Strain)
:. Longitudinal Strain = F / (A x Y)
:. Longitudinal Strain = F / (Π r2 x Y)
Longitudinal Strain = (10x 9.8) / (3.142 x (5 x 10-4)2 x 20 x
1010)
Longitudinal Strain = (10x 9.8) / (3.142 x 25 x 10-8 x 20 x 1010)
:. Longitudinal Strain = 6.24 x 10-4
Poisson’s ratio = Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain
:. Lateral strain = Poisson's ratio x Longitudinal strain
:. Lateral strain = 0.26 x 6.24 x 10-4 = 1.62 x 10-4
Lateral strain = d/ D
d = Lateral strain x D = 1.62 x 10-4 x1 x 10-3 = 1.62 x 10-7 m
Answer: The decrease in diameter is 1 .62 x 10-7 m
Example 4:
A copper wire 3m long and 1 mm2 in cross-section is fixed
at one end and a weight of 10 kg is attached at the free end. If
Y for copper is 12.5 x 1010 N/m2 and = 0.25 find the extension,
lateral strain and the lateral compression produced in the wire.
Given:
Original length of wire = L = 3 m
Area of cross-section of wire = A = 1 mm2 = 1 x 10-6 m2
Stretching load = 10 kg = 10 x 9.8 N
Youngs modulus of elasticity = Y = 12.5 x 1010 N/m2
Poisson's ratio = 0.25

Find:
Extension, lateral strain and the lateral compression

Solution:
Y = Longitudinal Stress/ Longitudinal Strain
Y = F / (A x Longitudinal Strain)
:. Longitudinal Strain = F / (A x Y)
:. Longitudinal Strain = 10 x 9.8 / (1 x 10-6 x 12.5 x 1010)
:. Longitudinal Strain = 10 x 9.8 / (1 x 10-6 x 12.5 x 1010)
:. Longitudinal Strain = 7.84 x 10-4

Now, Longitudinal Strain = I/L

I= Longitudinal strain x L
I= 7.84 x10-4 x 3 = 2.352 x 10-3 m = 2.352 mm

Poisson's ratio = Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain

:. Lateral strain =Poisson's ratio x Longitudinal strain
:. Lateral strain = 0.25 x 7.84 x 10-4 = 1.96 x 10-4

Area of cross-section 1 x 10-6 m2

Π r2=1x10-6
r2=1x10-6/Π = 1x10-6/3.142
r2=0.3183x10-6
r= 5.46x10-4 m

Diameter = D = 2r=2 x 5.64 x 10-4 m = 11.28 x 10-4 m

Now, Lateral strain = d /D

d = Lateral strain x D = 1.96 x 10-4=2.21x10-7 m

Answer: Elongation = 2.352 mm, Lateral strain = 1 .96 x 10-4,

Lateral compression = 2.21x10-7 m

Example 5.
A wire of diameter 2 mm and length 5 m is stretched by a
load of 10 kg. Find the extension produced in the wire if Y = 12
x 1010 N/m2. If ό = 0.35 for the material of the wire, find the
lateral contraction.
Given:
Original length of wire = L = 5 m
Diameter of wire = D = 2 mm = 2 x 10-3 m
Radius of wire = 2/2 = 1mm = 1 x 10-3 m
Stretching load = 10 kg = 10 x 9.8 N
Youngs modulus of elasticity = Y = 12 x 1010 N/m2
Poisson's ratio = ό = 0.35

Find:
Lateral contraction =?
Solution:
Y = Longitudinal Stress /Longitudinal Strain
Y = F / (Ax Longitudinal Strain)
:. Longitudinal Strain = F / (A x Y)
:. Longitudinal Strain = F / (Πr2 x Y)
Longitudinal Strain = (10x9.8) (3.142 x (1x10-3)-2 x 12 x 1010)
:. Longitudinal Strain = (10 x 9.8) / (3.142 x l x 10-6 x 12 x
1010)
:. Longitudinal Strain = 2.6 x 10-4

Now, Longitudinal Strain = I/L

:. I = Longitudinal strain x L
I=2.6 x 10-4 x 5 = -10 1.3 x 10-3m=1.3mm

Poisson's ratio = Lateral strain / Longitudinal strain

:. Lateral strain =Poisson's ratio x Longitudinal strain
:. Lateral strain = 0.35 x 2.6 x 10-4 =9.1 x 10-5

