1 - ENG 157 - Complete Module PDF

English for the Professions
Patricia B. Arinto
University of the Philippines

OPEN UNIVERSITY
English for the Professions
By Patricia B. Arinto
Copyright © 2003, 2009 by Patricia B. Arinto

and the UP Open University
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ONLY WITH THE PERMISSION
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Table of Contents
Unit I English in Business and the Professions, 1
Module 1 English in the Global Context: Intercultural Communication, 3

Objectives, 3
Communication in Business and the Professions, 3
English as the Language of Business, 8
Intercultural Issues in Business Communication, 10
Discourse Communities, 13
Module 2 Process and Style in Business Communication, 15

Objectives, 15
Technical vs. Academic Writing, 15
Process of Technical Writing, 16
Planning your document, 18
Drafting, 20
Revising, 21
Style in Business Writing, 23
“Building goodwill”, 23
Getting readers to act on your message, 32
Making your writing easy to read, 35
Unit II Writing for Business and the Professions, 43
Module 3 Letters and Memos, 45

Objectives, 45
Definitions, 45
Types of Letters and Memos, 46
Positive letters and memos, 46
Negative letters and memos, 55
Persuasive letters and memos, 65
The subject line, 79
Module 4 Technical Reports, 85

Objectives, 85
What is a Report?, 85
Parts of a Report, 86
Cover/Title page, 87
Table of contents, 89
List of illustrations, 89
Executive summary, 89
Introduction, 91
Body/Discussion section, 91
Conclusion and recommendation section, 91
Steps in Preparing the Report, 95
Planning and researching the report, 95
Analyzing and organizing information, 96
How to organize specific types of reports, 98
Writing the report, 105
Appendix 4-1 Sample Report from Volume II
of the U.P. President’s Report 1993-1999, 111
Module 5 Proposals and Feasibility Studies, 129

Objectives, 129
Definitions, 129
All About Proposals, 132
Types of proposals, 132
Parts of a proposal, 134
Organization of proposals, 135
Format of proposals, 140
Subject: Feasibility Studies, 145
Contents of the feasibility study, 145
Organizational plans for feasibility studies, 148
Module 6 Job Applications and Résumés, 167

Objectives, 167
Job Application Letters vs. Résumés, 167
Focus: Job Application Letters, 168
Content and organization, 168
Writing style, tone, and length, 170
Focus: Résumés, 174
How employers use résumés, 174
Guidelines for résumés, 175
Kinds of résumés, 178
Parts and format of résumés, 178
Unit III Oral Communication in Business and the Professions, 183
Module 7 Oral Presentations, 185

Objectives, 185
What is an Oral Presentation?, 186
Making an Effective Oral Presentation, 189
Preparing for the presentation, 189
Making a strong opening and close, 190
Choosing and organizing your information, 192
Using visuals, 193
Module 8 Meetings and (Job) Interviews, 203
Objectives, 203
Conducting Meetings, 204
Why meet?, 204
Who meets?, 204
How to meet, 205
Taking the minutes, 210
The Job Interview, 212
Preparing for the interview, 212
During the interview, 213
After the interview, 219
Unit I
English in Business
and the Professions
Module 1
English in the Global
Context: Intercultural
Communication
T he globalization of world trade. English

as the international lingua franca.
Communication as essential to management.
Objectives
These are some to today’s buzzwords that At the end of this module,
form a backdrop of sorts to the study of you should be able to:
business writing in English. And it is this
backdrop that we will discuss by way of an 1. Explain the role of both
introduction to the course. oral and written
communication in the
work-place;
Communication in Business 2. Discuss the issues
surrounding the rise of
and the Professions English to the status of
international lingua
In his foreword to Management franca, and the language
Communication in the Global Era: Readings for of international
the Asian Manager (1994), Fr. James Donelan, business;
SJ states that “management is the art of 3. Discuss the intercultural
communication.” He then goes on to list the dimension of business
three things that managers have to do which communication today;
prove his statement: make clear what they and
want; show the logic of their decisions; and 4. Analyze the discursive
persuade or convince people to do as they context of business
propose. communication.
4 English 157: English for the Professions
A cursory glance at management textbooks, as well as interviews with

managers themselves will confirm Fr. Donelan’s observations. Kitty
Locker, in her book Business and Administrative Communication (1995),
states: “According to Henry Mintzberg, managers have three basic jobs:
to collect and convey information, to make decisions, and to promote
interpersonal unity.” Communication through various media (for example,
letters, memos, speeches, meetings, press releases) and in various forms
(oral or written, formal or informal) enables the manager to accomplish
all three jobs.
But what of the average employee, the currently unemployed or under-

employed, the individual who’s just starting out on his/her career, the
student like yourself? To what extent are communication skills important
to him/her/them/you?
Well, for one, whether you are aware of it or not, you are already making
use of communication skills. You read information, listen to instructions,
ask questions, solve problems by yourself or in teams. With every advance
in your career, the demand for communication skills grows and more
higher-level communication skills, like writing, are called for.
It is important to come to terms with the need to learn how to write, and
to write effectively (this appears to be the most difficult to develop of the
four macro communication skills). Some people (I hope you’re not one of
them) think that they don’t “need to learn to write well to succeed
professionally.” (Locker, 1994) And that’s not because they have no
ambition either. They just figure that once they become managers, there
will be other people to do their writing for them, like secretaries and
assistants. Or there are jobs, including theirs, that don’t require writing at
all (which ones?). Or they can use form letters. Or they can avoid writing
altogether by just calling up or meeting with people they need to
communicate with.
All four claims, according to Locker, are belied by the facts. As the use of
computer and information technology becomes widespread, individual
members of staff are being expected to draft, revise, type or encode, and
even format, their own correspondence. The typing pool is rapidly
becoming an obsolete department, if isn’t so yet. And while secretaries
continue to be hired, their role is being redefined from that of typist or
encoder to the assistant with a valuable role to play in getting things done.
As for your job not requiring writing skills, while your technical skills
might get you your first job, says Locker, it’s your communication skills
that help you keep it or that help you move on to better-paying, higher-
ranking positions.
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Unit I Module 1 5
In my experience, the best accountants and bankers and doctors and

engineers, and those who have risen to the top of their fields, are effective
communicators. And more and more companies are beginning to demand
that their staff learn to write and communicate well. Accounting firms
and banks, for example, are calling on faculty of English departments of
universities to evaluate their staff’s reading and writing skills and to design
writing programs for them.
As for form letters, apply only to routine situations. They’re also often
poorly constructed, making you sound stilted at best and clueless at worst.
As for telephone calls and meetings, sure they’re important. And managers
do a lot of these. But not everything in the workplace can be communicated
orally. In some situations, written communication is not only needed but
also valued more. What is written, goes. And in international business
settings, much of the communication is necessarily written.
Table 1-1 lists the kinds of writing routinely produced by organizations

and companies. The first six items in the table are documents internal to
the organization while the last six are for external audiences.
Table 1-1. Documents Produced in One Organization

Documents Description of Document Purpose(s) of Document
Transmittal Memo accompanying document, Inform; persuade reader
explaining why it is being to read document; build
forwarded to the receiver image and goodwill
Monthly or Report on profitability, productivity, Inform; build image and
quarterly report and problems during period. goodwill
Used to plan activity for next
month or quarter
Policy and Statement of company Inform; build image and
procedure policies and instructions goodwill (procedures
bulletin (e.g., how to enter orders, are reasonable)
how to run fire drills, etc.)
Request to Persuasive memo arguing Persuade; build image and
deviate from that another approach is goodwill (request is rea-
policy and better for a specific case sonable; writer seeks good
procedure than the standard approach of company)
bulletin
Performance Evaluation of an employee’s Inform; persuade
appraisal performance, with recom- employee to improve
mended areas for improve-
ment or recommendation
for promotion
Memo of cong- Congratulations to employees Build goodwill
ratulations who have won awards, been
promoted, or earned community
recognition
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Table 1-1 continued

Documents Description of Document Purpose(s) of Document
Quotation Letter giving price for a Inform; build goodwill

specific product, fabric- (price is reasonable)
cation, or service
Claims Letter granting or denying Inform; build goodwill

Adjustment customer request to be
given credit for defective
goods
Job description Description of qualifications Inform; persuade good

and duties of each job, used candidates to apply;
for performance appraisals, build goodwill (job duties
setting salaries, and for match level, pay)
hiring
10-K report Report filed with the Secu- Inform

rities and Exchange
Commission detailing
financial information
Annual report Report to stockholders Inform; persuade stock-

summarizing financial holders to retain stock,
information for year others to buy; build
goodwill (company is a
good corporate citizen)
Thank-you letter Letter to suppliers, Build goodwill

customers, or other
people who have helped
individual or the company
Source: Locker (1995)
Activity 1-1
Reflect on this: Which of the forms of business writing listed in
Table 1-1 are you most familiar with? Are you just a reader of
these documents or do you actually write them yourself? If the
latter, who are your readers? Which do you find difficult to write?
Which is the easiest to write? What percentage of your work time
is taken up with writing business communication?
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Unit I Module 1 7
From the point of view of companies, their staff’s communication skills

are important not only for their functional value but also for the fact that
they do impact on productivity and efficiency. Poor correspondence costs
companies and organizations in terms of “wasted time,” “wasted efforts,”
and “loss of goodwill.” (Locker, 1995)
It takes time to try and comprehend a badly written document. And

revising it takes up even more time. Since written documents are often the
basis for action, when they’re poorly done, more time is required for
discussion (you don’t all agree what something means, for example) and
decision-making.
Moreover, the intended outcome or objective of a poorly written document

is often not achieved at all or achieved only partially. Customers aren’t
convinced to buy what you’re selling, for example, or to pay their past
due accounts. Locker’s example of the latter is hilarious for an English
teacher, but I’m sure it’s tragic for the company involved:
Our company sent out past-due bills with the following

language:
Per our conversation, enclosed are two copies of the above-mentioned

invoice. Please review and advise. Sincerely,…
The company wanted money, not advice, but it did not say
so. The company had to write third and fourth reminders.
It waited for its money, lost interest on it⎯ and kept writing
letters.
Finally, there is no faster way to lose the goodwill of your clients than by
sending then a letter that’s selfish in tone, vague and legalistic in its choice
of words, rude-sounding, ill-informed, or just plain careless.
All these underscore the significance of effective communication in business

and other professional settings.
Now we turn to the fact that English is the medium or language in which
this communication is often conducted, at least in the international setting.
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English as the Language of Business

Before continuing with this module, read Gloria S. Chan’s essay,
 “Management Communication: An Asian Perspective,” on pp.
1-5 of Management Communication in the Global Era.
Most people will probably agree with the observation that English has
become the international lingua franca. For historical and political reasons,
the language of the British and the Americans has become the “language
of technology, trade, business, entertainment, and diplomacy.” (Tupas,
2002)
This has given rise to a certain pragmatism about the need to learn English.
In the Philippines, the pragmatic attitude⎯ i.e., that we must learn English
in order to become globally competitive or that we must learn English to
get high-paying jobs⎯ is apparent from this quote form Brother Andrew
Gonzales, a linguist and former Department of Education secretary:
Whatever defects there are in the process, some of the

products are excellent, indicating that at least at the level
of teaching, the system has had its successes. Philippine
nurses are in demand abroad and, until recently, so were
doctors. Filipino engineers and technicians have met with
considerable success in Nigeria and the Middle East. In
services, Philippine domestics, hotel and restaurant
workers, airline stewardesses are also in demand. Philippine
managers and accountants are everywhere especially in
Asia and of course the United States. Teachers have found
employment in Nigeria, Ethiopia at one time, and Zambia,
as well as Papua New Guinea, although now most primary
teachers working abroad find domestic employment in
Hongkong, Singapore, United Kingdom, France, Spain, and
Italy….
…In Asia, the language skills of Filipinos for office work in

multinational companies continue to be real assets for work
in the service industries. (qtd. in Tupas, 2002)
Tupas is critical of this pragmatic attitude. He writes:
Indeed, the culture of pragmatism is what governs our

thinking about second language teaching. This is not to say
that the value of pragmatism is wrong, or that we should
not consider it as an important driving force to learn second
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Unit I Module 1 9
languages. Certainly not. The issue rather is that, with such

a pragmatic culture inside and outside the classroom, we
forget about the fact that, generally speaking, in teaching
and learning second languages, pragmatism is just one of
the things that must be considered. The teachers’ and
learners’ history, society and politics are too complex to be
brushed aside just because second languages mean big
bucks. [And] the culture of pragmatism is so prevalent in
our lives as users of second languages that we never ask
why, despite the seeming truthfulness of its claims, the
majority still do not have jobs.
The last sentence of Tupas’ statement reminds me of a rally of graduates

of computer and IT-related programs protesting the lack of jobs for people
with their training. That’s another field of study governed principally by
a pragmatic attitude; sadly, as Tupas points out, the attitude is betrayed
by the reality.
Another issue that is often elided, or ignored, by those who are too gungho
about teaching and learning English as the language of international
business is the fact that language is not a neutral instrument or tool.
Contrary to the commonsensical notion that language is a way of naming
reality, language in fact embodies reality; it embodies meanings. The
meanings are not made by the peron who uses the language; they are
already within the language itself.
Each language has its own set of meanings or ways of making meaning.
There is no one set of meanings out there that is accesses by different
languages in the same way. If this were so, then we would find the same
sets of words in all languages and translating from one language to another
would be very easy.
Notice too that different languages structure reality in different ways. For
example, in English the word “red” has many synonyms: crimson, ver-
milion, maroon, burgundy, scarlet. These and many more synonyms really
refer to shades of red. In Tagalog, how many synonyms of pula are there?
Perhaps you might come up with kulay dugo, kulay rosas, and the like. It
appears that in Tagalog the exact shade of red is not a preoccupation,
and color is valued not for itself but simply as the property of the thing
that has the color.
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Learning a language therefore really means learning how to think in that

language, and learning how to look at the world and at reality through
that language. By “world and reality” here I might as well substitute
“culture.” According to Tupas (2002), “There is culture in language; our
beliefs and dreams are encoded in the words, phrases, and sentences that
we speak. There is language in culture; we exchange ideas and
information, share patterns of behavior, and learn from our past largely
through language. Language and culture are inseparable, even if we
cannot say that everything about culture is linguistic.”
In short, when we learn a language like English, you’re really learning a

whole culture right along with it, whether you intend to or not. And
when you learn business writing in English, you’re also learning a way of
thinking about the world.
Intercultural Issues in Business

