SPE

Society of Petroleun Engineers of AIME

SPE 12482

Hydraulic Fracturing Design and Evaluation:

A Case History
by A.M. AI-Khatib, * A.A. King, and M.S. Wilson, Mobil Oil Corp.
*Member SPE-AIME

Copyright 1984 Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME

This paper was presented at the 1984 California Regional Meeting held in Long Beach, CA, April11-13, 1984. The material is subject to correction by the
author. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Write SPE, 6200 North Central Expressway, Drawer 64706, Dallas,
Texas 75206 USA. Telex 730989 SPEDAL.

I. INTRODUCTION depth of 4400' +/- by a combination of stratigraphic

and diagenetic changes which create permeability
A unique method utilizing fluid entry surveys barriers cutting across the anticlinal structure
has been developed to improve fracture treatment (McGuire et. al., 1983). The reservoir rock is high
designs at the Lost Hills Oil Field. Fluid entry porosity (20- 50%), low permeability (.1- 10 md)
surveys were conducted on thirty-two hydraulicly siliceous shale formed by recrystallization of thinly
fractured wells in three different sections of the laminated diatomaceous mudstones to diagenetic Opal
Lost Hills Oil Field. The surveys were analyzed to CT and Quartz. The diagenetic recrystallization
identify intervals of the completed zone contributing in~reases the brittleness of the rock, w1th silica-
to flow (Contribution Ratio, CR) and to determine ' rith layers becoming the most brittle and fracture
intervals of high water production. prone.
Data from _this type of ana 1ys is Recent structural growth of the Lost Hills Anti-
were then used
to develop a correlation between the total .thickness
cline during Pleistocene time has produced faulting
of the perforated/fractured zone and and fracturing in the brittle rocks, especially along
the fraction of
that zone contributing to fluid flow the anticlinal axis. The axial fracture system is
(CR).
sufficiently developed to allow marginally profitable
Considering this relationship as a potential oil and gas production from several Cahn Zone wells
design criteria, many fracture treatments were logged drilled on the anticlinal axis during the 1950's and
and evaluated. In conjunction with the aforementioned 1960's using slotted liner completion$. Down dip and
relationship, empirical correlations relating to on the flanks of the structure, however, hydraulic
perforation size and density, friction pressure losses fracturing is necessary for economic production.
and surface treatment rates were then used to modify
the fracture treatment designs. Several Cahn Zone wells were hydraulicly frac-
tured during the 1960's and 1970's without significant
Through the use of these correlations, optimum improvement in production. In late 1979, however,
interval thickness to be fractured in one stage can Chevron encountered strong oil and gas shows in a
be ~etermined. Improved multi stage treatment design downdip extention well (Chevron 181x-16), and when
has resulted in greater production increases. hydraulicly fractured the well produced 480 BOPD/100
BWPD/680 MCFPD.
II. CAHN ZONE GEOLOGY AND HISTORY
Development wells soon followed, and since 1980
The 11 Cahn Pool 11 is located on the south end of more than 200 Cahn Zane wells have been drilled by
the Lost Hills anticline, approximately 45 miles Chevron, Getty, Mobil, Gulf, Area, Shell and others
northwest of Bakersfield, California, on the west to develop the pool.
side gf the San Joaquin Valley. The pool produces
25-38 API oil and large volumes of solution gas from A typi ca 1 Cahn Zone we 11 is dri 11 ed to a depth of
fractured siliceous shales of the Upper Miocene 5,000', encountering 100 - 600' of pay zone in the
Monterey Formation, known locally as the 11 Cahn Zone 11 Monterey Formation. The well is logged with Mudlog,
after the discovery well at Chevron's Cahn Fee, sec Dual Induction, Sonic and Density logs, sampled at
9-27S-21E, Kern Co., CA. selected intervals with sidewall cores, and is cased
with 5~ or 711 casing. Completion intervals. are 11

The oil and gas accumulation is trapped at a selected by analyzing log and core data, and the well
is hydraulicly fractured over a 100 - 400 foot· Net
References and illustrations at end of paper. Completion I.nterval. Initial production is typically