Now, Lateral strain = d /D

:. D = Lateral strain x D = 9.1 x 10-5 x 2 x 10-3
Elongation = 1.3 mm, Lateral contraction
Ans: = 1.82 x 10-7 m
 Statistically Intermediate Members
When the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces
over a cross section exceed the number of independent equations
of equilibrium, the structure is called statically
indeterminate. These cases require the use of additional
relations that depend on the elastic deformations in the
members.
𝑃𝐿
Formula: 𝛿 = 𝐴𝐸

Whereas; 𝛿 = normal stress; P = normal force; L = length;

A = area; E = elastic modulus of the material
Example 1:

A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded by

a shell of a cast iron 5 mm thick. Compute the load that will
compress the combined bar a total of 0.8 mm in the length of 2 m.
For steel, E = 200 GPa, and for cast iron, E = 100 GPa.

Given:

Diameter: d = 50mm

Length: L = 2m

Thickness of Shell of a cast iron: t = 5mm

Elastic modulus of Steel: E = 200 GPa

Elastic modulus of Cast iron: E = 100 GPa

Find:

P: Load to compress the combined bar (0.8 mm total, length of 2 m)

Solution:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

For cast iron:

𝛿 = 𝛿𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 0.8 mm

𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 (2000)
𝛿𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = = 0.8
1
[ 𝜋(602 − 502 )] (100000)
4
𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 11000𝜋 N

For steel:

𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (2000)
𝛿𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = = 0.8
1
[ 𝜋(502 )] (200000)
4
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 50000𝜋 N

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑃 = 11000𝜋 + 50000𝜋
𝑃 = 61000𝜋 N
𝑃 = 191.64 kN
Example 2:

A reinforced concrete column 200 mm in diameter is designed

to carry an axial compressive load of 300 kN. Determine the
required area of the reinforcing steel if the allowable stresses
are 6 MPa and 120 MPa for the concrete and steel, respectively.
Use Eco = 14 GPa and Est = 200 GPa.

Given:

Diameter of concrete column = 200 mm

Capacity of concrete column= 300 kN

Elastic Modulus of Copper = Eco = 14 GPa

Elastic Modulus of Steel = Est = 200 GPa

Find:

Area of the reinforcing steel (stresses are 6 MPa

(concrete) and 120 MPa (steel))

Solution:

𝛿𝑐𝑜 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
( ) =( )
𝐴𝐸 𝑐𝑜 𝐴𝐸 𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝐿 𝜎𝐿
( ) =( )
𝐸 𝑐𝑜 𝐸 𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝐿 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐿
( ) =( )
𝐸 𝑐𝑜 𝐸 𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝐿 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐿
=
14000𝑐𝑜 200000𝑠𝑡
100𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 7𝜎𝑠𝑡
When 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 120 MPa
100𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 7(120)
𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 8.4 MPa > 6 MPa

When 𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 6 MPa

100(6) = 7𝜎𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 85.71 MPa < 120 MPa

Use 𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 6 MPa and 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 85.71 MPa

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑃𝑠𝑡 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜 = 300
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝐴𝑐𝑜 = 300
1
85.71𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 6 [ 𝜋(200)2 − 𝐴𝑠𝑡 ] = 300(1000)
4
79.71𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 60000𝜋 = 300000
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 1398.9 mm2
Example 3:
A timber column, 8 in. × 8 in. in cross section, is reinforced
on each side by a steel plate 8 in. wide and t in. thick. Determine
the thickness t so that the column will support an axial load of
300 kips without exceeding a maximum timber stress of 1200 psi or
a maximum steel stress of 20 ksi. The moduli of elasticity are 1.5
× 106 psi for timber, and 29 × 106 psi for steel.

Given:

Timber column cross section = 8 in. × 8 in

Steel plate = 8 in. wide and t in. thick

Elasticity:

=1.5 × 106 psi for timber

=29 × 106 psi for steel

Find:

Thickness = t (support an axial load of 300 kips without

exceeding a maximum timber stress of 1200 psi or a
maximum steel stress of 20 ksi)

Solution:

𝛿𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝛿𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝜎𝐿 𝜎𝐿
( ) =( )
𝐸 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐸 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐿 𝜎𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿
6
=
29 × 10 1.5 × 106
1.5𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 29𝜎𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
When 𝜎𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 1200 psi
1.5𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 29(1200)
𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 23200 psi = 23.2 ksi > 20 ksi

When 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 20 ksi

1.5(20𝑥1000) = 29𝜎𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜎𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 1034.48 psi < 1200 psi

Use 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 20 ksi and 𝜎𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 1.03 ksi

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 + 𝐹𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 300
(𝜎𝐴)𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 + (𝜎𝐴)𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 300
20[4(8𝑡)] + 1.03(82 ) = 300
𝑡 = 0.365 in
Example 4:
A rigid block of mass M is supported by three symmetrically
spaced rods as shown in Fig. P-236. Each copper rod has an area of
900 mm2; E = 120 GPa; and the allowable stress is 70 MPa. The steel
rod has an area of 1200 mm2; E = 200 GPa; and the allowable stress
is 140 MPa. Determine the largest mass M which can be supported.