Communication

At this point, read the essay “Reaching Out Across the Cultural Gap” by
Mario Antonio G. Santos (pp. 121-137 of Management Communication in
the Global Era) and “Barriers to Cross-Cultural Communication: How to
Overcome Them” by Emy M. Pascasio (pp. 138-148 of the same book).
How did you find the two essays? Which points made by the two writers
struck you most?
The section entitled “Language” in Pascasio’s article highlights an

interesting aspect of language learning: although certain meanings are
already embedded in a language, a foreign or second language is not
necessarily something that takes over our consciousness, completely
displacing the way of looking at the world and dealing with it that we
imbibed through our first language and other aspects of culture. In fact,
Filipinos have successfully appropriated certain English terms to mean
something completely different from their meaning in the American and/
or British context. (see pp. 144-145 of the article)
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Unit I Module 1 11
Activity 1-2
1. Can you think of other words and expressions that Filipinos
have appropriated so that now they mean something other
than their original meaning? List them below. You can include
euphemisms that Filipinos like to use. These expressions are in
English but they represent a peculiarly Filipino use of the
language. An example is “being on the family way” to mean
“pregnant.” Neither the British nor the Americans use this
expression.
2. Is it appropriate to use Filipinisms, as such expressions are

called, in international business correspondence? Explain.
Personally, I’d rather not use Filipinisms, even when I’m communicating
with a Filipino. I don’t like euphemisms in general, whether they are Filipino
or American or whatever. The more direct and precise the diction of a
letter, the better, as far as I’m concerned.
Then again, it really all depends not on our preferences as writers but on
what we think our readers will appreciate best. More on this cardinal rule
in business writing in the next module.
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It is worth noting that in its development as an international lingua franca,

English is less and less the sole property of the Americans or the British
and is more and more enriched by the contributions of other languages
and cultures. These contributions are in the form not only of new words
and phrases but also in terms of syntax (sentence structures) and rhetoric
(referring to organization, emphasis, and the like). This last point will
become apparent in Module 3 and the subsequent modules.
For the moment, note that Pascasio briefly alludes to this when she talks
about the use of courteous language by Filipinos. Orthodox (that is, North
American) business communication textbooks would consider this a
no-no, advocating as they do the use of directness (see, for example, Chan’s
comparison of the Asian and American way of saying no, with its implied
preference for the latter). But in a Filipino business context, and in one
involving communicating with businessmen from cultures that share these
traits, indirectness and elaborate courtesy may not be inappropriate at
all.
Santos’s article, on the other hand, highlights the importance of cultural

considerations in business communication. Locker gives a classification of
cultures that shows how culture affects modes of communication. (Table
1-2)
Table 1-2. Views of Communication in High- and Low-Context Cultures

Aspect of High Context Low Context
Communication (Examples: Japan, (Examples: Germany,
United Arab Emirates) North America)
Preferred communication Indirectness, politeness, Directness, confron-

strategy ambiguity tation, clarity
Reliance on words to Low High

communicate
Reliance on nonverbal High Low

signs to communicate
Importance of written Low High

word
Agreements made Not binding Binding

in writing
Agreements made orally Binding Not binding
Attention to detail Low High
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Unit I Module 1 13
Activity 1-3
Do a bit of analysis: Which of the two categories (i.e., high-context
and low-context) would Filipino culture fall under? Justify your
answer.
Discourse Communities
Aside from intercultural considerations, there are also discursive
considerations in writing for business and the professions. A “discourse”
is a way of organizing, constructing and articulating or communicating
meaning. “Different groups of people make knowledge and communicate
meaning differently.” (Locker, 1995) That is, they constitute different
discourse communities.
“A discourse community is a group of people who share assumptions

about what channels, formats, and styles to use for communication, what
topics to discuss and how to discuss them, and what constitutes evidence.”
(Locker, 1995)
The business community is an example of a discourse community. Each

of the various professions (e.g., lawyers, doctors, engineers, artists)
constitute a discourse community.
Most people belong several discourse communities. For example, as a

student you are a member of the discourse community that constitutes
your school; at the same time, you belong to the discourse community
that is your profession in general and your company or organization in
particular; and you also belong to your church community and your
provincial and enthnolinguistic group, among others.
Locker says: “Succeeding in a job…requires becoming part of a discourse

community.” And “different organizations may represent different
discourse communities, even when they hire people from the same
disciplines.” This refers to the fact that each organization has its own
organizational culture.
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An organization’s culture, consisting of its values, attitudes and

philosophies, is revealed in its goals and slogans; its organizational structure
(is it tall or flat? Are there many levels between CEOs and lowest worker,
or only a few?); its reward system, including what forms of behavior are
rewarded; the way it allocates space and money; its dress code; its stories
and myths; and the way it communicates.
Again according to Locker, “communicating effectively in an organization

requires understanding the way it produces messages and ideas.”
Activity 1-4
Analyze the culture of the organization or company where you
work or where someone you know works.
• Is the organizational structure tall or flat? Are there many le-

vels between CEOs and the lowest ranking worker, or only a
few?
• How do people advance in the organization? Is the promotion

system based on seniority, education, being well liked, making
technical discoveries, or serving customers? Are rewards
available only to a few people, or is everyone expected to
succeed?
• Does the organization value diversity or homogeneity? Does it

value independence and creativity or being a team player and
following orders? What stories do people tell? Who are the
organization’s heroes and villains?
• How formal are behavior, language, and dress in the

organization?
• What are the organization’s goals? Making money? Serving

customers and clients? Advancing knowledge? Contributing
to the community?
• What ceremonies and rituals does the organization have? Why

are they considered important?
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Module 2
Process and Style
in Business Communication
I n Module 1, we talked about the

importance of communication in
business, the use of English in international
Objectives
communication, and the intercultural After working on this
aspects of international business module, you should be able
communication. We also talked about the to:
concept of discourse communities.
1. Differentiate between
As a discursive practice of a discourse business and technical
community, business communication has writing on the one
its own distinctive features. These will be hand, and academic
the focus of our discussion in this module. writing on the other;
2. Describe the process of
business and technical
Technical vs. writing; and
3. Apply the principles of
Academic Writing style in writing effective
business and technical
At this point in your academic career, you documents.
are quite familiar with academic writing.
You have not only had a course in it (i.e.,
Communication Skills II); you have also had to produce various forms of
academic writing in the courses you have enrolled in.
William S. Pfeiffer, in his book Technical Writing: A Practical Approach

(1994), describes technical writing, which includes business writing, by
comparing it with academic writing. Table 2-1 summarizes Pfeiffer’s
comparison.
Table 2-1. Academic writing vs. technical writing
Aspect Feature Academic Writing Technical Writing
Purpose To demonstrate what you know To get something done with

about the topic, in a way that an organization
justifies a high grade
Writer’s know- Usually lesser than that of the Usually greater than that of
ledge of subject reader (i.e., the teacher) the reader
Audience Teacher who requests the Often several people, with

assignment and who will differing technical back-
read it from beginning to grounds
end
Criteria for Depth, logic, clarity Clear and simple organiza-

evaluation unity and grammar tion of ideas, in a format
that meets the needs of
busy readers
Do the differences between academic writing and technical writing mean that
the process for writing each is different as well? Answer this question after
going over the next section of the module.
Process of Technical Writing

Pfeiffer provides a flowchart for the technical writing process (Figure
2-1):
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Planning your document

As with most things, it’s the planning phase that’s most time-consuming.
It is also arguably the most important phase. You cut planning out only to
your own peril. To put it more conventionally, if you don’t plan what and
how you will write, your chances of having a communication problem
will be higher.
In the planning stage, you first of all determine your purpose for writing.
If your purpose isn’t clear to you, it certainly won’t be clear to anyone
else, least of all to your readers. So ask yourself: Why am I writing this?
What do I want to happen as a result of this? What do I want my readers
to do after reading this?
The second step in planning is to know your audience. A cardinal rule in

business writing is: Write for your readers, not yourself. (Pfeiffer, 1995)
This means you must be reader-oriented. Place yourself in your reader’s
shoes and try to determine how your letter or memo or report will sound
to him/her. Imagine the circumstances in which your reader is reading
your document.
According to Pfeiffer, readers of technical and business communication

are plagued by constant interruptions (so they’ll probably be interrupted
while they’re reading your document), impatient (because they have a
million and one things to do), and not as knowledgeable as you about the
subject you’re writing about.
For each of your readers, Pfeiffer recommends that you find out the answers
to the following questions:
1. What is the reader’s technical or educational background?
2. What main question does this reader need answered?
3. What main action do you want this person to take?
4. What is the reader’s degree of participation in the decision-making
process?
5. What features of this person’s personality might affect his or her
reading?
6. What does this reader prefer in terms of format? Style? Organization?
Table 2-2 sums up Pfeiffer’s classification of readers in terms of the level of

technical skill or knowledge and their corresponding preferences with
respect to the kinds of documents they have to read.
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Unit I Module 2 19
Table 2-2. Types of readers
Types of Reader Communication Needs
Managers  Background information

 Definitions of technical terms
 Lists and other formats devices that highlight points
 Clear statements about what is supposed to happen next
Experts  Thorough explanations of technical details

 Data placed in table and figures
 References to outside sources used in writing the report
 Clearly labeled appendices for supporting information
Operators  A clear table of contents for locating sections that relate

to them
 Easy-to-read listings for procedures or instructions
 Definitions of technical terms
 A clear statement of exactly how the document affects
their jobs
General Readers  Definition of technical terms

 Frequent use of graphics like charts and photographs
 A clear distinction between facts and opinions
In terms of degree of participation in the decision-making process, your

readers may belong to one of the following categories: decision-makers,
advisers, and receivers. Whatever their technical level, readers can fall
under one of these types. That is, an expert can be a decision-maker or an
adviser; an operator can be a receiver but also an adviser; and a general
reader or layperson could be the decision-maker in some instances.
Locker (1995) gives us another classification of readers, thus:
1. Primary audience: the one for whom your document is intended; the
one who will act after reading your message
2. Secondary audience: may be asked to comment on your message (like
advisers) or to implement it but only after someone else has approved
your recommendation
3. Initial audience: routes the message to its proper recipient (e.g., a
secretary or assistant)
4. Gatekeeper: has authority to stop your message from getting to its
recipient or to decide to whom it should go
5. Watchdog: pays close attention to your interaction with your primary
audience and may base future action on its evaluation of your message
Who are the gatekeepers and watchdogs in your organization? Are you one of
them?
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The third step in planning your document is collecting information. As

you learned in Communication 2, it is important not to be haphazard in
your way of collecting information or doing research.
Before actually going out and looking for information, decide on what
kind of information you need. Is it OK to get information from secondary
sources, like reports by other people and written documents? Or is it
absolutely necessary that you get information from primary sources by
doing a survey or conducting an experiment? From the way the questions
are phrased, I hope your memory of the difference between primary sources
and secondary sources is jogged. Write down the definitions of these terms
in the box below.
After determining the kind of data you need, Pfeiffer advises that you
devise a research strategy. This is a plan for how to go about your research,
including the list of questions you hope to find answers for.
When conducting your research, be sure to take down notes carefully.

Include in each note the source of the information so you won’t have
difficulty acknowledging your sources later on. And do compile a
bibliography (title, author, date of publication, publisher).
The last step under planning is formulating an outline. Arguably this

could be considered a step under drafting. However you choose to think
of it, it is a step that enables you to organize your thoughts and findings
about your topic and it serves as a blueprint for the actual document you
will write.
Drafting
If you have clarified your purpose, analyzed your audience, gathered the
necessary information, and prepared a good outline, writing should be a
breeze.
That is, if you can actually start writing. For most people, the most difficult
part of writing is getting started. And the usual reaction is to postpone
actually starting. Well, that’s a vicious cycle, if I ever saw one. You don’t
start because you have difficulty starting; you have difficulty star-ting
because you can’t start.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 21
The trick is to just “take the plunge,” as an ad for a drink used to say. And
you need not start at the beginning either. Start with the easiest section.
Just go from one section to another, in any order you like, and before you
know it, you have all the pieces and all you have to do is piece them
together.
Block off at least an hour of your schedule for writing. Be sure you aren’t
disturbed in that one hour. This way you can just concentrate on writing.
Just write. Don’t edit as you go along. That’s a surefire way of never
finishing. Drafting and editing are two separate stages in the process;
don’t mix them up.
After you’ve finished drafting the full document, write the summary. Since
you need to know what you’re summarizing, it’s best to summarize after
you’ve written everything.
Revising
This is a stage of the writing process that you can’t do without. This is the
stage that spells the difference between effective documents and ineffective
ones. No first draft is perfect. Drafts need to be edited and revised. This
stage as defined by Pfeiffer includes adjusting and reorganizing content,
editing for style, editing for grammar, and editing for mechanics.
In the first step, you expand sections that need to be expanded, shorten
those that need shortening, and move sentences and paragraphs and
sections around for your whole document to make the best sense. This
kind of editing is sometimes called substantive editing.
We’ll talk about elements of style in business writing in the next section.
For the moment, suffice it to say that editing for style includes shortening
paragraphs, recasting sentences, adding headings and graphics, and the
like. This step is called copyediting.
I’ll assume that you know your English grammar at this stage in your
career as a student. If it’s a weak point with you, do review your grammar.
And keep a good guide at hand.
Editing for mechanics, called proofreading, includes correcting misspel-

lings, checking whether there is consecutive numbering of pages and fi-
gures and tables and whether there are missing tables and figures, and
checking figures. A very important task is to doublecheck the spelling of
names and the designations or titles of people.
UP Open University
Also, before we leave this section entirely, consider the checklist below
(from Locker, 1995).
Outline or Planning Draft

 Does the plan seem “on the right track”?
 What topics should be added? Should any topic be cut out?
Revising Draft
 Does the message satisfy all its purposes?
 Is the message adapted to the audience(s)?
 Is the organization effective?
 What parts aren’t clear?
 What ideas need further development?
Polishing Draft
 Are there any problems with word choice or sentence structure?
 Did you find any inconsistencies?
 Did you find any typos?
 Is the document’s design effective?
Activity 2-1
Analyze your own writing processes. Save your notes and drafts
from several assignments so that you can answer the following
questions.
• Which of the activities or steps in the technical writing process

do you use?
• How much time do you spend on each of the activities?
• What kinds of revisions do you make most often?
• Do you use different processes for different documents, or do
you have one process that you use most of the time?
• Which practices of good writers do you follow?
• What parts of your process seem most successful? Are there
any places in the process that can be improved? How?
• What relation do you see between the process(es) you use and
the quality of your final document?
1. Discuss your writing process with a small group of other

students.
2. Write a memo to your instructor analyzing in detail your
process for composing one of the assignments for this class.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 23
Style in Business Writing

What is style in writing? What is style in business writing? Instead of
beginning with a definition, see if you can deduce one from the discussion
that follows.

