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Abstract: Nonlinear behavior of concrete reinforced by rebars and/or fibers has been studied over decades. In this paper, classical models for
flexural behavior are discussed and an improved model is proposed. The model is based on a modified force-based fiber-beam formulation
where progressive loading is driven by a curvature at its nonlinear hinge. Such a procedure allows capturing both softening and hardening
behavior without any further adjustments. The curvature outside of the nonlinear hinge decreases during a deflection-softening phase, and
therefore a damaged constitutive law should be introduced. Rather than using the classical damage model proposed by Mazars, a macroscopic
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damage model at the moment-curvature level is proposed. The moment-curvature damage model reduces the whole computation of the beam
equilibrium to only one numerical loop. Consequently, time efficiency of the proposed model is significantly improved. Hypotheses of the
new model such as damage modeling, localization, and shear deflection are discussed and finally practical applications are presented to show
the model benefits. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0001335. © 2017 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Introduction the material properties from an iterative procedure where the de-
sired properties are firstly estimated and then iteratively corrected
Identification of nonlinear properties of ordinary concrete and spe- based on differences between the experimental and numerical
cially fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) or ultra-high performance results. The standard method used inversely simulates the experi-
fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) is a subject of many research mental results with models based on finite elements [Fig. 1(e),
projects. Uniaxial tensile and compressive tests are the most appro- Bretschneider et al. 2013] or fiber-beam elements [Fig. 1(d),
priate methods as they directly measure the desired properties. Taucer et al. 1991]. The finite-element models and the fiber-beam
However, the uniaxial tensile test is complicated to perform as well element models have been studied by researchers for many decades
as to analyze because of a localization phenomenon. Two kinds of and three primary formulations can be distinguished: a displacement-
nonlinear descriptions are used because of the localization: strain, based, a force-based, and a mixed-based formulation. Although, the
and crack-opening displacement (COD). While the strain descrip- finite-element models represent a very powerful tool for versatile
tion is natural continuation of elastic properties, the COD descrip- modeling, they also represent the most time-consuming approach.
tion can be only used after initiation of a macroscopic crack. Because many FRC or UHPFRC applications can be simplified
Conversely, the COD can be measured easily with a notched speci- into less complex structures, the fiber-beam element models are
men tested in uniaxial tension, whereas the strain measurement has more appropriate. The fiber-beam element model, originally devel-
to be deduced from the measured displacement by assuming a char- oped by Taucer et al. (1991), has been recognized as one of the
acteristic length. Because of a lack of sufficient information on the most promising models for static and dynamic analyses of rein-
characteristic length and complexity of the uniaxial tensile tests, the forced concrete frame structures since the late 1980s (Hsu and
complete strain description is usually deduced from indirect mea- Mo 2010). A comprehensive study on the fiber-beam element mod-
surements. The indirect measurements are also preferable for the els can be found in Valipour and Foster (2007). They summarized
COD because the overall configuration is significantly simpler then all the important milestones and models in this field since the very
the uniaxial tensile tests. beginning. Force-based or mixed-based formulations are generally
Three-point and four-point bending tests are recommended considered more suitable and they were used in much research
for fiber-reinforced concrete by many standards and recommenda- (Taucer et al. 1991; Spacone et al. 1996a; Neuenhofer and
tions [fib MC2010 (fib 2010); AFGC 2013; RILEM TC 162-TDF Filippou 1997). Although the force-based or the mixed-based fiber-
(RILEM 2002)]. However, such indirect measurements require ad- beam element models are generally faster than the finite-element
ditional treatment of the experimental results to evaluate the tensile models, they are still time-consuming for simply-supported struc-
properties. The additional treatment, also called back-analysis, is di- tures. Therefore, simplified methods used inversely and straightfor-
vided into three groups: a standard method used inversely, a simpli- ward inverse methods are more popular because of their higher time
fied method used inversely, and a straightforward inverse method. efficiency.