Given:

Area of Copper rod = Aco = 900mm2

Elastic Modulus of Copper = Eco = 120 GPa

Allowable Stress for copper; 70 MPa

Area of Steel = Ast = 1200 mm2

Elastic Modulus of Steel = Eco = 200 GPa

𝛿𝑐𝑜 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡

𝜎𝐿 𝜎𝐿
( ) =( )
𝐸 𝑐𝑜 𝐸 𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑐𝑜 (160) 𝜎𝑠𝑡 (240)
=
120000 200000
 10𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 9𝜎𝑠𝑡

When 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 140 MPa

9
𝜎𝑐𝑜 = (140)
10
𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 126 MPa > 70 MPa

When 𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 70 MPa

10
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = (70)
9
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 77.78 MPa < 70 MPa

Use 𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 70 MPa and 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 77.78 MPa

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

2𝑃𝑐𝑜 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝑊
2(𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝐴𝑐𝑜 ) + 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 𝑀𝑔
2[70(900)] + 77.78(1200) = 𝑀 (9.81)
𝑀 = 22358.4 kg
Example 5:

In the previous problem, how should the lengths of the two

identical copper rods be changed so that each material will be
stressed to its allowable limit?

Use 𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 70 MPa and 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 77.78 MPa

𝛿𝑐𝑜 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡

𝜎𝐿 𝜎𝐿
( ) =( )
𝐸 𝑐𝑜 𝐸 𝑠𝑡

70𝐿𝑐𝑜 140(240)
=
120000 200000
𝐿𝑐𝑜 = 288 mm
 THERMAL STRESS
Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract.
The amount δT, is given by

𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼𝐿(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) = 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇
where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L
is the length in meter, Ti and Tf are the initial and final
temperatures, respectively in °C. For steel, α = 11.25 × 10-6
m/m°C.
If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no
load or stress will be induced in the structure. In some cases
where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal
stress is created. The internal stress created is termed as
thermal stress.
For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports
as shown, the thermal stress is computed as

:
deformation due to temperature changes;
δT = αLΔT
deformation due to equivalent axial stress;
δP = PLAE = σLE
δT = δP
αLΔT = σLE
σ = EαΔT
where σ is the thermal stress in MPa, E is the modulus of
elasticity of the rod in MPa.
 If the wall yields a distance of x as shown, the following
calculations will be made:

δT = x+δP
αLΔT = x+σLE
where σ represents the thermal stress.
Take note that as the temperature rises above the normal, the
rod will be in compression, and if the temperature drops below
the normal, the rod is in tension.

Example 1:
A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched
between two fixed points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb.
What will be the stress at 0°F? At what temperature will the stress
be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in/(in·°F) and E = 29 × 106 psi.

Given:

Cross-sectional area: A = 0.25 in2

Change in temperature: ΔT = 70°F

Tensile load: P = 1200 lb

Coefficient of thermal expansion; α = 6.5 × 10-6 in/(in·°F)

Elastic Modulus of the steel rod; E = 29 × 106 psi.

Find:

Stress (σ) at 0°F = ?

Temperature (T) if the stress (σ) is equal to zero = ?

Solution:

For the stress at 0°F

δ = δT + δst

𝜎𝐿 𝑃𝐿
= 𝛼𝐿(𝛥𝑇 ) +
𝐸 𝐴𝐸
P
σ = αE(ΔT) +
A
1200
σ = (6.5 × 10−6 )(29 × 106 )(70) +
0.25
σ = 17995psi = 18 ksi

For the temperature that causes zero stress

δT = δst
PL
αL(ΔT) =
AE
P
α(ΔT) =
AE
1200
(6.5 × 10−6 )(T − 70) =
0.25(29 × 106 )
T = 95.46∘ F
Example 2:

A steel rod is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a

tensile load of 5000 N at 20°C. If the allowable stress is not to
exceed 130 MPa at -20°C, what is the minimum diameter of the rod?
Assume α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa.