First, read Gloria S. Chan’s “Style in Management Communication” (pp.
6-19 of Management Communication in the Global Era).
Chan’s article highlights certain basic elements of style in business writing.

Let’s expound on some of these.
“Building goodwill”
The title of this section and much of the discussion that follows is from Kitty
Locker (1995).
You will agree with Locker that one of the most important objectives of
business communication is to build goodwill. Chan calls this objective
“establish[ing] rapport” with your reader. Locker gives us three ways for
achieving this objective: (1) adopting a you-attitude; (2) using positive
emphasis in your writing; and (3) using bias-free language.
1. The you-attitude
In a previous section, we said that a cardinal rule in business writing is to

write for your reader, not yourself. This is the you-attitude in a nutshell.
Locker defines it thus: “You-attitude is a style of writing which looks at
things from the reader’s point of view, emphasizing what the reader wants
to know, respecting the reader’s intelligence, and protecting the reader’s
ego.”
Figure 2-2 is an example of a letter without a you-attitude.
UP Open University
What is that in
plain English? Negative
Jargon Lacks you-attitude
Dear Mr. Davis:
How much?
Per your request of 3/18__, be advised that we have reviewed your
balance sheet and vendor reference sheet. Based on this information,
Jargon we have decided to extend credit. Please make note that our terms of
2 ten, net 30 are not negotiable and we will expect your compliance.
Looking forward to your orders, I remain Lacks you-attitude
Sincerely yours, Selfish, old fashioned

u r ie d .
o d n e w s is b
Go
C.J. Taylor
Credit Representative
Figure 2-2. Letter without a you-attitude (Source: Locker, 1995)
Here’s a revised version⎯one that tries to make the letter more reader-
oriented.
Company name
Specific
Dear Mr. Davis: Good news in 1
Yes, you can have a credit line of $10,000 with Mercury Electronics.
Bills are due within 30 days of invoices; you can save 2% by paying within
ten days
Presented as benefit
Whether you need standard boards or custom-designed wiring, at Mercury

you can get the high-quality parts you need to make the products your
customers want.
om
en fr
Sincerely, writt o f v i e w
Last r ’’ss p o i n t
e
re a d
“2 ten, net 30”
C.J. Taylor in plain English
Credit Representative
Figure 2-3. Letter with better you-attitude
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 25
Locker gives us some techniques for developing a you-attitude:
1. Focus on what the reader will receive or can do. In positive or neutral
situations, stress what the reader want to know.
2. Refer to the reader’s request specifically.
3. Don’t talk about your own feelings unless the reader wants to know
how you feel.
4. Don’t presume that you know how the reader feels or will react.
5. In negative situations, avoid the word you. Protect the reader’s ego by
using impersonal expressions and passive verbs to avoid passing blame.
6. Be comprehensive. But when you have a lot of information to give,
consider putting some details in an appendix which may be read at a
later time.
7. Arrange information to meet your reader’s needs, not yours. Use
headings and lists so that the reader can find information quickly.
8. Anticipate and answer questions that the reader is likely to have.
9. When you include information the reader didn’t ask for, show why
it’s important.
Activity 2-2
Revise these sentences to improve you-attitude and positive
emphasis. Eliminate any jargon or awkward phrasing. In some
cases, you may need to add information to revise the sentence
effectively.
1. You are not eligible to participate in the profit-sharing plan

until you have completed six full months of employment.
2. You will be happy to know that it is our policy to allow you to

withdraw funds deposited in your account on the second
business day after we receive the deposit.
3. I’m sorry that you were worried about your mortgage payment.
While it did arrive after the due date, it arrived before an
additional interest payment became due. Therefore you do not
owe any additional sum.
UP Open University
Activity 2-2 continued
4. I’m sure that you will want to participate in this fund-raising

drive to improve the college.
5. You cannot accept gifts from anyone with whom you, as an

employee of the Environmental Protection Agency, deal,
because some citizen might suspect that your enforcement
decision had been subject to undue influence.
6. We regret that we are unable to process your application for

credit at this time because you did not supply all the necessary
information on the application.
2. Emphasizing the positive
This aspect of business writing compels us to place things in a more positive

light. Remember that the idea is to get your reader to act, to persuade
him/her to your point of view. For this to happen, you must emphasize
the positive aspect of it, rather than dwell on the negative. To paraphrase
the saying, think of the glass as being half full rather than half empty, and
then persuade your reader to think the same way.
Locker’s techniques for positive emphasis are:
1. Eliminate negative words and words with negative connotations.

2. State information positively. Focus on what the reader can do rather
than on what you won’t or can’t let the reader do.
3. Justify negative information by giving a reason or linking it to a reader
benefit.
4. If the negative is not important, omit it.
5. Bury the negative information and present it compactly.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 27
Study the examples below:
Negative: We have failed to finish taking inventory.

Better: We haven’t finished taking inventory.
Still better: We will be finished taking inventory by Friday.
Negative: If you can’t understand this explanation, feel free to call me.
Better: If you have further questions, just call me.
Still better: Omit the sentence. Make sure your letter contains all necessary
information.
Negative: Until these invoices are paid, your account will be considered delinquent.
As of March 15, 20___, these invoices are still open on your account.
Negative: Please be patient as we switch to the automated system.

[Implication: you can expect problems.]
Better: If you have questions during our transition to the automated system,
call Melissa Ilagan.
Activity 2-3
To speed up clerical work before commencement, State University
“audits” each student who expects to graduate to make sure that
all requirements—except those being completed during the last
term—have been met. The following form letter is supposed to be
good news. Make all changes necessary to improve its you-attitude
and positive emphasis.
Dear Student:
In our audit of students who hope to graduate, your records

have been carefully reviewed and we have determined that
you will be eligible for graduation at the end of this term.
This eligibility is based on the assumption that you will not
fail to meet any requirements (for courses or for grade point)
which you are completing this term.
UP Open University
My Apologies
Apologies are a special kind of negative. Thus they deserve special mention.
Should you or should you not apologize? Well, if you’re clearly at fault, admitting
it can build goodwill. (Locker, 1995) That’s the short answer. The long answer
(again from Locker) is:
1. If the error is small and you are already correcting it, there may be no
need to apologize. Immediately state the correction being made (e.g.,
“Your statement has been corrected to include your payment of…”).
2. Do not apologize if you are not at fault. If you have done everything you
can and the problem is due to circumstances outside of your control,
you don’t have to apologize. After all, you can hardly claim credit for an
earthquake, a fire, a storm, and other “acts of God” that may have caused
a delay, for example. Simply explain so the reader is assured that you
haven’t forgotten or been negligent.
If the delay is extended, it is good form to ask your reader if they would
like to confirm the original agreement or make alternative arrangements.
3. When you apologize, do it early, briefly, and sincerely. Apologize once

and then move on to the “good news.” Avoid bowing and scraping, which
is the impression you give when you apologize over and over.
While we’re talking about this, please note that you do not “ask for an apo-
logy” when you mean “I apologize.” The former is a common mistake of
Filipino students. They say “I want to ask for an apology” when they really
mean “Please pardon me for…” If you forget the correct form, avoid using the
word “apology” altogether and just say “I’m sorry.”
3. Avoiding biased language
Sometimes, if we’re not careful, what we say may reveal a bias against
certain people or types of people. No matter that some biases are so
widespread as to seem “natural” (such as the bias against women in
patriarchal societies, the bias against age in youth-oriented cultures, and
the bias against the poor in capitalist economies), it is still in bad form to
use biased language. Hence this section.
According to Locker, “Bias-free language is language that does not

discriminate against people on the basis of sex, physical condition, race,
age, or any other category.”
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 29
The table below, adopted from Locker, shows how sexist terms can be
avoided.
Table 2-2. Getting rid of sexist terms and phrases
Instead of Use Because
The girl at The woman’s name Call female employees women

the front desk or job title: “Ms. just as you call male employees
Browning,” “Rosa,” men. When you talk about a
“The receptionist” specific woman, use her name,
just as you use a man’s name to
talk about a specific man.
The ladies on The women on Use parallel terms for males and
our staff our staff females. Therefore, use ladies only
if you refer to the males on your staff
as gentlemen. Few businesses
do, since social distinctions are
rarely at issue.
Manpower Personnel The power in business today comes

Manhours hours or worker from both women and men.
hours
Manning Staffing
Managers and Managers and Managers may be female.

their wives their spouses
Activity 2-4
Below are some sexist terms. Come up with a non-sexist equivalent
for each.
business garbage man repairman

chairman male nurse salesman
foreman mail boy waitress
woman lawyer cleaning lady lady president
workman mailman congressman
UP Open University
Aside from sexism, racism and age-ism (or being biased against certain
age groups) should be avoided. Some guidelines below.
Refer to/Mention someone’s race or age only if it is relevant to what you

have to say.
“Refer to a group by the term it prefers.” (Locker, 1995) This requires

some research and keeping up with the times. For example, where before
Negro was acceptable, now the preferred term is African American.
Question: What is the politically correct term for Filipinos of Chinese ancestry?
Write your answer/s in the box below:
Another question: Is the term “senior citizen” a bias-free term? If your answer
is no, give an alternative term. Write your answer in the box below:
Also, “avoid terms that suggest that competent people are unusual.”
(Locker, 1995) For example, do not say “She is an intelligent black woman”
as this suggests that it is unusual for a black woman to be intelligent. “He
is a spry 70-year-old” suggests that the writer is amazed that anyone that
old can still move.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 31
Finally, be careful how you refer to people with disabilities. Focus on the
person, not the condition. And avoid negative terms.
Instead of Use
The mentally retarded People with mental retardation
The blind People with vision impairments
Cancer patients People being treated for cancer
Confined to Uses a wheelchair (since wheelchairs
a wheelchair enable people to escape confinement)
AIDS victim Person with AIDS (someone can have
a disease without being victimized by it)
Abnormal Atypical (people with disabilities are
atypical but not necessarily abnormal)
Activity 2-5
Identify the source of bias and revise each sentence to remove the
bias.
1. New additions to the marketing department are Greg Reyes

and Natalie Montemayor. Both come from the Wharton MBA
program. Greg is an avid tennis player; Natalie is an attractive
brunette.
2. For a man, Achmed is very good with children.
3. Ask the lady of the house what brand of laundry detergent she
buys.
4. Mr. Aniceto, Mr. Wong, Mr. Logan, and Betty presented our
sales proposal to the executive committee.
5. Every manager should give his secretary a number where she

can reach him when he goes out of the office.
UP Open University
Activity 2-6
Revise the following form letter to eliminate sexist language:
Dear Sir:
Here is the information you requested about the various kinds

of investments available from Fidelity Brokers.
As a businessman, you know the importance of saving

money. But putting money in a standard savings account
means that you barely keep up with inflation. With a Fidelity
investment account, the money you save will grow.
Whether you’re saving money for your son’s college

education or your daughter’s wedding, Fidelity investments
can help make your dreams come true.
When you’re ready for a detailed analysis of our investment

options, just call one of our salesmen to set up an
appointment. He’ll help you choose the plan that’s best for
you.
Getting readers to act on your message