The first possible method for the posttreatment of the experi- The simplified method used inversely employs the same ap-
mental results is the standard method used inversely. It deduces proach as the standard methods used inversely. However, because
of its simplicity, each iterative loop is shorter, and consequently, the
1
Dept. of UHPC, LafargeHolcim Centre de Recherche, 95, rue du Mon- total computation time is significantly reduced. The simplest model
tmurier BP 15, 38291 Saint Quentin Fallavier, France (corresponding lumps the entire nonlinear deformation into one hinge and the rest
author). E-mail: svatopluk.dobrusky@lafargeholcim.com is considered to behave as a rigid body [Fig. 1(a)]. The complete
2
Scientific Director, LafargeHolcim Centre de Recherche, 95, rue du force-deflection relationship with a postpeak section can be derived
Montmurier BP 15, 38291 Saint Quentin Fallavier, France.
because the entire nonlinearity is lumped into one nonlinear hinge.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 10, 2016; approved on
April 13, 2017; published online on June 30, 2017. Discussion period open The replacement of the rigid body by a pure elastic behavior im-
until November 30, 2017; separate discussions must be submitted for proves predictive capacities [Fig. 1(a), Stang and Olesen 2000].
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Engineering Additional improvement is obtained by adding a shear contribution
Mechanics, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9399. to the total deflection (Ulfkjaer et al. 1995). The latter model
Model Description
In statically determinate structures, the internal forces are known
and consequently the force-based formulation is ideal for such
structures. The primary shortcoming of the force-based formulation
(d) is its inability to describe the deflection behavior after the onset of
the softening, unless special and hence time-consuming approaches
are used.
Fig. 2 illustrates the proposed model where the modified force-
based formulation is described. The progressive loading is driven
(e) by the curvature of the nonlinear hinge instead of the force. This
technique has two primary advantages; the progressive loading
Fig. 1. Various complexity of numerical models used for inverse ana-
driven by curvature helps overcome the peak load and continues
lyses: (a–c) simplified models; (d) fiber beam element model; (e) finite
on the softening section; secondly it can capture a snap-back effect
element model
in the force-displacement relationship. The complete model con-
sists of three major steps that are mathematically described as
follows. Fig. 2 shows the major steps in the titled boxes. In Cross-
provides very good results for materials with deflection-softening section equilibrium the equilibrium is solved and the corresponding
behavior (Naaman 2008). The previous models are no longer moment in the nonlinear hinge is computed. As shown in Structural
valid for materials with deflection-hardening behavior because equilibrium, once the moment in the nonlinear hinge is known (see
the assumption of the rigid or linear body underestimates the total 1 and 2), the classical force-based formulation is used for the
deflection. Chanvillard and Corvez (2013) proposed a new model known distribution of the moment on the rest of the beam (3 and
to avoid the underestimation of deflection, which takes into account 4). In Force displacement equilibrium the deflection of the beam is
the nonlinear behavior of the entire body [Fig. 1(b)] with an derived from the curvature, moment, and shear force distributions.
arbitrary deflection-hardening material. This model uses the force- The notable benefit of the proposed model comes from simpli-
based approach and explicitly evaluates the force-deflection rela- fication of the structural equilibrium. Each determination of the
tionship up to the peak load. Soranakom and Mobasher (2007) structure state has only one iterative loop at the cross section level.
This simplification is valid for an arbitrary combination of materi-
and Qian and Li (2008) proposed similar approaches assuming a
als within the cross section. One iterative loop at the cross section
predefined stress-strain relationship.
level is notably faster than two nested loops (Taucer et al. 1991;
The straightforward inverse method [fib MC2010 (fib 2010);
Spacone et al. 1996a) in which the innermost loop carries out
AFGC 2013; RILEM TC 162-TDF (RILEM 2002); Baby et al.
the iteration at the element level, to fulfill the equilibrium, and the
2013] directly connects the experimental results in bending to the
outermost loop provides the iteration at the structural level to sat-
uniaxial constitutive law (stress-strain or stress-COD relationships).
isfy the compatibility condition (Valipour and Foster 2007). One
The straightforward inverse methods differ in complexity: certain
iterative loop at the cross section level should also be, from the
methods can evaluate an arbitrary constitutive law (Baby et al.
essence of the algorithm, faster than the modified nested iterative
2013), whereas others only evaluate a predefined constitutive algorithm (Neuenhofer and Filippou 1997) that bypasses the iter-
law [fib MC2010 (fib 2010); AFGC 2013; RILEM TC 162-TDF ations required to satisfy the structural equilibrium condition for
(RILEM 2002)]. The primary benefit of the straightforward inverse each element (Valipour and Foster 2007).