9
2 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING ~ DESIGN AND EVALUATION: A CASE HISTORY
100 500 BOPD, 100 - 400 BWPD, 300 - 1,200 MCFPD,
with first year production of 25 - 80 MBO and ultimate questions arise: Why is the Contribution Ratio so
production of 100- 200 MBO per well. Well cost is
.5 to 1 million dollars, of which 20% is spent on
fracture treatments.
III. HYDRAULIC FRACTURE DESIGN
Since the main fracturing mechanism is the fluid
injected into the formation, it was necessary to run
permeability damage studies on core samples from
several wells to determine the optimum frac fluid.
The core studies have shown that one basic frac fluid
system holds natural permeability damage to an average
of +/- 7%. The fluid system consists of a 2% KCl base
fluid cross-linked with a 40 PPM Guar Derivative
Polymer with 0.1% of both Clay-Stabilizing Polymer and
water-wetting surfactant.
A large number of wells were fractured with this
type of frac-fluid, with +/- 200 gals/ft. of Sand
Laden Cross-linked gel containing 6-8 lbs/gal of 20/40
sand. The sand was mixed at low concentrations until
the fracture was initiated and then sand concentration
was increased gradually as the fracture propagated.
The limited entry technique was utilized to obtain an
even fluid distribution during the frac treatment.
Most of the wells fractured with this design produced
with I.P. 1 s of 200-500 BPD and 15-70% water cuts.
IV. FLUID ENTRY SURVEYS
In an attempt to identify water producing zones
and reduce water cuts in high cut wells, fluid entry
surveys (temperature, pressure gradient, fluid density,
spinner and R.A. tracers) were us~d to locate water
entries in flowing. wells. Where practical, water
entry points were plugged off, and water. cuts were
reduced to 10-20%. Detailed analyses of the fluid
entry surveys revealed hydrocarbon as well as water
entries into the wellbore. These data permitted re-
evaluation of the log analyses used to select comple-
tion intervals. Usually .the hydrocarbon entries
coincided with the favorable looking zones on logs,
but in some instances, hydrocarbon bearing zones were
not contributing to flow.
Figure 1 presents a fluid entry survey and DIL
for a typical Cahn Zone well. The shaded area shows
the portion of the Net Completion Interval contribut-
ing to flow. Only 97 ft. out of 380 ft. of perforated
zone are contributing to flow; a contribution ratio
of 25%*. Much of the completed interval which appears
to bear hydrocarbons is not cintributing any fluid.
The low C (25%) is not favorable and it should be
improved ~hrough re-evaluating and revising the frac
treatment design used to complete Cahn Zone wells.
Contribution Ratio
*CR=COMPLETION INTERVAL CONTRIBUTING TO FLOVJ**=Qz_' =25%
NET COMPLETION INTERVAL 380 1
** From fluid entry surveys.
V~ FRACTURE TREATMENT EVALUATION
Figure 1 shows a well in which only 25% of the
10
SPE 12482
Net Completion Inverval is contributing to flow. The
low? How could it be improved?
To answer these questions, Mobil 1 s fracture
designs were reviewed. Treatment Size and Treatment
Procedures were re-evaluated.
The treatment size is determined by the fracture
length, width, and height considered appropriate
for a specific formation in a specific situation
1• Fracture Length
The fracture length depends on the formation
permeability and the relative conductivity
that can be achieved. As discussed by
McGuire and Sikora, 1960, fracture length of
200 1 +/- ft. is optimum for low permeabilitiec
(generally less than 1 md) such as encount-
ered at the Cahn Zone of the Lost Hills Oil
Field. With fracture lengths of this magni-
tude, flow is essentially linear in areas
developed on 5-10 acre spacing, as is used
for Cahn Zone wells. Review of pressure
buildup surveys for Cahn Zone wells indicatec
that linear flow did exist and that the
fracture lengths obtained were close to
200+/-. --
2. Fracture Width
Sand Concentration is the controlling factor
in creating a certain fracture width.
McGuire and Sikora, 1960, define Relative
Conductivity as:
RC = ~~ AD
WHERE:
W= Fracture width, in.
Kf= Fracture permeability, md.
K = Formation permeability, md.
40= Spacing factor with 40 acres as the
A Standard.
For the Cahn Zone we chose the following
factors:
W= 0.5 in.
L.= ioo ft. (fracture length)
Kf= 50,000 md.
And knowing the following from existing
completions,
K = 0.1 md.