Part of the you-attitude, and of persuasive strategy, is highlighting reader
benefits. These are advantages that your readers get from buying the
product you’re selling, or adopting the policy you’re pushing, or making
the decision you’re advocating in your document.
Locker gives us the following guidelines for highlighting reader benefits:
1. Adapt reader benefits to your readers. Remember the saying, “one

man’s trash is another man’s treasure.” Remember this when
highlighting reader benefits. That is, be sure that what you’re citing as
an advantage is really so to a specific reader or type of reader. If you
have multiple audiences for your document, it may be necessary to
write different letters highlighting different reader benefits.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 33
2. Highlight intrinsic rather than extrinsic benefits. Intrinsic benefits

are integral to the good or service that you are promoting. Extrinsic
benefits are added on. Examples of intrinsic benefits to a job are the
feeling of satisfaction you get from doing it, the sense of belonging you
have in being in your organization, and your enjoyment of the variety
and challenge that the job brings. Examples of extrinsic benefits to a
job are the salary, the tenure or permanent status, the fear of being
fired, a promotion. Now which of these explain why you’re doing the job
you’re doing?
Intrinsic benefits are better than extrinsic ones because they assure
continued patronage of, say, a product or service. Promotions do
improve sales but what about when the promotion is over? On the
other hand, if you persuade your customers of the intrinsic value of
using your product, then they will use it whether or not you reward
them for doing so. Also, using extrinsic benefits may backfire. My father
once told me to beware of banks with too many promos; they pro-
bably need your money too much. Another example of how promos
can backfire was the softdrink promo some years back involving the
drawing of bottle caps with certain winning numbers. They apparently
issued too many bottle caps with a particular winning number and
too many people were claiming the prize, which was a big amount.
3. Prove reader benefits with clear logic and provide adequate

explanation. Consider the example below:
Faulty logic: Using a computer will enable you to write letters, memos, and
reports much more quickly.
Analysis: If you’ve never used a computer, in the short run it will take you
longer to create a document using a computer than it would to
type it. Even when you know how to use a computer, creating a
first draft from scratch will still take some time.
Revised: Using a computer allows you to revise and edit a document more
easily. It eliminates retyping as a separate step and reduces the
time needed to proofread revisions. It allows you to move the text
around on the page to create the best layout.
4. Phrase reader benefits with a you-attitude.
UP Open University
Activity 2-7
A. Assume that the organization has decided to reimburse workers
for tuition and fees for job-related courses. As Director of
Education and Training, you want to write a memo about the
program which will answer employees’ questions and build
support for the program. Pick a specific organization that you
know something about and answer the following questions
about it. And then write a memo that makes use of your
answers and highlights reader benefits.
1. What do people do on the job? What courses or degrees

could help them do their current jobs even better?
2. How much education do people already have? How do
they feel about formal schooling?
3. How busy are employees? Will most have time to take classes
and study in addition to working 40 hours a week (or more)?
4. Is it realistic to think that people who get more education
would get higher salaries? Or is money for increases limited?
Is it reasonable to think that most people could be
promoted? Or does the organization have many more low-
level than high-level jobs?
5. How much loyalty do employees have to this particular
organization? Is it “just a job,” or do they care about the
welfare of the organization?
6. How competitive is the job market? How easy is it for the
organization to find and retain qualified employees?
7. Is knowledge needed to do the job changing, or is
knowledge learned five or ten years ago still up-to-date?
8. How competitive is the economic market? Is this company
doing well financially? What about the current situation
makes this an especially good time to enhance the skills of
the employees you have?
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 35
B. Assume that your organization has decided to hire adults with

mental retardation for entry-level, minimum wage jobs. People
with middle mental retardation are fully capable of doing some
of the jobs available in organizations, and they make loyal,
long-term workers. Now you must announce this decision,
internally in a memo to employees, and externally in a press
release.
Identify the major advantage and the major disadvantage of

the proposal for each of the following groups:
1. Supervisors
2. Subordinates in the departments in which these new hires
would be placed
3. The Personnel office (which handles paperwork on
employees)
4. The department of Public Relations
5. Union representatives
6. The local country board for Mental Retardation and
Developmental Disabilities
In the memo to employees, what strategies would you use to

build goodwill and overcome obstacles with the first five
groups?
In the news release, what information would you stress?
Making your writing easy to read

This section deals with two of the three purposes of business writing
identified by Chan: clearly conveying your message and saving your
reader’s time. Since Chan already discusses the principles of clear and
effective writing and gives examples, here we will simply provide exercises.
But before the first exercise, go over Tables 2-3 and 2-4 and the guidelines
for sentence length and structure in the next few pages.
UP Open University
Table 2-3. Different levels of style
Conversational Good Business Traditional Term

Style Style Paper Style
Highly informal Conversational: sounds More formal than conver-

like a real person talking sation would be, but retains
a human voice
Many con- OK to use occasional Few contractions, if any

tractions contractions
Uses/, first- Uses/, first- and second- First- and second-person

and second- person pronouns pronouns kept to a minimum;
person uses one
Friendly Friendly No effort to make style friendly
Personal; refers Personal; may refer to Impersonal; may generally

to specific reader by name; refers to refer to readers but does not
circumstances specific circumstances name them or refer to their
of conversations of readers circumstances
Short, simple Short, simple words Many abstract words,

words; slang but avoids slang scholarly, technical terms
Incomplete Short sentences and Sentences and paragraphs

sentences; no paragraphs usually long
paragraphs
Can be Uses standard edited Uses standard edited

ungrammatical English English
Not applicable Attention to visual impact No particular attention to

of document visual impact
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 37
Table 2-4. Getting Rid of Business Jargon
Instead of Use Because
At your earliest The date you If you need it by a deadline, say

convenience need a response so. It may never be convenient.
to respond.
As per your As you requested; Per is a Latin word for by or for

request; 55 55 miles an hour each. Use per only when the
miles per hour meaning is correct; avoid mixing
English and Latin.
Enclosed Enclosed is; An enclosure isn’t a treasure hunt.

please find Here is if you put something in the en-
velope, the reader will find it.
Forward same Return it to this Omit legal jargon.

to this office office
Hereto, herewith (Omit) Omit legal jargon.
Please be Omit— simply You don’t need a preface. Go

advised, please start your ahead and start.
be informed response
Please do not (Omit) Omit negative words.

hesitate
Pursuant to According to; Pursuant does not mean after

or omit Omit legal jargon in any case.
Said order Your order Omit legal jargon.
This will ack- (Omit— start your If you answer a letter, the reader
knowledge response) knows you got it.
receipt of letter
Trusting this is (Omit) eliminate-ing endings. When you

satisfactory, are through, stop.
we remain
UP Open University
Guidelines for Sentence Length and Structure
1. Always edit sentences for tightness.

2. When your subject matter is complicated or full of numbers, make a
special effort to keep sentences short.
3. Group the words in long and medium-length sentences into chunks that
the reader can process quickly.
4. When you use a long sentence, keep the subject and verb close together.
Use long sentences to show how ideas are linked to each other; to
avoid a series of short, choppy sentences; and to reduce repetition.
The sentence below is hard to read not simply because it is long but also
because it is shapeless. Just cutting it into a series of short, choppy
sentences doesn’t help. The best revision uses medium-length sentences to
show the relationship between ideas.
Too long: It should also be noted in the historical patterns presented in the
summary, that though there were delays in January and February
which we realized were occurring, we are now back where we
were about a year ago, and that we are not off line in our collect
receivables as compared to last year at this time, but we do show
a considerable over-budget figure because of an ultraconservative
goal on the receivable investment.
Choppy: There were delays in January and February. We knew about them
at the time. We are now back where we were about a year ago.
The summary shows this. Our present collect receivables are in
line with last year’s, but they exceed the budget because our goal
for receivable investment was very conservative.
Better: As the summary shows, although there were delays in January

and February (of which we were aware), we have now regained our
position of a year ago. Our present collect receivables are in line
with last year’s, but they exceed the budget because our goal for
receivable investment was very conservative.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 39
Activity 2-8
Revise these sentences to make them smoother, less wordy, and
easier to read. Eliminate jargon and repetition. Keep the information
but you may reword or reorganize it. If the original is not clear,
you may need to add information to write a clear revision.
1. Please advise the undersigned whether the new hospital wing

will be completed by January 15. If the wing will not then be
ready, please advise, as to whether the required notices for an
extension of time to complete has been given. Also, advise as to
the amount of money which has been paid out under the cons-
truction contract agreement.
2. If a participant receives the retirement benefits in a lump-sum

distribution, an explanation of the tax consequences must be
provided by the employer.
3. Based on my evaluation of the data provided, I feel that the

best choice for new marketing manager is Roberto Tamez.
4. Material must not be left on trucks outside the warehouse while

it is waiting to be unloaded. You might consider parking these
trucks inside the plant. Another option is to unload at the time
of receiving the truck.
5. We are in the process of negotiating a new insurance policy

and will forward to your office a certificate confirming your
coverage to be effective July 15, as soon as possible.
6. We are recommending that the agency employ two additional

carpenters on a contractual basis because our three carpenters
on salary are in need of assistance if they are to deal with the
extensive backlog of work orders in a timely and expeditious
manner.
7. I would like to personally congratulate you or your new position

as account supervisor.
8. Each person in a supervisory position has important

responsibilities. People in managerial positions have important
responsibilities, too.
UP Open University
9. Some of the accepted conditions for deferring repayment for

student loans include:
a. Having a permanent or temporary disability.
b. Full-time student status at an accredited institution.
c. Teaching in certain economically depressed areas.
d. Service in the Peace Corps, VISTA, Public Health Service,
or the Armed Forces.
e. If you are unemployed and present evidence of seeking full-
time work unsuccessfully, your repayment is also deferred.
You will need to provide rejection letters.
10. Internships and co-ops can help students⎯

a. Finance college expenses.
b. The experience gained makes the student more competitive
on the job market.
c. The student sees the relationship between theory and
practice.
d. The importance of interpersonal skills and a professional
attitude is learned.
e. Internships and co-ops greatly help in the transition
adjustment fro school to work after graduation.
11. It is our opinion that savings from desktop publishing will

reimburse us for expenditures in a three-year period.
12. Please endeavor to ensure that any remarks that you are brief,
concise, and free from repetitive and superfluous information.
13. The thought that you had regarding the size of the equipment
and the ability to rearrange the configuration to utilize space
more efficiently is certainly one that will have to be thoroughly
investigated before a final recommendation is made.
14. There is reason to believe that we will be able to hire three new
staff accountants this year.
15. Five surveys conducted annually over the period 1990 through
1994 show that the number of students interested in perfor-
ming volunteer work is increasing.
UP Open University
Unit I Module 2 41
16. Under those circumstances in which individuals with financial

resources to invest for a profitable return anticipate the
possibility that prices will continue to rise at steadily increasing
rates, those individuals may be more likely to consider putting
their financial resources into objects of artistic value and worth.
17. So that the pool of qualified applicants may be increased, many

businesses are providing the financing for special training in
English courses in the public schools. Math courses are also
being supported by these businesses.
Activity 2-9
Proofread each of the following paragraphs to correct
typographical errors. Fix errors in grammar, spelling, and
punctuation. You do not need to change content, style, or tone.
1. Answer to an Inquiry
Enclosed are the two copies you requested of our pamphlet, “The Business
Plan: Planning for Success. The pamphlet shows you how to answer
both hightly technical questions and broader marketing questions.
Wroksheets will prompt you to defend your pricing structure, calcslate
break-even points, and even figure how you could lower your break-even
point if your competitors cut their prices.
2. Performance Appraisal
We expect customer service representatives to handle about sixty calls
a day. Walters productivity has been somewhat low compaired with that
of other workers. However, he is very polite and knowledgeable andgets
high marks from customers for answering their questions completely.
3. Draft of a Prospectus
This Prosepectus sets forth concisely the information an investor should
know before investing. Potential investors should read this information
carefully and retain teh Propsectus for reference. Interested readers can
obtain more information from the “Statement of additional information”
filled with the Securities and Exchange Commission.
UP Open University
Summary
Here’s a checklist from Locker by way of a summary to this module.
Content and Clarity

 Is your view of purposes complete? Does your document meet the
needs of the organization and of the reader—and make you look good?
 Have you given readers all the information they need to understand
and act on your message?
 Is all the information accurate?
 Is each sentence clear? Is the message free from apparently
contradictory statements?
 Is the logic clear and convincing? Are generalizations and benefits
backed up with adequate supporting detail?
Organization and Layout

 Is the pattern of organization appropriate for your purposes, audience,
and situation?
 Are transitions between ideas smooth? Do ideas within paragraphs
flow smoothly?
 Does the design of the document make it easy for readers to find the
information they need? Is the document visually inviting?
 Are the points emphasized by layout the ones that deserve emphasis?
 Are the first and last paragraphs effective?
Style and Tone

 Is the message easy to read?
 Is the message friendly and free from biased language?
 Does the message build goodwill?
UP Open University
Unit II
Writing for Business
and the Professions
Module 3
Letters and Memos
I ’m sure that business letters and memos

aren’t new to you. You must have
received a number of business letters and
Objectives
memos in the past, and maybe even written
After working on this
some of them. They are the two most
module, you should be able
common forms of business writing.
to:
1. Differentiate between
Definitions business letters and
memos;
What is a letter? What is a memo? How do 2. Describe the various
the two differ? Or do they differ at all? types of business letters
and memos;
According to William Pfeiffer (1994), a 3. Evaluate the
letter is a “document that conveys effectiveness of sample
information to a member of one business letters and
organization from someone outside of that memos; and
same organization” while a memorandum 4. Write effective business
(which is the long name for memo) is a letters and memos.
“document written by a member of an
organization to one or more members of
the same organization.”
These definitions indicate one difference between a memo and a letter:

their audience. The only other difference, says Locker (1995), is their
format. That is, memos are usually distinguished from letters by the date,
to, from, and subject lines that begin them. (See Figure 3-2 on p. 49 for an
example)
Both letters and memos may be long or short, formal or informal, negative
or positive in their message, informative or persuasive. Both usually have
only one main point and are best written according to the same general
principles or guidelines (discussed in Module 2).
These guidelines in brief are:

1. A letter and a memo must have a clear sense of purpose, which is
usually stated explicitly but which may in some cases be implied.
2. A letter and a memo must be written with a clear sense of audience,
and must be reader-oriented.
3. A letter and memo must be well-organized, coherent, and concise.
4. A letter and a memo must be characterized by a good choice of words
and a professional tone.
Types of Letters and Memos