method is its straightforwardness, which eliminates any iterative
loops (estimation and correction of the material properties). Be-
cause of the one-way approach, the determined uniaxial properties Notation of the Computation Script
have to be later transferred to different modeling software to predict The actual loading step is denoted by superscript t, e.g., ðX t Þ, the
the structural behavior of the intended application. This transfer previous loading steps are denoted by superscript τ , e.g., ðX τ Þ, the
represents its weakest point because different models could be nonlinear hinge element is denoted by subscript cr, e.g., ðX cr Þ,
based on different assumptions. This problem is avoided by using the position of the elements along the span for the moment, the
the same model for the inverse analysis and the simulation. curvature, and the damage variable is denoted by subscript j,
method worked well for all cross section layouts of many different
materials (normal concrete, UHPC, UHFRPC, and steel reinforce-
ment). Nevertheless, other arbitrary methods can be used as well.
The coupled moment and curvature are generated ðχ; MÞ
by solving the cross section equilibrium. The M–FB model is
driven by the curvature of the nonlinear hinge, therefore the cross
section equilibrium is repeated for the increasing curvatures ðχt ¼
χt−1 þ ΔχÞ. The repeated computation progressively generates
the coupled moments and curvatures that are stored in a vector form
ðχ̄ ; M̄Þ.
Structural Equilibrium
Each loading step is described by the curvature ðχtcr ¼ χt−1
cr þ ΔχÞ
and the corresponding moment M tcr at the nonlinear hinge. Con-
sidering ϕðxÞ as a moment interpolation function along the span,
the moment distribution is
Mt ðxÞ ¼ ϕðxÞM tcr ð5Þ
1
X~ t ¼ ðX t þ X t−1 Þ; ΔX t ¼ X t − X t−1 ð13Þ
2
where F = applied load; d = deflection under the applied load; L =
length of the beam; and ΔU tV = energy associated with the shear
forces along the length of the beam. Eq. (13) explains the notation
of Δ and tilde symbols that are used in Eq. (12) and after. The Δ
(a) (b) symbol refers to a difference of two consecutive loading steps,
whereas the tilde symbol refers to an average of two consecutive
loading steps. The shear contribution to the deflection is discussed
in depth in the following section.
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Discussion
Ētk ¼ Ek ð1 − ωt−1
k Þ ð15Þ
where M j ðτ Þ and χj ðτ Þ = coupled pairs of moment and curvature,
which were previously reached at the cross section. Then the actual where m = total amount of the fibers at the cross section; Ētk =
curvature is apparent stiffness of the material; ωt−1
k = damage parameter; Δχ =
unknown unloading step; and Δyg = corresponding change of the
Mtj neutral axis. Eq. (15) is derived with the assumptions that each
χtj ¼ min ; ½M t ðxÞ ð11Þ
ð1 − ωtj Þke layer undergoes unloading and the layers where loaded elastically
in compression. Therefore, the damage parameters (ωt−1 k ) do not
The damage parameter is updated after every load step accord- change during the step. Because of the constant axial force during
ing to Eq. (10). The combination of Eqs. (9)–(11) can be explained the loading and unloading process, a difference between the pre-
as the linear damaged unloading of each element, which was found vious and actual loading steps is equal to zero and a new expression
to be similar to the model proposed by Soranakom and Mobasher is obtained
(2008). Nonetheless they proposed an elastic recovery or no cur-
X
m
vature recovery that could entrain inaccuracies in both cases. 0¼ ½Δχt Ētk ðyk − yt−1
g Þ − Ēk ðχ
t−1 þ Δχt ÞΔyt ð16Þ
g
k¼0
from the principle of energy conservation proposed by Timoshenko as well. Therefore, the moment resistance is simplified to a new
(1941) form
(b) Eq. (12) is straightforward but also problematic because the locali-
zation occurs at the onset of the deflection softening. Numerical ap-
Fig. 4. Difference between the stress-strain damage law (data from proaches use a longitudinal discretization and therefore Eq. (12)
Mazars 1984) and the moment curvature damage law for a rectangular transforms into a discreet form
cross section 40=100 mm: (a) ordinary concrete C30=37 [data from fib X
n
MC2010 (fib 2010)]; (b) UHPFRC (data from Dobruský et al. 2013) F~ t Δdt ¼ ~ tj Δχtj dj þ M
M ~ tcr Δχtcr dcr ð19Þ
j¼0
X
m where n = total amount of the elements outside the nonlinear hinge;
M tj ¼ Ētk ðχt−1 þ Δχt Þðyk − yt−1 2
g Þ ð17Þ dj = length of these elements; and dcr = length of the nonlinear hinge.
k¼0 In this example, the rectangular rule for the numerical integration is
used and the shear contribution to the deflection is not considered.