SPE 12482 ALI M. AL-KHATIB, A. RICHARD KING, AND MIKE S. WILSON
A = 6.4 acres
re= 264 ft. for A=6.4 acres
We calculated RC as follows:
RC = 0.5 X 50,000 X" 40
0.1 6.4.
. It was evident from the generally low
625,000
L/re = 200/264 = .75
Using TC = 625,000 and L/re = .75 to enter
Figure 2 (from McGuire and Sikora, 1960)
a steady state Stimulation Ratio of approx
imately 11.5 was calculated for these
conditions. This example suggests that
the fracture length and width were more
than adequate.
Could we improve the Stimulation Ratio by
increasing the fracture width, and at what
cost?
If the sand concentration was increased
from 6-8 to 9-10.5 lbs/gal., the fracture
width W, theoretically, would be increased
to 0.75 in. Using the previous procedure,
the Stimulation Ratio woild be approxi-
mately 11.7, a 1.7% increase. The increas
in Stimulation Ratio would not be suffi-
cient to justify increasing the sand vol-
ume and possible screening out due to
high sand concentration.
This evaluation showed that the width and
length of the fracture design were appar-
ently adequate; no alterations were neces-
sary.
3. Fracture Height and Fluid Entry Surveys
For design purposes, the fracture height
was taken to be the perforated thickness
between two bounding layers. Completion
intervals were generally 200-400 ft. net
thickness, depending on the log and core
analysis. Figure 3 shows a typical Cahn
Zone DIL with the perforated interval
highlighted, and the portion contributing
to flow shaded. The fluid entry survey
for this well showed that only 22% of the
Net Completion Interval was contributing
to flow. Since the Contribution Ratio
is a factor of the net zone thickness
(fracture height) and since the fracture
length and width were eliminated as poss-
ible design weak points, the fracture
height presented a potential candidate for
re-evaluation.
Thirty-two Cahn Zone fluid entry surveys
were evaluated in detail to determine the
nature and location of the produced fluid.
11
3
The surveys showed that water production
was generally from different depths
associated with hydrocarbon production.
The reservoir does not have a clearly
defined oil/water contact. Contribution
Ratios for the various surveys ranged
from 9% to 48%.
Controbution Ratios that the Net Comple-
tion Intervals were too large for one
stage fracture treatments and that a
guideline should be established to deter-
mine the optimum thickness (fracture
height) for one stage fracture treatments
A plot was made showing Contribution
Ratio vs. Net Completion Interval (Figure
4). The data formed a curve with a
determination factor of 91.7%. The curve
shows that high Contribution Ratios corre
spond with small Net Completion Intervals
Another Plot was made showing the calcu-
lated percentage of perforations open
during fracture treatment vs. Net Comple-
tion Interval (Figure 5). This data
forms a curve with a determination factor
of 94.1%. It shows that smaller Net
Completion Intervals have higher percent-
age of perforations open. Table II pre-
sents a list of wells with the Contribu-
tion Ratio and the number of holes open
during the fracture treatment.
Figure 6 relates the number of perfora-.
tions open during fracture treatment to
initial production. It shows that pro-
duction increases with the number of open
perforations.
4. Revisions to Fracture Height
The data presented in Figures 4, 5 and 6
showed that the overall effectiveness of
the fracture treatment was greatest for
small Net Completion Intervals. We
concluded that fracture designs which
attempted to treat large completion
intervals (200-400 ft.) in one stage were
ineffective, and that our frac designs
might be more effective if we reduced
the Net Completion Interval to be frac 1 d
in one stage to the smallest practical
thickness. On-the basis of cost effect-
iveness, we concluded that 100ft. +/- wa~
the optimum Net Completion Interval for
one stage fracture treatment.
B. Treatment Procedures
Having determined that the optimum Net Comple
tion Interval was 100 ft. ± pe~ stage, we
re-evaluated treatment procedures to deter-
mine the most efficient fracturing procedure
to maximize Contribution Ratios. The Limited
Entry. Fracturing Technique is the method used
4 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING - DESIGN AND EVALUATION: A CASE HISTORY
to fracture the Cahn zone wells. The techni-