In this module, we classify letters and memos in terms of whether their
message is principally positive or negative, and whether they are merely
informative or persuasive. There are of course several sub-types under
each of these general categories, as will be discussed below.
Positive letters and memos

Positive messages (that is, whether in letter or memo form) aim to:
• Reassure the reader.
• Have the reader understand the message and view it in a positive
light.
• Deemphasize any negative elements.
• Build a good image of the writer, and of his/her company.
• Build a good image of the writer, and of his/her company.
• Cement a good relationship between the writer and the reader.
You have occasion to write a positive letter or memo when you are:
• Replying to a question about products or services
• Acknowledging that an order has been received
• Responding favorably to a request, or a complaint
• Hiring an employee
• Announcing a positive development, such as a promotion or new
employee benefit package
Can you think of other situations that require you to write a positive message?
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 47
Some guidelines for organizing a positive message are (Locker, 1995):
1. Share the good news immediately. Don’t keep your reader in

suspense.
2. Summarize the main points and then give the details and/or
clarification. Try to answer all of the reader’s possible questions and
present information from the most important to the least important.
Do not repeat information you have already given.
3. Present any negative or potentially negative elements, if any, as

positively as possible. Examples of negative elements are limitations
to the policy you are announcing, incomplete information, special
requirements that the reader may have to meet to avail him-/herself
of a benefit, and the like. Do not withhold negative information like
these but do present them in a good light.
4. Use a goodwill ending⎯ one that is “positive, personal and forward-

looking.” Refer to the good business relationship that you share with
your reader, not the reader’s personal life. For example, do not allude
to his/her hobbies or family but instead compliment him/her on a job
well done or say you look forward to doing more business with him/
her or his/her company. However, do try not to sound trite or stilted
(e.g., “Please do not hesitate…”) and make an effort to make the ending
specific to the reader rather than so general as to apply to everyone
(and ultimately, no end!).
Pfeiffer (1994) presents what he calls the ABC format, which applies not
only to positive letters and memos but to all forms of business writing. A
stands for Abstract, B for Body, and C for Conclusion. For positive letters
and memos, the ABC format is (Pfeiffer, 1994):
Abstract
• Bridge between the letter and the last communication with the reader
• Clear statement of good news
Body
• Supporting data for main point mentioned in the abstract
• Clarification of questions the reader may have
• Qualification, if any, of the good news
Conclusion
• Statement of eagerness to continue relationship, continue project, etc.
• Clear statement, if appropriate, of what step to take next
Figure 3-1 is an example of a positive letter.
UP Open University
Figure 3-1. Sample letter with positive message
May 15, 2009
Ms. Isabel Navarro

AB5-603 Hardin ng Rosas
UP Diliman
1101 Quezon City
Dear Ms. Navarro,
The Board has approved your appointment as in-house editor of Garrido &
e ws Associates. When you were interviewed last month, you said you could start
o dn
Go work by July 1, 2009. We’d like you to start then if that date is still good for
you.
Tactful
Your duties as editor include:

1. Reviewing reports at all levels of production
Emphasizes 2. helping to coordinate the writing of proposals
responsibilities 3. Preparing a style manual for the word-processing operations and
over renumeration secretaries
to avoid implying
4. Preparing a report/proposal guide for the technical staff
that the reader is
“just taking the job 5. Training staff on technical writing and editing
for the money” 6. Working with the graphics department to improve the page design of our
documents
7. Helping to write and edit public relations copy for the company
Negative element that Your initial contract, with a salary of P35,000 monthly, is for six months,
reader has to reapply renewable for another six months. You will have your own office. And you will
for renewal of con- report directly to me.
tract presented as
standard procedure
Garrido & Associates is equipped with Pentium computers with WordPerfect,
Adobe PageMaker, and the Microsoft Office Suite. We also have a digital
camera, a scanner, two color printers, and a color Xerox machine. Please let
me know if you need any other equipment and office supplies that will help
you work more efficiently.
In the meantime, please send your written acceptance right away. Our Human
Resource Development Office will then inform you of the documentary
requirements for processing your contract.
I look forward to seeing you on July 1. Welcome to Garrido & Associates.

ding
will en Cordially,
d
Goo
Rafael Garrido
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 49
Figure 3-2. Sample memo with positive message
Date : August 2, 2009

To : All Salaried and Nonbargaining Unit Employees
From : Mitch Valdez, Employee Benefits ws
d ne
Subject : Improvements in Health Care, Retirement, and Investment Benefits Goo ject line raph
b g
In su 1st para
n d in
a
The Board of Directors has approved improvements in three parts of your
benefit package.
Health Care
Effective September 1 your health package covers

• Specified outpatient oral surgery procedures
• Increased benefits for surgery
• Higher limits for diagnostic tests, nonsurgical physicians’ fees, and major Summary
medical expenses of main
points
Early Retirement
Effective September 1, you can avail yourself of early retirement with full
benefits at age 55 if your combined age and years with Allied total 85 or
more. If your combined age and years of service total 75 or more, you can opt
for early retirement at age 55 with 75% of full benefits.
Investment Plan
Effective January 1, you can increase deposits in the Investment Plan to

10% of your base salary. You can contine to make deposits either by payroll
deduction or by check at the beginning of each quarter. Allied will continue to
match by P1 every P4 that you invest up to 4% of your base salary.
nt
hme
For More Information
e to attac n
enc atio
Refer ller inform
h fu
The attached summary explains these benefits more fully. wit
You receive the health care coverage automatically. To apply for early lls readers
retirement or to change the amount of your salary deposited in the Investment Ending te
o
what to d
Plan by payroll deduction, visit the Employee Benefits Office.
Adapted (i.e., with modifications) from Locker (1995)
UP Open University
Note the relatively straightforward style of these positive messages. This

is a function of the choice of word; that is, the writers have taken care to
avoid excessive or hyperbolic, florid, and trite expressions like “It is with
great pleasure that I announce…” and “I am honored to…” Such
expressions sound self-conscious and put the writer in the spotlight, not
the reader. Remember that you must always be reader-oriented.
The sample positive letter and memo have avoided even simple adjectives
like “great,” “excellent,” “fine.” When the news is good, there is no need
to hide behind adjectives. Let the facts speak for themselves.
Now try your hand at these exercises.
Activity 3-1
You are the director of personnel in a company that hires college
students for summer jobs. For this group of hires, you have been
using a form letter (below). For some time now, you’ve felt that the
form letter can be improved.
Date
Reader’s name
Street address
City
Dear [Mr./Ms.] [Reader’s last name]:
Congratulations on your selection as a member of this next year’s Food

Operations team. We hope you are as excited and enthusiastic as we are
about the upcoming term.
You are being hired for the [name of department] at the rate of [hourly wage]
per hour. Report for processing and check in on [date]. Your first day of work
will be [date]. Your manager will be [name of manager].
IF YOU PLAN TO ACCEPT THIS POSITION, PLEASE SIGN AND RETURN

THE ENCLOSED EMPLOYMENT AGREEMENT IMMEDIATELY. IF THERE
IS A PROBLEM WITH YOUR AGREEMENT DATES, IT WILL NECESSITATE
A DATE CHANGE. PLEASE DO NOT MAKE ANY CHANGES ON THE
ENCLOSED EMPLOYMENT AGREEMENT. YOUR EXPLANATION AND
DOCUMENTATION MUST ACCOMPANY A REQUEST FOR A DATE
CHANGE. THIS INFORMATION SHOULD BE RETURNED TO THE FOOD
OPERATIONS OFFICE IMMEDIATELY. WE WILL CONTACT YOU TO
DISCUSS YOUR REQUEST FOR A DATE CHANGE. IF YOU CHOOSE NOT
TO ACCEPT THIS EMPLOYMENT AGREEMENT, PLEASE NOTIFY THE
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 51
FOOD OPERATIONS OFFICE EITHER BY PHONE OR BY RETURNING

YOUR UNSIGNED AGREEMENT IMMEDIATELY.
Please remember to conform to all grooming requirements before you arrive

at the office. Try to arrive as early as possible on the processing day so that
you will be able to complete this check-in procedure as quickly as possible.
In most cases, you will be scheduled to begin work the next day or after your
Food Operations orientation. The exact time and place will be explained
during the check-in procedure at the Food Operations Office.
If within the first two weeks of work you would have reason to request a
special schedule or day off, please complete and return the enclosed day-off
request form to the Food Operations Office.
We are looking forward to working with you this summer. If you have any
questions or problems, please call me or your area manager at 555-2324.
Sincerely,
1. Identify the letter’s weaknesses.

2. Without changing the basic content of the letter, revise it to
improve its organization, you-attitude and positive emphasis,
and document design. You can add a detail or two that you
think will improve the letter, as well as cut out or delete details
you think aren’t necessary.
Use the space below for your answers to #1. Use a separate sheet
for your answer to #2.
UP Open University
Some of the weaknesses of the letter are:
• Wordiness – the paragraph about what to do with the contract can be

made more concise, for example
• Absence of reader benefits – why should this be good news to the
reader? What are the benefits of working at the company?
• Vagueness – “Try to arrive as early as possible” can be specific about
the time; “In most cases, you will be scheduled to begin work the next
day…” can be less tentative⎯ i.e., why not state exactly that the first
day includes only an orientation session and they will start work the
next day
• Negative formulations – “Please remember to conform to all grooming
requirements”
• Poor document design – the third paragraph being in all caps makes it
difficult to read
Here’s one way of improving the letter without changing its contents:
Dear [Mr./Ms/] [Reader’s last name]:
Congratulations on your selection as a member of this year’s Food Operations

team.
You will be working in the [name of department] under the direction of [name
of manager]. Your salary will be [hourly wage] per hour.
The employment agreement is enclosed for your review. If you find it in order,
please sign it and send it back to us within a week’s time. If you would like to
change the agreement dates, please send back the agreement unsigned
with a letter indicating the change you would like made. We will contact you
to discuss your request.
The orientation session for this year’s batch of summer interns is on Monday,
April 3, at 8 AM. Please report directly to the Food Operations Office. The
standard working attire of our summer interns is blue jeans, a white shirt, and
topsiders. The company will provide you with smocks, gloves, and caps.
We are looking forward to working with you this summer.
Sincerely,
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 53
I cut out the second sentence of the first paragraph as it sounded

presumptuous.
I chose to rephrase certain items like “You are being hired for the…” to
the less formal “You will be working in … under the direction of…”
I rephrased the paragraph on the employment contract to make it clearer

and less roundabout, and to improve the you-attitude. Whereas the original
sounds fussy about any date changes the reader might wish to make, the
revised version makes it an option for the reader and gives him/her
instructions on what to do if he/she wants to take this option.
I also revised the fourth paragraph by putting first the most important
item: the date, time, and place of the orientation session. This must be
specific, rather than vague (“try to be check in as early as possible”). I also
improved the you-attitude of the sentence about the required working
attire by being specific and stating it matter-of-factly (the original tells the
reader off: “Please remember to conform to all grooming requirements…”).
I added the detail about gloves, smocks, and caps⎯ standard grooming
items in food processing units⎯ as something the company will provide,
as it should (why should summer interns have to provide these for
themselves?).
Then I cut out the fifth paragraph since this is something that should be
said during the orientation session. Or it could be a detail in the employment
contract.
Finally, I cut out the last sentence in the original because if your letter is
specific and clear enough, there should be no reason for them to ask
questions.
UP Open University
Activity 3-2
Try your hand at writing a memo and/or letter on the following
situations.
1. Granting a Travel Request
Marina Umali, the manager of your Customer Service Division,

has asked for funds to attend the Philippine Management
Association Convention to be held at the Manila Hotel on July
23-25. Your firm is located in Mandaue City, Cebu. Ms. Umali
has asked for air fare, conference registration (P3,000), four
nights hotel bill, and expenses for food and incidentals. She
should drop by the travel department to get the air fare (they
will give her the cheapest possible air fare) and the check for
the conference registration. Ms. Umali should specify who the
check should be made out to. Food and incidentals are limited
to P300/day and hotel reimbursements are limited to P1,000/
day. She can get a cash advance for these expenses but will
need to attach a photocopy of the hotel bill. Also, when she
gets back from the conference, she is to write a memo to people
in her unit summarizing what she learned from the conference.
Write a memo granting Ms. Umali’s request and containing

the details above.
2. Announcing a Bonus
As company manager, you have just learned that the company’s

profits last year were even higher than previously expected.
You had already announced individual salary increases before
you heard this good news. Now you want to write a memo
that states that every branch employee will get a P10,000 across-
the-board bonus, in addition to whatever individual salary
increases have been announced for next year.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 55
Negative letters and memos

Let’s begin this section by reading Gloria S Chan’s essay, “The West
Says No, the East Says Maybe: or, How To Say No Without Anguish”
(pp. 33-47 of Management Communication In the Global Era. Read the essay
before proceeding with the rest of this section.
Now that you’ve read what Chan has

to say about the no letter, do you agree Never Say No
with her analysis of the Filipino’s no
In some cultures, saying no is
letter? What do you think of the middle
considered so impolite that people
way that she recommends? simply do not use the word.
Now consider this tidbit titled “Never In Iran, if a customer phones to see
Say No” from Kitty Locker (1995). (See if a store has something, the shop-
box) keeper will say “I’m not sure” even if
he knows he doesn’t have it.
Both Chan and Locker highlight an
important aspect of business To avoid saying no, Chinese negotia-
tors may say something is possible.
communication today: it is often
international and intercultural. As
Ways to avoid saying no in Japan
discussed in Module 1, this doesn’t mean include⎯ Silence.
that the differences among cultures are Vague and ambiguous answers.
“melted” (as in the idea of “melting pot”) Counter-questions.
or that they can be easily reconciled. Changing the subject.
Neither does it mean that there is one Conditional and delaying answers.
foolproof way of saying no. Apologies.
The best guideline here, as always, is

know your reader. If you know your reader and how he/she is likely to
react, then that’s your guide to how to say no.
In this section, we will talk about letters and memos that say no and/or
give “bad news.” According to Locker, these kinds of letters and memos
aim to:
• Give the reader the bad news.