The new form of the moment resistance helps derive the change The higher the number of elements (integration points), the shorter
of the curvature during unloading the length of elements. Consequently, the global response has spu-
ΔM tj rious mesh sensitivity. In the proposed model, an approach from
Δχtj ¼ χt−1
j ð18Þ the crack-band theory is used (Bažant and Oh 1983), where the
M t−1
j localization is lumped into one crack band with a constant effective
element size dcr equal, in this case, to the characteristic bending
Eq. (18) provides the same curvature increment as Eq. (11)
length lfl . The elements outside the crack band (nonlinear hinge)
during unloading, which verifies the moment-curvature damage
do not localize, and consequently the size of the element can be ar-
model. Fig. 4 compares the standard stress strain damage model
bitrary. The length of the crack band (nonlinear hinge) dcr is one of
and the moment-curvature damage model for two different con-
the input parameters.
cretes (C30/37 and UHPFRC). Both loading paths are identical be-
The rectangular rule for numerical integration outside the non-
cause the cross sections are composed of the materials that all obey
linear hinge is sufficiently precise because of the monotonically-
the Mazar damage law.
increasing curvature. However, Fig. 5 shows a possible error if
The new damage model significantly simplifies the whole-beam
the rectangular rule is applied on the nonlinear hinge. Another
analysis. When a beam has a constant cross section (dimensions
drawback of the rectangular rule for the nonlinear hinge is its direct
and materials), each element is represented by only one single-
proportionality to the size of the element. The length of the nonlinear
damage parameter. The damage parameter describes the state of
hinge (size of the element, dcr ) is generally empirically derived, thus
the element and it is continuously updated during the loading.
it does not have a unique value. Consequently, different standards
The common constitutive law for all elements is stored only once
and recommendations lead to different results due to the strong sen-
without any update during the analyses.
sitivity to the size of the element. In the proposed model, these two
The proposed model was originally intended for UHPFRC,
drawbacks were minimized assuming a symmetrical parabolic
which is completely within the scope of the previous paragraphs.
shape of the curvature within the nonlinear hinge as proposed by
In order to extend the scope to beams with steel rebars, the model
Casanova (1995) and used by others (Chanvillard and Roque 1999)
had to be adapted. In most reinforced beams, steel rebars play a
dominant role in its bending response, hence the unloading of such χtcr ðxÞ ¼ ax2 þ bx þ c ð20Þ
beams should follow the elastoplastic law rather than the damage
law. Thus, when the steel rebars were used in the model, the where the constants a, b, and c are derived from the parabolic boun-
moment-curvature damage model was used until the onset of dary conditions
(a) (b)
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(b)
where hðxÞ varied along the nonlinear section of the span [Fig. 6(a),
Shear Effect L1nl or L2nl ]. Fig. 6(b) shows the differences between the lower and
The effect of shear on the deflection increases as the span-height upper bounds, where a sinusoidal shape of the cracked area was
ratio decreases. The elastic deflection caused by shear of a simple assumed for the upper bound.