que is dependent on the perforation density
and size, the surface injection rate, and
the frictional pressure losses during treat-
ment.
·The following is an evaluation of the Limited
Entry method as used to fracture the Cahn
wells with revisions to achieve better frac
treatments and higher contribution ratios:
1. Limited Entry
The limited entry fracturing technique is
a method of treating long multiple zones.
The technique utilizes the frictional
pressure drop across a limited number of
perforations. While treating, the fric-
tional pressure drop across the perfora-
tions increases as the surface treating
pressure is increased. With the perfora-
tions acting as chokes, the bottom hole
treating pressure, inside the casing, can
be controlled. This is accomplished by
regulating the pumping rate on the sur-
face. As the bottom hole pressure or the
injection rate is increased, an increase
in the perforation frictional pressure
drop is caused and successive holes are
broken down or fractured. The necessary
amount of friction pressure drop will
vary with the formation and well condi-
tions -- a good average to maintain is
200/400 psi.
rn addition, the size of the perforations, revised design criteria (high injection rate, perfor-
the number of perforations, and the maxi- ations broken down with cup washers). Production
mum injection rate are also important in
achieving limited entry. Figure 7 shows
the relationship between the perforation
friction pressure, injection rate, and
the perforation size.
Mobil's fracture treatment procedures
were reviewed, and the following obser-
vations were made:
a. Perforation frictional pressure in
most cases was less than 50 psi,
which meant that Limited Entry might
have not been achieved.
b. When ball sealers were used to divert
fluid flow into unopened holes, the
number of opened holes in some wells
was less than 50% of the total.
c. The surface injection rate was not
high enough to assist in obtaining
better limited entry and to minimize
fluid leak-off.
2. Revisions to Treatment Procedure
a. Decrease the net completion interval
to 100 ft. +/- per stage. This would
necessitate two or more fracturing
stages in most wells due to thick
SPE 12482
pay zones.
b. Reduce the perforation diameter from ~~~
to 3/8" (FIG 7).
c. Use a 200 psi perforation frictional
pressure drop as a design criteria.
d. Use the maximum possible injection rate.
This can be achieved by fracturing
through casing.
e. Determine the number of holes to be per-
forated based on the information presente<
on Figure 7 and steps c and d above~
f. Break down all perforations before frac-
ture treatment with a Cup Washer appara-
tus, instead of using ball sealers during
fracturing.
VI. CASE HISTORIES
These revisions to the fracture treatment design
met the design requirements of the Limited Entry tech
nique. To determine the effects of the new revisions
Lost Hills One ·well #178 was selected for application
The well had been fractured initially using the unmod
ified design, and was producing poorly. It flowed
for only six months and then required pumping. Figur
8 presents the fluid entry survey for Lost Hills One
#178. It shows that only 30% of the net completion
interval was actually contributing to flow.
Lost Hills One #178 was refractured using the
was significantly improved and the well is still
flowing one year after being refractured.
Lost Hills One #179 was fractured in two stages
using the revised design. Figure 9 shows the fluid
entry survey for this well. The Contribution Ratio
is 57%. Initial production for this well was 350 BPD
twice the typical initial production of wells frac-
tured with the unmodified design.
Table III compares production rates for wells
fractured with the unmodified (one stage) and modifie
(multi-stage) fracture designs. Wells fractured with
the modified, multi-stage designs had significantly
higher production than those fractured with the
unmodified design.
VII. SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS
1. The treatment size of 200 gals/ft,of sand
laden gel is adequate to create a fracture
length of 200 ft. ± •
2. The sand concentration of 6-8 lbs/gal is
sufficient to insure an optimum fracture
width.
3. The fracture height or zone thickness to be
fractured in one stage should be reduced to
100 +/- ft.
12
SPE 12482 ALI M. AL-KHATIB, A. RICHARD KING, AND MIKE S. WILSON 5