• Have the reader read, understand, and accept the message.
• Maintain as much goodwill as possible.
UP Open University
No matter how we might wish to avoid having to be the bearer of bad

news, there are situations when we can’t help but be one. These situations
include (Pfeiffer, 1994):
• Explaining delays in projects or delivery of services

• Declining invitations or requests
• Registering complaints about products or services
• Refusing to make adjustments based on complaints
• Denying credit
• Giving bad news about employment or performance
• Explaining changes from original orders
Locker (1995) identifies the following sub-types of the bad news message:
• Rejections and refusals

• Disciplinary notices and negative performance appraisals
• Lay-offs and firings
While in the cases cited, there’s no running away from writing the bad
news message, it is possible to write one that won’t cause your reader
much pain (never mind that it was painful for you to write!). If you try
hard enough, it might even be possible to make a negative message seem
neutral or even positive. Says Locker: “Even when it is not always possible
to make the reader happy with the news we convey, we still want readers
to feel that—
• They have been taken seriously.

• Our decision is fair and reasonable.
• If they were in our shoes, they would do the same thing.”
The trick is in how you organize your letter or memo as well as your
choice of words. The guidelines below are from Locker but the explanations
are mine.
1. Consider using a buffer. This is a statement designed to allow you

to soften the blow, so to speak. It couches, or buffers, the negative
message, in much the same way that a net can serve as buffer to a fall.
A good buffer at least makes your reader receptive or open to what
you have to say next.
2. When you have a reason that readers will understand and accept,
give the reason first before the negative statement or refusal. Giving
a good reason prepares the reader for the bad news. Thus, the reader
isn’t “surprised” by the bad news. A good reason makes the negative
outcome a logical conclusion or at least one that’s not arbi-trarily
arrived at.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 57
3. Avoid overemphasizing the negative information or refusal, but

make it clear. Another way of saying this is, don’t rub it in. But be
sure your bad news registers so that you avoid having to say no a
second time. Or, be unequivocal but not brutal.
4. Present an alternative compromise, if one is available. This

accomplishes two things: (1) it allows your readers to get what they
want (or at least part of what they want); and (2) it shows that you
care about your readers and want to be of service.
5. End with a positive, forward-looking statement.
Figure 3-3 and 3-4 are examples of bad news messages.
Figure 3-3. Letter withdrawing job offer
March 7, 2009
Mr. Sebastian Miranda

205 Sikatuna St., UP Village
Quezon City
Dear Mr. Sebastian:
Recently we extended you an offer to join Class VI of the Professional Deve- Buffer
lopment Program which will begin June 10.
n for
Yesterday you called to tell us you will not be graduating until August. Since Reaso
l
Class VI will begin employment before your graduation date, we are cons- refusa
trained to withdraw our offer to you for a position at this time.
for
Explanation
Class VI is our last PDP for the year 2009. Our next offer will not be effective of alterna-
lack
until March 2003. tive
We’re sorry you won’t be able to join Class VI. Best of luck to you with other -looking
employment opportunities. Forward
ending
Sincerely,
J.B. Tan
Manager, Professional Development
Adapted (with modifications) from Locker (1995)
UP Open University
Figure 3-4. Letter correcting a mistake
May 31, 2009
Ms. Rayann Colasito

306 Santiago St. Barangay Piñahan
Quezon City
Dear Ms. Colasito:
This letter confirms what we discussed during our telephone conversation of

May 28.
As I explained, there was an error in the processing of your application to the

nd Master in Business Management program of the University, resulting in an
Backgrou
of ba d n ew s; inadvertent issuance of an admission notice to you. You cannot as yet be
n fo r n o n- admitted into the program because you have not taken the qualifying
reaso
admission examination. You sent in your application three weeks after the examination
was conducted. So please disregard the admission notice you received.
The qualifying examination will be given in August 2002 for those who wish to
be considered for entry into the program in the second semester. You may
take the examination then. We will issue the notice of eligibility to take the
examination by the end of June.
In the meantime, you might with to enroll as a special student of the University.
e As a special student, you can enroll in one or two courses of your choice.
ative th
Al altern n take Once admitted into the program and provided you earn credit for the courses
c a
reader you enrolled as a special student, you can then apply to have the course/s
credited to your program.
king We appreciate your interest in our programs and we wish you luck in your
Forward-loo pursuit of advanced training in your field.
ending
Sincerely,
Consuelo Dy
Registrar
Notice that the sample letter in Figure 3-4 does not apologize for the mistake.
Do you think an apology is warranted? Why or why not?
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 59
Buffers
Effective buffers soften the blow dealt by bad news without disguising the
bad news. Buffers must take the middle ground between giving away the
bad news too early and implying a positive message (Locker, 1995). Here
are some types of buffers:
1. A piece of good news or positive element, provided it’s true
Example: “Beginning July 2002, the interest rate on savings account

with BNP will be 10%, or 3% higher than the current interest rate.”
(buffer for a letter announcing the raising of the minimum maintaining
balance for savings accounts)
2. A fact or chronology of events
Example: “In March this year, in response to the clamor of students

for longer library hours, the President ordered that the library remain
open to students until midnight. Since then, use of the library has
increased tenfold.” (buffer to a memo announcing an increase in library
fees from P1,200/semester to P1,500/semester to cover the cost of
overtime pay of library staff, hiring of more security personnel, and
acquisition of new books and periodicals)
3. A reference to enclosures or attachments
Example: “Enclosed is your free copy of the Student Manual for 2002.”
(buffer for a letter announcing increased fees for student IDs and
payment for subsequent editions of the manual)
4. A thank you to the reader for something he/she has done
Example: Thank you for taking the time to tour me around the company
premises and introducing me to the administration and staff during
my visit there last week.” (buffer for a letter turning down a job offer)
5. Stating a general principle
Example: “The garbage problem in Metro Manila has risen to intolerable

proportions. Now more than ever, we have evidence of how what we
throw away doesn’t really vanish into thin air. Instead it piles up and
assails not only our sense of sight and smell, but also our health.”
(letter from Village Association President to village residents about
the collection of garbage fees)
UP Open University
Sometimes buffers aren’t needed after all, as in the case of the sample
letter in Figure 3-4. When the reader is expecting the bad news, no buffer
is required. Also, when the bad news is “mild,” a buffer is not necessary.
But even when the bad news is “serious,” it is not always wise to use a
buffer. Locker identifies four situations when a buffer may be dispensed
with:
1. If you know that the reader may ignore a letter with a bland first
paragraph
2. If you know that the reader or the organization prefers a “bottom-
line-first-message”
3. if you know the reader is suspicious of you, the writer
4. If you know the reader won’t “take no for an answer”
Locker also says that not having a buffer is better than having a bad one,
which is just another way of saying you must be sure your buffer won’t
do damage either to you or your company, or to the reader.
Activity 3-3
Evaluate the following buffers. Put a check mark on those which
you think are usable as they are. Encircle the number of those that
can be improved. You might also want to try your hand at actually
revising these items. Finally, put an X mark on those that are
completely unacceptable.
1. Refusing to grant credit.

a. Your request to have an RM charge account shows that
you are a discriminating shopper. RM sells the finest
merchandise available in Metro Manila.
b. We have received your application for an RM charge
account.
c. In the current economic climate, all stores have to limit the
credit they extend.
2. Refusing to use a software package developed by another state

agency.
a. My staff and I have spent many long hours evaluating the
software developed by the Department of Transportation
to see if the software would be appropriate for our agency
to use.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 61
b. The Department of Transportation seems to think that no

other state agency has computer personnel capable of
developing effective programs. I am delighted to assure you
that, whatever the dismal state of some agencies, our agency
enjoys the talents of many capable people.
c. Thank you for giving me a chance to evaluate the payroll
software developed by DOT.
3. Refusing to admit a golfer to the roster of athletes for whom

you negotiate commercials, endorsements, and speaking
engagements.
a. It’s been a great year for golf, with more people viewing
tournaments than ever before.
b. I’m glad to hear that you’re on the Pro Golf Tour this year.
So many people play golf recreationally, but very few people
possess the determination, talent, and love of the sport that
you do to make golf a career.
c. Congratulations on winning the Bayanihan Pro
Tournament last month!
Activity 3-4
As discussed earlier, if there is a good reason for turning down
someone or for a negative turn of events, state it clearly. Such a
reason must be convincing and adequate. Below are reasons for
refusals. Determine whether each is acceptable.
1. Refusing to grant credit:

Your income is not high, and records indicate that you carry
large balances on student loans. If you were given an RM charge
account, and if you charged a large amount on it, you might
have difficulty paying the bill, particularly if you had other
unforeseen expenses (car repair, moving, medical emergency)
or if your income dropped suddenly. If you were unable to
repay, with your other debts you would be in serious difficulty.
We would not want you to be in such a situation, nor would
you yourself desire it.
UP Open University
2. Refusing to admit a golfer to the roster of athletes for whom

you negotiate commercial endorsements, and speaking
engagements:
We are so busy representing well-known athletes that we are
unable to accept any new clients for the next six months.
3. Refusing to use a software package developed by another state

agency:
We already have a package which works well for us. We have
already made the necessary changes in it and initialized it to
fit our needs. If we used your package, we would have to repeat
this initialization. The program we’re currently using meets
both our current needs and those projected for the next three
to five years. Furthermore, it allows us to generate reports
quickly which would be more difficult with the software
developed by the Department of Transportation.
Locker’s advice: Never cite “company policy” as a reason. This is a selfish-

sounding reason, one that says the reader is not valued at all or is valued
less than the company.
And be careful about the reasons you cite. They may be ground for a
lawsuit. Here let me cite Locker’s example: In turning down a request by
a class to be allowed to visit the company plant, the company manager’s
letter said the plant was “unsafe and unsanitary.” This could be grounds
for having the plant closed down!
Refusals
Earlier we said, that you should be unequivocal, but not brutal, in your
refusals. There’s a difference between being direct and being “brutally
frank.” You can do the former and avoid the latter by making the refusal
part of the paragraph stating the reason for it, rather than setting it off in
a paragraph by itself.
In some cases, it is possible to be indirect, or to just imply the refusal rather
to state it directly. (Locker, 1995)
Direct refusal: You cannot get a tax exemption if you’re staying less than a year.
Indirect refusal: A tax exemption is given to visitors and temporary residents who
stay for at least a year.
UP Open University
Here’s an improved version of the memo in Activity 3-5.
April 20, 2009
To : Michele Jagtiani
From : Lisa Niaz LN

Subject : Receiving Employee Contributions from Retirement Accounts
Good to state Employees who leave the company with at least ten years of employment
reason in third- are entitled both to the company contributions and the retirement paycheck
person to deductions contributed to their retirement accounts. Those employees who
deemphasize leave the company with less than ten years of employment will receive the
negative. employee paycheck contributions made to their retirement accounts.
Good to be specific.
You now have P98,124.45 in your account which includes 4.5% interest
compounded quarterly. The amount you receive could be even higher since
you will also receive payment for any unused sick leave and vacation days.
Because you now have access to the account, the amount you receive will
Good to show
how company
be considered taxable income. Beth Aquino of Retirement Section can give
can help. you information about possible tax deductions and financial investments which
can reduce your income taxes.
The check will be sent to your home address on May 16. The address we
Good to be have on file is 769 San Francisco St., Sunville Subdivision, Marikina City. If
specific. your address changes, please let us know so you can receive your check
promptly.
Good luck with your new job! Positive

emphasis.
ending.
rward-looking
Fo
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 65
Activity 3-6
State University asks students to file an Application to Graduate
one term before they actually plan to graduate. The application
lists the courses the student has already earned credit for and those
that will be taken in the last two terms. Your office reviews the
lists to see that the student will meet the requirements for total
number of hours, hours in the major, and general education
requirements. Some students have forgotten a requirement or not
taken enough courses and cannot graduate unless they take more
courses than those they have listed.
1. Write one form letter which can be sent to all students. Leave
blanks for the proposed date of graduation and the specific
problem which the student must rectify.
2. Write form letters to the following audiences:

a. Students who have not taken enough total hours.
b. Students who have not fulfilled all of the requirements for
their majors.
c. Students who are missing one or more general education
courses.
Persuasive letters and memos

Orders and requests, proposals and letters of recommendation, sales and
fund-raising letters, job application forms, collection letters⎯ all these are
examples of persuasive letters and memos. In such messages the principal
aim is to convince the reader to act, including overcoming any objection
or counter-argument that he/she might have, and to provide the reader
with enough information about exactly what to do.
Locker gives a four-point general guideline for developing a persuasive

strategy. First, clarify what you want your reader to do. If what you
want the reader to do involves several steps, be sure to state this in an
orderly way so that it is clear what the reader should do first.
Second, anticipate the objections that might be raised. Some requests

will not elicit any objection. Can you state an example or two of such
requests? Other propositions automatically engender opposition. Again,
can you think of examples of these?
UP Open University
If you said requests that require the reader to exert some effort or to allocate
a significant amount of time or money may engender some protest, you’re
right. In this case, you have to persuade your reader that your proposal or
its intended outcome is worth it because it meets their needs or poses real
benefits for them.
You can anticipate the objections, as stated earlier, but it is better to find
out for certain what the objections are or might be before you actually
write your letter or memo. Ask around. Ask experts, or people who would
know. Ask representatives of your target sample. Be sure though that
your questions don’t sound threatening and are neutrally phrased enough
to elicit information you can use.
Third, build a strong case by making your arguments airtight, sounding

credible, and/or appealing to your reader’s emotions. I used “and/or”
instead of “and” in the previous sentence because sometimes, your
arguments can’t be made stronger than they are (which is to say, they’re
really weak), in which case you might persuade by appealing to the
emotions instead. I didn’t use just “or” either because credibility is always
important whether you’re appealing to reason or to emotion.
Here’s how to be credible (Locker, 1994):
1. Be factual. Don’t exaggerate.