supported beam loaded at the middle is 3.0% for the span-height The study of the shear contribution to the total deflection pro-
ratio equal to 10 and 12.5% for the span-height ratio equal to 5. The vided two major conclusions. First, the shear contribution behind
second part of Eq. (12) represents the energy associated with the the elastic limit was continuously decreasing as the moment con-
shear forces from which the shear contribution is derived. The shear tribution to the total deflection was becoming more and more dom-
contribution to the total deflection of the beam was studied in depth inant. Secondly, the difference between the linear and nonlinear
by Timoshenko (1941) in his famous book Strength of Materials. behavior was insignificant. Therefore, for the purposes of simplic-
Timoshenko proposed an approximate solution for the simple sup- ity and time efficiency, the exact elastic solution for the simple sup-
ported beam loaded at the middle [Eq. (e), p. 299] ported beam loaded at the middle can be used [Eq. (k), p. 174,
Timoshenko 1941]
Z LZ h 3 2 2
2 V h
UV ¼ − y~ 2
bdxdy ð21Þ 2 3
0
2
−h2 8GI z 4 Ft L3 h h
dtshear ¼ 2.85 − 0.84 ð23Þ
48EI L L
where V = shear force; G = modulus of elasticity in shear; I z =
moment of inertia with respect to z axes; and y~ = distance from
the neutral axis. The height (h) in Eq. (21) can vary along the span. Data Analysis
Thus, two boundary conditions were studied in this paper to evalu-
ate the shear contribution to the total deflection in the nonlinear Three possible applications of the proposed model are presented in
range. In the lower boundary condition, the entire beam had a pure this section: (1) a fast inverse analysis of unknown material; (2) a
elastic shear behavior, like a nondamaged beam. In the upper parametric study of façade panels made of a concrete matrix,
(b)
(b)
organic fibers and nonmetallic reinforcement; and (3) a comparison
between the proposed model, a standard fiber-beam model, nonlin- Fig. 8. (a) Numerical simulation of façade panels made of UHPFRC
ear finite-element model, and experimental results of UHPFRC with nonmetallic reinforcement; (b) numerical and experimental para-
beams with steel rebars. metric study with façade panels made of UHPC, NR: UHPFRC without
reinforcing mesh, NF: UHPC with reinforcing mesh
Inverse Analysis
Identification of nonlinear concrete parameters represents an im- (500=150=15 mm) were composed of a UHPC matrix, organic fi-
portant role in material research. A task of this study was to identify bers and two layers of a symmetrical nonmetallic reinforcing mesh
nonlinear properties of a material from which a set of plates (500/ placed 5 mm from each side. Firstly, the complete composite panels
150/13 mm) were produced. The proposed model was used to (concrete matrix, fibers, and reinforcement) were tested in four-
inversely analyze the experimental results obtained by three-points point bending. The tests were conducted at LafargeHolcim
bending tests. The tests were performed at LafargeHolcim Re- Research and Development Center according to the UHPFRC rec-
search and Development Center according to the UHPFRC recom- ommendations (AFGC 2013) where the piston displacement was
mendations (AFGC 2013) where the piston displacement was continuously increased until the complete failure. The panel deflec-
continuously increased until the complete failure. The plate dis- tion was measured at the middle of the span by LVDTs. After the
placement was measured at the middle of the span by linear var- experimental testing, the complete composite panel was inversely-
iable displacement transducers (LVDT). After the experimental analyzed with the proposed model. Fig. 8(a) shows the experimen-
testing, the input properties of the material were randomly gener- tal results and the fitted numerical equivalent of the complete
ated and the numerical simulations and the experimental results composite panel. Once the properties of each material were known
were compared on the basis of the root-mean square error. The (inversely-analyzed), some components of the composite panel
entire process was automated by a computer script using simulat- (fibers or reinforcing mesh) were removed to numerically simulate
ing annealing and it successfully converged to the real unique various responses. After the numerical simulations, auxiliary exper-
material parameters without any additional intervention over a very imental tests, with the identical testing conditions, were carried
short period of time (a few minutes for the whole convergence and a out to confirm the simulations (matrix-fibers and matrix-mesh).
few seconds for one force-deflection simulation). Fig. 7(a) shows a Fig. 8(b) shows very good conformity between the experimental
good capacity of the proposed model to capture the real response. results and the numerical simulations. The study proved a good
The inversely-analyzed stress-strain relationship had an expected capacity of the proposed model to simulate different behaviors
shape for UHPFRC as it is shown on Fig. 7(b). The tensile resis- without additional experimental testing.
tance of the matrix is relatively low (compared to other UHPC ma-
trices) but the high volume of fibers (σ2 > σ1 ) helps to increase the
overall resistance of the tested plates. Comparison between Numerical Models
The comparison was focused on behavior of UHPFRC beams
reinforced with organic fibers and a steel rebar. At the beginning,
Parametric Study
one rectangular beam (40=60=900 mm) was produced and tested in
The parametric study focused on identification of a contribution of three-point bending by continuously increasing the piston displace-
different materials in a composite panel. The studied panels ment until failure. The beam deflection was measured at the middle
Conclusions
(a)
Prior work documented the effectiveness of the force based fiber-
beam model for a broad range of concrete structures. For example,
Spacone et al. (1996b) presented an application of the fiber-beam
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