Given:

Tensile load; P = 5000 N

Change in temperature: ΔT = 20°C

Allowable stress: >130 MPa at -20°C

Coefficient of thermal expansion: α = 11.7 µm/ (m·°C)

Elastic modulus of the steel rod: E = 200 GPa

Find:

Minimum diameter of the rod: d = ?

Solution:

δ = δT + δst

σL PL
= αL(ΔT) +
E AE
P
σ = αE(ΔT) +
A
5000
130 = (11.7 × 10−6 )(200000)(40) +
A
5000
A= = 137.36 mm2
36.4
1 2

4
πd = 137.36
d = 13.22 mm

Example 3:

Steel railroad reels 10 m long are laid with a clearance of 3 mm

at a temperature of 15°C. At what temperature will the rails just
touch? What stress would be induced in the rails at that
temperature if there were no initial clearance? Assume α =
11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa.

Given:

Length of steel railroad: L = 10m = 10000mm

Initial temperature: Ti = 15°C

Coefficient of thermal expansion: α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C)

Elastic modulus of steel railroad: E = 200 GPa

Find:

Final Temperature: Tf = ?

Required stress: σ = ?

Solution:

Temperature at which T = 3 mm:

δT = αL(ΔT)
δT = αL(Tf − T𝑖 )
3 = (11.7 × 10−6 )(10000)(Tf − 15)
Tf = 40.64∘ C

Required stress:
δ = δT
σL
= αL(ΔT)
E
σ = αE(Tf − T𝑖 )
σ = (11.7 × 10−6 )(200000)(40.64 − 15)
σ = 60 MPa

Example 4:

A steel rod 3 feet long with a cross-sectional area of 0.25

in.2 is stretched between two fixed points. The tensile force is
1200 lb at 40°F. Using E = 29 × 106 psi and α = 6.5 × 10-
6
in./(in.·°F), calculate (a) the temperature at which the stress
in the bar will be 10 ksi; and (b) the temperature at which the
stress will be zero.

Given:

Length of steel rod: L = 3 ft.

Cross-sectional area of steel rod: A = 0.25 in2

Tensile force: P = 1200 lb

Final temperature: Tf = 40°C

Coefficient of thermal expansion: α = 6.5 × 10-6 in./(in.·°F)

Elastic modulus of the steel rod: E = 29 × 106 psi

Normal stress in the bar: σ = 10 ksi = 10000 psi

Find:

Initial temperature: T = ?

Temperature if the stress is zero: Tf = ?

Without temperature change:

P 1200
σ= = = 4800 psi
A 0.25
σ = 4.8ksi < 10ksi

A drop of temperature is needed to increase the stress

to 10 ksi.

δ = δT + δst

σL PL
= αL(ΔT) +
E AE
P
σ = αE(ΔT) +
A
1200
10000 = (6.5 × 10−6 )(29 × 106 )(ΔT) +
0.25
ΔT = 27.59∘ F

Required temperature:

T = 40 − 27.59 = 12.41∘ F
Temperature at which the stress will be zero

δ = δT
PL
= αL(ΔT)
AE
P = αAE(Tf − T𝑖 )
1200 = (6.5 × 10−6 )(0.25)(29 × 106 )(Tf − 40)
Tf = 65.46∘ F

Example 5:

A bronze bar 3 m long with a cross sectional area of 320 mm2 is

placed between two rigid walls as shown in Fig. P-265. At a
temperature of -20°C, the gap Δ = 2.5 mm. Find the temperature at
which the compressive stress in the bar will be 35 MPa. Use α =
18.0 × 10-6 m/(m·°C) and E = 80 GPa.

Given:

Length of bronze bar: L = 3 m = 3000 mm

Cross-sectional area of the bronze bar: A = 320 mm2

Initial temperature: Ti = -20°C

Gap: Δ = 2.5 mm

Compressive stress: P = 35 MPa

Coefficient of thermal expansion of the bronze bar: α = 18.0 × 10-

6
m/(m·°C)

Elastic modulus of the bronze bar: E = 80 GPa

Find:

Final temperature: Tf = ?

Solution:

δT = δ + Δ

σL
αL(ΔT) = + 2.5
E
35(3000)
(18 × 10−6 )(3000)(ΔT) = + 2.5
80000
ΔT = 70.6∘ C
T = 70.6 − 20
T = 50.6∘ C