2. Be specific. If you say something is better, show how it’s so. Include
details that will prove more general claims.
3. Be reliable. Don’t make promises you can’t keep. And if you did make
a promise you find you can’t keep (e.g., you can’t meet your deadline),
tell your client at once or before the original deadline.
Some strategies for persuasion
Two strategies for persuasion are (Locker, 1994) making a direct request
and using a problem-solving approach.
The direct request approach is best when you expect quick agreement. In
a direct request:
1. state the request at once or after a one-sentence introduction;
2. give your readers all the information they need to know to act on your
request; and
3. tell your readers exactly what you want them to do.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 67
Regarding #2, if you have several questions for example, number them or
set them off with bullets. Or when making a claim, include all details
necessary for the reader to determine that you are qualified.
Regarding #3, state clearly the action you want taken, such as send a
check, call you at a certain time, send a manual, or give you a detailed
answer.
Be sure that you are as direct as can be.
Indirect request: Is there a 2002 edition of the Academic Catalogue?

Direct request: If there is a 2002 edition of the Academic Catalogue, please send it
to me.
Figure 3-5 is an example of a direct request.
Figure 3-5. A direct request
et line
Request in subj
Subject: Request for Additional Travel Funds
Date: April 17, 1994
From: Kitty Locker

Kitty
To: Murray Beja
round
Backg
Last October, I requested travel funds for ABC and MLA. Now, if the department in #1
Request
has any travel money left, I would like to request funding for CCCC in Nashville.
und
ackgro
At CCCC, I gave a paper, participated in a panel on job hunting which I More b equest
sr
organized at Jackie Royster’s request, and participated in the post-convention justifie
workshop on mentoring graduate students organized by Brenda Brueggemann.
n of
My expenses were $409 ($189 for airfare, $70 for registration, and $150 Breakdow
toward hotel expenses). If limited funds don’t permit full funding, I would cost
appreciate partial funding.
Will you please let me know whether it’s possible for me to receive funding est
ic requ
for this trip? Thank you! Specif
Source: Locker, 1995
UP Open University
Activity 3-7
Rewrite the following ill-crafted direct request.
Date : October 12, 2009
To : Clare C. Castillo, Operations Vice President
From : Raoul M. Marasigan, Production Supervisor RMM t lin e

subjec
R e q uest in n c e
Subject : Request for Air Conditioning the Tube Room resista
stiffens der is
r ea
when
cta nt
relu
Please put air conditioning in the tube room. This past summer, 2/3 of our
employees quit because it was so hot. It’s not fair that they should work in
unbearable temperatures when management sits in air-conditioned comfort.
Attacks reader
I propose that we solve this problem by air conditioning the tube room to
Inapropriate bring down the temperature to 18o.
emphasis on
writer Insulating and air conditioning the tube room would cost P300,000.
Cost sounds very
Please approve this request promptly. high without a
context
Memo sounds arrogant.
Logic isn’t developed.
This attacks reader instead of enlisting reader’s support.
The problem-solving approach, which is an indirect approach to

persuasion, is used when you expect resistance from your reader. By
showing that your proposal can help solve a problem that your reader is
experiencing, you can hopefully convince your reader to accept your
proposal.
This approach requires that you (Locker, 1994):
1. Catch the reader’s interest by establishing a common ground.

2. Define the problem you both share or which your request or proposal
will solve.
3. Explain the solution to the problem.
4. Show that any disadvantages (cost, time, etc.) are outweighed by the
advantages.
5. Summarize any additional benefits of the solution.
6. Tell the reader exactly what you want him/her to do.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 69
Here’s an example of such a memo (Figure 3-6):
Figure 3-6. Persuasive memo
February 16, 2009
To : All Staff Members
From : Rachel J. Quimbo RJQ

Subject : Why We Are Implementing a New Sign-Out System
subject
Directed
ates
line indic
position
writer’s
Successfully mainstreaming our clients into the community is very important

and daily interaction with the public is necessary. Our clients enjoy the times Common ground
they get to go to the mail or out to lunch instead of remaining here all day.
Recently, however, clients have been taken out on activities without a staff
Problem
member’s knowing where the client is and whom the client is with.
We need to know where all clients are at all times because social workers,
psychologists, and relatives constantly drop by unannounced. Last week
Janet’s father stopped by to pick her up for a doctor’s appointment and she Specific example
was not here. No one knew where she was or whom she was with. Naturally of problem
her father was very upset and wanted to know what kind of program we were
running. Staff members’ not knowing where our clients are and whom they
are with is damaging to the good reputation of our staff and program.
Starting Monday, February 25, a sign-out board will be located near the
reception desk. Please write down where you and the client are going and
when you expect to be back. When signing out, help clients sign themselves Solution presented
out. We can turn this into a learning experience for our clients. Then when a impersonally
social worker stops by to see someone who isn’t here, we can simply look at
the sign-out board to tell where the client is and when he or she will return. Addiitonal
reader benefit
Please help keep up the good reputation you have helped Kalinga earn as a
quality center for adults with handicaps. Sign out yourself and clients at all Tells reader
times. what to do
Adapted (with modifications) from Locker (1995)
UP Open University
Activity 3-8
Do the following.
1. As part of a community clean-up program, all public-school

students will spend the afternoon of the second Friday of April
picking up trash. Younger students will pick trash on school
grounds, in parks, and in parking lots; older students will pick
up trash downtown. School teachers will supervise the students;
where necessary, school buses will transport them. After
students are finished, they’ll return to their school’s playground,
where they’ll be supervised until the end of the school day.
Each school will maintain a study hall for any students whose
parents do not give them permission to participate. Trash bags
and snacks have been donated by businessmen.
Write a one-page cover letter that students can take home to

their parents telling them about the project and persuading
them to sign the necessary permission form. You do NOT need
to create the permission form, but do refer to it in your letter.
2. Assume you work at an office and have no undergraduate

degree. You are not yet sure what degree program you want
to enter, but you have decided to take one night course each
semester. Your office has agreed to pay 100 percent of your
college expenses on two conditions. First, before taking each
course, you must write a memo of request to your supervisor,
justifying the value of the class to your specific job or to your
future work with the company. Clearly, your boss wants to
know that the course has specific application or that it will
form the foundation for later courses. Second, you must receive
a 3.0 or better in every class for which you want reimbursement.
Write the persuasive memo just described. For the purposes of

this assignment, choose one course that you actually have taken
or are now taking. Yet in our simulated role for the assignment,
write as if you have not taken the course.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 71
Types of persuasive messages
Collection letters. These are letters asking customers to pay, as they have
agreed to, for goods or services already provided to them. They come in a
series⎯ the early letter is followed by the middle letter and then the late
letter.
The early letter is the first demand; it is a gentle reminder to pay the amount
due. The middle letter is sent two weeks later if the first letter didn’t produce
results. This kind of letter is more assertive, reminding the reader of the
importance of a good credit standing. But it should be diplomatic, avoiding
implying that the reader is remiss (he/she may have legitimate reason for
not acting on the first letter, like being out-of-town).
Later letters can sound aggressive, even threatening legal action if the bill
is not paid.
Activity 3-9
Look for a sample of a collection letter (say from Meralco or Bayantel
or a credit card company). Evaluate whether it meets the
description given above. How do you find the tone of the letter? Is
it tactful? Is it threatening? Do you think the letter is persuasive
enough?
Performance appraisals. This is an evaluation of an individual’s

performance, usually made by his/her superior or sometimes by a peer.
What do you think are the objectives of performance appraisals?
Now most people don’t take kindly to an honest appraisal of their

performance. They tend to react defensively to even a hint of criticism. Do
you? How do you react to criticism of your performance as an employee
or student?
But organizations do need to make honest performance appraisals if they

want people to perform better and benefit the organization thereby, or at
least help it not lose money on the salaries of people who aren’t performing
(such employees are called “deadwood”). Also, “the organization is in
trouble if it fires someone whose performance appraisal never mentions
mistakes.” (Locker, p. 230)
UP Open University
Effective performance appraisals must be:
• Based on observation, not inference.

• Be specific, not vague.
• Include areas for improvement, as well as concrete and manageable
targets.
Inference : Sam is an alcoholic.

Observation : Sam called in sick a total of 12 days in the last two months. After a
business lunch with a customer last week, Sam was walking unsteadily.
Two of his subordinates have said that they would prefer not to make
sales trips with him because they see this behavior embarrassing.
Vague : Sue does not manage her time as well as she could.
Specific : Sue’s first three weekly sales reports have been three, two, and four
days late, respectively; the last weekly sales report for the month is
not yet in.
Vague : “Should make considerable progress toward completing a report” may

mean different things to the employee and the employer.
Specific : “Should complete 50% of the report within week’s time”
Activity 3-10
Pretend you are your boss. Write a two-page performance appraisal
of your performance as an employee. That is, consider yourself as
someone else, or as another employee, and write the letter as though
you were the boss evaluating that employee’s performance.
Or you can pretend to be your adviser evaluating your performance

as a student.
Your performance appraisal should include:
1. your strengths or good points as an employee/student (not as

a father or mother or friend), including achievements on the
job;
2. points for improvement, including failures or mistakes; and
3. performance targets.
The appraisal should cover a three-month period and specify targets

for improvement in the next three months only.
I know this is tricky. But it’s good practice, not just for writing a
performance appraisal but also for self-assessment.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 73
Letters of recommendation. These are letters recommending someone

for a job, promotion, scholarship, and the like. The writer is usually a
former boss or a former professor or a colleague.
Here as with other types of letters, be specific. General comments, even if

positive, are not enough. In fact, “general positives” (e.g., “Mr. Y is an
excellent worker.”) without specific examples are considered weak
recommendations. Also, as in the positive letter, avoid florid, hyperbolic
claims or descriptions. Cite facts or specific incidents to prove that the
person is intelligent, efficient, analytical, creative, etc. But be sure that the
details you cite aren’t minor or trivial. Judicious choice of detail⎯ that’s
what’s called for in a letter of recommendation.
Provide an overall summary in the beginning of your letter. Also indicate

early on how long you’ve known the person and in what capacity. In the
body, mention specific details about the person’s professional performance.
Finally, close with a restatement of your overall recommendation.
Here’s the body of a sample recommendation letter:
Cecilia Carandang is known to all who work at and

deal with the Instructional Materials Development
Office, including course authors and affiliate faculty,
as a highly efficient, responsive, responsible, and
productive member of the staff.
The quality of Ms. Carandang’s work of encoding

and laying out print course materials is high, and
she puts in long hours at her job, coming in to work
on weekends if need be at those times when the
deadline for delivering course materials for production
is tight. Also, her sense of initiative is noteworthy,
and with it she has helped fill many a gap in course
materials development work (such as loca-ting
missing materials).
Ms. Carandang is eminently deserving of the merit

increase for which she is being recommended.
Sales letter. For a discussion of the sales letter, read Gloria S. Chan’s
“Developing the Sales Pitch: The Sales Letter” on pp. 20-32 of Management
Communication in the Global Era.

UP Open University
Guidelines for difficult persuasive situations
The following guidelines are from Locker (1995):
1. Find out why your audience resists what you want them to do. Meet
with your target reader/audience and listen to their reasons for not
agreeing with your proposal. The key here is to listen.
2. Try to find a win-win solution. “People will be much more readily

persuaded if they see benefits for themselves. Sometimes your original
proposal may have benefits that the audience had not thought of, and
explaining the benefits will help. Sometimes you’ll need to modify your
original proposal to find a solution that solves the real problem and
meets everyone’s needs.”
3. Find a way to let your audience save face. “Don’t ask people to admit
that they have been wrong all along. If possible, admit that the behavior
may have been appropriate in the past. Whether you can do that or
not, always show how changed circumstances or new information
call for new action.”
4. Ask for something small. As the saying goes, sometimes it’s better to
lose a battle to win the war. Make concessions. You don’t have to try
and get everything at once. “Ask for one step that will move toward
your larger goal. For example, if your ultimate goal is to get your
organization to eliminate prejudice in your organization, a step toward
that goal might be to convince managers to make a special report or
one month to recognize the contributions of women or members of
minorities in group meetings.”
5. Present your arguments from your audience’s point of view. “Offer

benefits that help the reader, not just you. Take special care to avoid
words that attack or belittle readers.”
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 75
Evaluating arguments
Below are examples from which you can deduce what kind of statements
you need to make an argument convincing. The examples are all
unconvincing, but the solutions proposed differ. (from Locker, 1995)
Argument 1: By using XTROCUT tubing, you can cut production time and
reduce scrap loss.
Problem with This argument needs evidence to support each of its claims.
Argument:
Revised Because XTROCUT comes in the lengths and shapes you use
Argument: most often, you spend less time cutting down longer tubes.
Since you can order just the length you want, you don’t waste
2 feet every time you need a 10-foot tube.
Argument 2: The workers I talked to were split 50/50. The workers at our plant
don’t agree whether the benefits package is adequate.
Problem with No bridge shows that the “workers I talked to” were a repre-
Argument: sentative or sufficiently large sample. The audience may also
wonder whether things have changed since the date of the poll.
Revised: I talked to a random sample of 60 workers. They were split 50/50.