4•. High injection rates are necessary to insure

proper fracture propagation.
5. Perforation breakdown with cup washers is
necessary before fracturing and should be
used instead of ball sealers.
6. Two or more fracture stages should be used
to treat thick productive intervals.
7. The additional cost incurred by multi-stage
fracture treatments is justified and paid for
by better productivity and longer flowing
1i fe.
VII I. REFERENCES
1. Strubar, M. K. and Jones, L. G., 11 Fracturing
of Diatomaceous Earth Formations", San Joaqui
Valley, California. Mobil Oil Company Memo,
January 27, 1982.
2. Strubar, M. K. et.al., 11 Fracturing Results in
Diatomaceous Earth Formations 11 , South Belridg
Field, California, SPE paper #10966.
3. Swanson, G. S. and Meeken, R. B. 11 An Analysis
of Fracturing Pressures in the South Belridge
and Lost Hills Field 11 , SPE paper #9935.
4. McGuire, M. D., Bowersox, J. R. and Earnest,
L. J., 11 Diagenetically Enhanced Entrapment
of Hydrocarbons - Southeastern Lost Hills
Fractured Shale Pool, Kern County,California 11
in Petroleum Generation and Occurrence in the
Miocene Monterey Formation, Californta,
Pacific SEPM, 1983, pp. 171-183.
5. McGuire, W. J., and Sikora, V. J., 11 The
Effect of Vertical Fractures on Well Product-
ivity11, JPT, October, 1960, pp. 72-74.
6. B. J. Hughes Workbook on 11 Friction Pressure
and Limited Entry 11 , 1983.
7. Howard, G. C. & Fast, C. R., 11 Hydraul i c
Fracturing 11 , SPE Monograph Volume 2, 1970.
8. Veatch, R. W., Jr., 11 0verview of Current
Hydraulic Fracturing Design and Treatment
Technology- Part 211 , J.P.T., May 1983,
pp. 853-864.

13
 TABLEm

COMPARISON IN PRODUCTION RATES

TABLE!
BETWEEN ONE STAGE AND TWO STAGE
CAHN POOL RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
FRAC. TREATMENTS

A. WELLS FRAC'D IN ONE STAGE USING THE ORIGINAL FRAC. DESIGN

THICKNESS, ft. 200'- 400'
INITIAL PRODUCTION
DEPTH, ft. 4000' - 5000' WELL NUMBER GROSS BID
cj),% 30-45
169 214
K,md 0.1 - 10
178 115
Sh,% 15-35
Sw,% 65-75 196B 122

B. WELLS FRAC'D IN TWO STAGES USING THE MODIFIED FRAC DESIGN

INITIAL PRODUCTION
WELL NUMBER GROSS B/D

167 301

168 471

179 351

197 586
P-435-83 P-437-83

FIGURE 1

FLUID ENTRY AND D.I.L. CORRELATION

TABLER

FRAC TREATMENT RESULTS BEFORE DENSITY LOG

FRAC DESIGN MODIFICATION 1.0
II .
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
i.OoOO - -·~..! ~!. - - i"a:-oOO
1 oL
gm/cc
..
-.:oooc;··-~~,..~ ~J~l .•• ;•:ooo
4200'
TEMPERATURELOG °F
168° 170° 172° 174°
CALC.% OF
NO. OF PERF'D CALC. NO. OF PERF'S OPEN CONTRIBUTION ~;:
WELL NO. HOLES OPEN HOLES DURING FRAC. (%)RATIO
!l
45 10 22 26

(f) 2 59 10 17 21

-o 3 27 8 30 35

m 4 35 10 29 33

J-.1 5 77 7 9 11
{1
1'\) 6 32 9 28 31

-,.__
( X)
7 24 8 33 41

ru
I P-436-83

Fig. 1-Fiuid entry and D.I.L. correlation.

 FIGURE2
FIGURE3
STIMULATION RATIO VS
TYPICAL E. LOG
RELATIVE CONDUCTIVITY DEEP INDUCTION
0 5 10

14 1 ,__ 1 n

12

0 r-;----11 1 0
i= ~!
~M N
z;:::
0
~
c:)
8
i= c::
c( -
5 L.__j 6
~ 0
t; ~
~ 4

0+-----------.------------r----------~----------~
102 103 104 105 106

RELATIVE CONDUCTIVITY Wkt f40

K_,J-t;
(AFTER MCGUIRE AND SIKORA)

K = AVG. Fm. PERMEABILITY, md (BASED ON GROSS THICKNESS)

L = FRACTURE LENGTH FROM WELLBORE, FT.
re = DRAINAGE RADIUS, FT.
A =WELL SPACING, ACRES
Wkt =CRACK CONDUCTIVITY, md-in.
W = PROPPED WIDTH OF FRACTURE, in.
Kt =PERMEABILITY OF PROPPING MATERIAL, md
rw = WELLBORE RADIUS, FT.
J = PRODUCTIVITY INDEX AFTER FRACTURING
J0 = PRODUCTIVITY INDEX BEFORE FRACTURING
(/)
LJ
m Fig. 2-Stimulation ratio vs. relative conductivity.
P-427-83

J--1 Fig. 3-Typical Cahn electric log.

r\)
-C-
eo
N
 1000
400~--T---------------------~--------------------~
900 FIGURE 4
FIGURES
800 CAHN ZONE CAHN ZONE
700 LOST HILLS FIELD LOST HILLS FIELD
600 DETERMINATION FACTOR= 91.7% DETERMINATION FACTOR= 94.1%
500

400

300 300

~
u.
II)
.....
...: 200 w
u. ...1
0
!!!
w
...1 ...
::z:::

Q
0
...
::z::: u..a:
CURVE GENERATED FROM w
c:i 11.
u
c(
FLUID ENTRY LOGS.
~
a: 100 u.
u. ;; 200
en 90 u CURVE GENERATED FROM
en EMPERICAL CORRELATIONS
w 80 c(
z a:
u.
lll:
(J 70 en
i: en
1- 60 w
1-
z
lll:
w (J
z 50 i:
I-
I-
40 w
z

30 100

20

(f)
-o 10 .
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
P-429·83
0.00 I I I I I I I I I I I p.
430 13
" I

m 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
,..._. % OF NET THICKNESS CONTRIBUTING TO FLOW (CONTRIBUTION RATIO)

Fig. 4-Contribution ratio vs. net thickness fractured.

CALC. % OF PERF'S OPEN DURING FRAC. TREATMENT
Fig. 5-Percentage of open perforations vs. net thickness fractured.
1'\.)
..{:::-
(X)

N
 FIGURE&
CAHN ZONE
LOST HILLS FIELD

20

ol--------------.------------~
0
100 2~0~0 ------------~3~0~0 ------------~4~0~0------------!s~oo
GROSS BID INITIAL PRODUCTION

Fig. &-Gross initial production vs. number of open perforations.

10~------------------------------------------,
FIGURE 7
FIGURES
FLOW RATE VERSUS PERFORATION
WELL# 178- FRACTURED WITH ORIGINAL
FRICTION PRESSURE
TREATMENT DESIGN IN ONE STAGE

50
FLOWING TEMP °F
168° 170°
u;
i 100
FLOWING PRESSURE PSI
w 950 970 990
a:
:::1

f3g: 200
z
0
f3 300
ii:
IL
z 400
0
~ 500
~ 600
IL
a:
w
11.

1000

2000

3000

4000

~ INTERVALS CONTRIBUTING TO FLOW

~ CONTRIBUTION RATIO= 30%

10,000 0
2 3 4 P·433·83
FLOW RATE- BBLS./MIN./PERFORATION

Fig. 7-Fiow rate vs. perforation friction pressure. Fig. 8-Well 178-lluid entry survey.

~PE12482
 , FIGURE 9

WELL #179 - FRACTURED WITH MODIFIED

TREATMENT DESIGN IN TWO STAGES
I
164° 166°
FLOWING TEMP °F
168° 170° 172°

FLOWING PRESSURE PSI

1170 1190 1210 1230 1250 1270

~ INTERVALS CONTRIBUTING TO FlOW

~ CONTRIBUTION RATIO= 57o/o

Fig. 9-Well 17~-fluid entry survey.

SPE12482