Last week, the workers didn’t agree whether the benefits package
is adequate.
Argument 3: Our national advertising campaign will run during the most
popular TV shows this month. This ad campaign will support our
sales reps’ efforts to increase sales 5% over last month.
Problem with Such a claim cannot be made with certainty: too many variables
Argument: affect sales.
Revised Our national advertising campaign will run during the most popular
Argument: TV shows this month. This ad campaign will support our sales
reps’ efforts to increase sales 5% over last month.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 77
Activity 3-11
1. You are the resident manager of a large apartment complex.
Your duties are collecting rents, doing simple maintenance, and
enforcing the complex’s rules.
The annual spraying scheduled for your complex is coming

up. Under the lease, you have the right to enter apartments
once a year to spray. However, for spraying to be fully effective,
residents must empty the cabinets, remove kitchen drawers,
and put all food in the refrigerator. People and pets need to
leave the apartment for about 15 minutes while the
exterminators spray.
Write a memo to the residents about the spraying. Persuade

them to prepare their apartments to get the most benefit from
it, and persuade them to dispose of food waste quickly and
properly so that the bugs don’t come back.
Hints:
• What objections would people have to having their
apartments sprayed for bugs?
• Why don’t people already take garbage out promptly and
wrap it in plastic? How can you persuade them to change
their behavior?
• Analyze your audience. Are most tenants, students,
working people, or retirees? What tone would be most
effective for this group?
2. You are manager of the local power company. A recent market

survey about people’s plans for appliances, larger homes, and
so on also had some questions about recipient’s attitudes
toward the company. On the seven-point “friendly …
unfriendly” scale, you came out at 2.1⎯ with “1” being the
lowest score possible.
UP Open University
Most people never see anyone from the company; their only
contact with you is through monthly bills, ads, and phone calls.
You do get a lot of calls. Many of these calls are about routine
matters: when bills are due, whether people can delay payment,
how to handle payment when they’re away for extended
periods of time, how to tell if there’s a short circuit, how the
budget payment system works. Workers answer these questions
over and over and over again. They may get impatient
explaining something for the 10th time, or answering a question
that was already answered in an enclosure with the bill. But
the caller asks because he or she needs to know. To the worker,
the caller is just one more faceless voice; to the caller, the worker
is the company.
Write a memo to your staff urging them to be patient and

friendly when they answer questions.
Hints:
• In your town, does the power company have monopoly, or do
gas and electricity compete for customers? How might
competition affect your message?
• What specifically do you want your staff to do? How can they
achieve your general goals?
• How can the job be made more interesting for workers?
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 79
The subject line
Memos come with a title, which is what we mean by the subject line.
Even letters can come with a subject line. The subject line “aids in filing
and retrieving the document, tells readers why they need to read the
document, and provides a framework in which to set what they are about
to say.” (Locker, 1994)
A good subject line is specific, concise, and appropriate to the kind of

message. Some examples below.
Too general : Training Sessions

Better : Dates for 200—Training Sessions
Or : Schedule of Training Sessions on Conducting Interviews
Wordy : Survey of Student Preferences Regarding Cafeteria

Lunch Offerings
Better : Students’ Cafeteria Lunch Preferences
Good news letters can build goodwill right off by highlighting the good
news in the subject line. For example:
Subject : New Health Care Benefits Effectively January 2

Subject : Free Training on MOODLE for UPOU Students
On the other hand, bad news letters and memos should have a neutral
subject line.
UP Open University
Activity 3-12
Here are groups of subject lines. For each group, encircle the number
of the best subject line. Explain the reason for your choice by
comparing it with the others that you didn’t choose.
1. a. Subject: New Employee Benefit

b. Subject: Tuition Reimbursement Will Now Be Offered to
Employees Who Take Work-Related Classes and Earn at
Least a 3.0
c. Subject: new Tuition Reimbursement Policy
2. a. Subject: How to Enter Orders on Computer Terminals

b. Subject: Order Entry, Instructions for
c. Subject: Entering Orders
3. a. Subject: When You Can Deduct the Cost of a Conference

Meal
b. Subject: Attendance at Conferences
c. Subject: Reimbursement Procedures for Conference Meals
4. a. Subject: Your Memo of August 14

b. Subject: Progress on Joint Venture Projects in Japan
c. Subject: Problems with Joint Venture Projects in Japan
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 81
The format of letters and memos

Letterhead of your organization
Two or more blank lines (adjust space to center letter on page)
Date of letter
Address of reader
One blank line
Greeting
One blank line
Paragraph: single-spaced
One blank line (no indention)
Complimentary close
Three blank lines (for signature)
Typed name and title
One blank line
Typist’s initials (optional: Writer’s initials before typist’s initials)
Computer file # (if applicable)
One blank line (optional)
Enclosure notation
Copy notation
Block style for letters
UP Open University
Date of letter
Address of reader
One blank line
Greeting
One blank line
Paragraph: single-spaced, with first line indented 5 spaces
One blank line
Paragraph; single-spaced, with first line indented 5 spaces
One blank line
Paragraph: single-spaced, with first line indented 5 spaces
One blank line
Complimentary close
Three blank lines (for signature)
One blank line
Enclosure notation
One blank line (Optional)
Copy notation
Modified block style (with indented paragraphs) for letters
UP Open University
Unit II Module 3 83
Date of letter
Address of reader
Three blank lines
Short subject line
Three blank lines
Paragraph: single-spaced, no indention
One blank line
One blank line
Five blank lines (for signature)
Enclosure notation
Copy notation
Simplified style for letters
UP Open University
Facsimile reference
One or more blank lines
Date of memo
Reader’s name (and position, if appropriate)
Writer’s name (and position, if appropriate)
Subject of memo
Paragraph: Single-spaced (optional: first line indented)
One blank line
One blank line
One blank line
Typist’s initials (optional: writer’s initials before typist’s initials)
One blank line
Enclosure notation
One blank line
Copy notation
Memo style
UP Open University
Module 4
Technical Reports
R eports are another genre or type of

writing that I am sure you are very
familiar with. In your course on academic
Objectives
writing, one of the main topics was the
report. Other than the context in which they
are written, is there a difference between an
to:
academic report and a technical or business
report? We will find out the answer in this
1. Discuss the features or
module.
characteristics of
technical reports;
2. Describe the
What is a Report? components of technical
reports; and
The simplest definition of a report is that it is 3. Write a technical report
an account of something. following guidelines for
effective technical report
There are many kinds of reports. Some writing.
reports are long documents containing
quantitative data. Other types of reports are
as short as a letter or memo and in fact take the form of a letter or memo.
There are formal reports, complete with a table of contents, executive
summary, and figures. There are also informal reports consisting of a page
or two of information presented in tabular form (e.g., sales reports,
enrollment figures.)
A more formal definition of a report is that it is “an orderly presentation

of information that helps in decision making and problem solving.”
(Instructional Solutions Online)
More specifically, a report does one, two, or all of the following:
1. Present data or information in an organized way.
2. Provide an analysis of a situation or a set of information.
3. Recommend a course of action or solution.
Examples of information reports are sales reports and progress reports.

Examples of analytical reports are annual reports and audit reports.
Recommendation reports include problem-solving reports, scouting
reports, feasibility reports, and justification reports. Examples of reports
that inform, analyze, and recommend are accident reports, committee
reports, and trip reports. Can you add your own examples?
Parts of a Report
Reports can be generally classified into formal and informal reports. The
following definitions are adopted from Pfeiffer (1994):
Formal report: this report covers complex projects and is

directed to readers at different technical levels. Although
not defined by length, a formal report usually contains at
least 6 to 10 pages of text, not including appendices. It can
be directed to readers either inside or outside your
organization. Often bound, it usually includes these
separate parts: cover/title page, letter/memo of transmittal,
table of contents, list of illustrations, executive summary,
introduction, discussion sections, and conclusions and
recommendations. (Appendices often appear after the
report text.)
Informal report: This document contains about two to five

pages of text, not including attachments. It has more
substance than a simple letter or memo but less than a
formal report. It can be directed to readers either outside or
inside your organization. If outside, it may be called a letter
report. If inside, it may be called a memo report. In either
case, its purpose can be informative (to clarify or explain)
or persuasive (to convince) or both.
Locker gives us a tabular presentation of the differences in the components

of reports by degree of formality. (Figure 4-1)
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 87
More formal Less formal
Cover Title Page Body

Title Page Table of Contents Introduction
Transmittal Abstract/Executive Summary Body
Table of Contents Body Conclusions
List of Illustrations Introduction Recommendations
Abstract/Executive Summary Body
Body Conclusions
Introduction Recommendations
Body
Conclusions
Recommendations
Notes/Works Cited
Appendices
Questionnaires
Interviews
Computer Printouts
Related Documents
Figure 4-1. Components of a Report (from Locker, 1995)
Cover/Title page
The cover/title page is sometimes two items⎯ that is, a cover and a title
page, or just one item⎯ that is, a cover-cum-title page. No matter, because
the contents of both are the same: the project title, your client’s name
(Prepared for…), your name and/or the name of your organization
(“Prepared by…”), and the date of submission. (See Figure 4-2, next page,
for a sample cover/title page.)
You may or may not include a simple visual on the cover/title page. If
you do, be sure that it does not clutter the page and that it is appropriate
to what you report has to say.
The letter/memo of transmittal is placed immediately after the title page,

which means it is bound with the report. In the memo/letter you might
wish to state the main point or recommendation from the report, in
addition to the message of transmittal. This is if you wish to take advantage
of the prominence of the letter’s location.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 89
Table of contents
The table of contents acts as an outline. Readers refers to it to understand
how the report is organized as well as to locate specific information. Make
sure your table of contents is readable by making judicious use of spacing
and indentations. Choose the wording of the headings and subheadings
well. Be specific yet concise. And use parallel form in all entries. For
example, “Subgrade Preparation” and “Fill Placement” are parallel. “How
to Prepare the Subgrade” and “Fill Placement” are not parallel.
Try to have a more or less equal number of headings and subheadings for
parts of the report that are equally important because some readers think
the number of headings and subheadings is an indication of relative
importance. However, do not clutter your table of contents with too many
headings and subheadings. Leave out the low-level headings. But do list
all appendices.
List of illustrations
If there are a number of them, illustrations (figures and tables) within the
body are usually enumerated in a separate page right after the table of
contents. If the list is short, it can be placed at the foot of the table of
contents. Also, usually tables are listed separately from figures.
Executive summary
The executive summary is de rigueur in formal reports. This is the French
way of saying that it is required or mandatory. A capsule version of the
report, the executive summary gives busy decision-makers the chance to
get the main points of the report at a glance.
Some guidelines for writing the executive summary are (Pfeiffer, 1995;
Purdue University Online Writing Lab, 2002):
1. Put it in one page.

2. Avoid technical jargon.
3. Follow the order or ideas in the report. Use transitions or logical
connections between the information included.
4. Include only the most important conclusions and recommendations.
5. Do not add new information, or information not in the report itself.
6. Use a paragraph format.
UP Open University
Write the executive summary last, or after you have written the report.
The Online Writing Lab of Purdue University (2002) enumerates the
following steps for writing the executive summary:
1. Reread your report with the purpose of abstracting in mind. Take

special note of the purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and
recommendations.
2. After rereading your report, write a rough draft without looking back
at your report. Do not merely copy sentences from your report, since
these sentences are part of a context and by themselves won’t provide
enough information. Or you might end up quoting the detailed
sentences, which means you’re providing too much information in
your summary.
3. Revise the draft summary to correct weaknesses in organization and
coherence, delete superfluous information, add important information
originally left out, eliminate wordiness, and correct errors in grammar
and mechanics.
4. Carefully proofread the final copy.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Quarterly monitoring of groundwater showed the presence of nickel in

Gives brief Well M-17 at the Hennessey Electric facility in Jones, Georgia. Nickel was
background not detected in any other wells in the site. Hennessy then retained McDuff’s
of project environmental group to determine the source of the nickel.
The project consisted of four main parts. First, we collected and tested
Keeps verbs in 20 soil samples within a 50-yard radius of the well. Second, we collected
active voice, groundwater samples from the well itself. Third, we removed the stainless
for clarity and water screen and casing and submitted them for metallurgical analysis.
brevity Finally, we installed a replacement screen and casing built with Teflon.
The findings from this project are as follows:
Uses short list to • The soil samples contained no nickel.

emphasize major • We found significant corrosion and pitting in the stainless steel screen
findings and casing that we removed.
• We detected no nickel in water samples retrieved from the well after
replacement of the screen and casing.
Emphasizes major Our study concluded that the source of the nickel in the groundwater
conclusion in was corrosion on the stainless steel casing and screen.
separate paragraph
Figure 4-3. Sample executive summary (from Pfeiffer, 1994)
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 91
Introduction
The introduction should not duplicate the executive summary. Neither
should it provide detailed background information on your topic (e.g.,
the history of microcomputers). Instead, think of the introduction as an
orientation to the topic, purpose, and contents (including what is not
included) of your report. You can indicate as well what knowledge or
background readers need to understand the report (i.e., who is the report
for) and the situation that made the report necessary. (Online Technical
Wri-ting: Introductions, 2002)
This type of introduction is short⎯ no more than three paragraphs on

one page of a 10-page report, for example. (Online Technical Writing:
Introductions, 2002) Figure 4-4 (next page) is an example of an introduction
to a technical report.
Body/Discussion section
The discussion sections comprise the longest part of formal reports. The
organization of ideas in the discussion section is discussed under
“Analyzing and organizing information.” At this point, suffice it to say
that this part of the report should use headings and subheadings, which
are handles by which your readers can grasp the content of your report.
Also, use listings to break up long paragraphs and use illustrations for
clarification and persuasion. Place excess details in appendices, not the
body of your report.
Conclusion and recommendation section

The final section of the report is the conclusion and recommendation
section. This is an exhaustive list of conclusions and recommended courses
of action, unlike the executive summary which includes only the main
conclusions and findings.
The author/s of Online Technical Writing distinguishes between four ways

of ending technical reports: a summary, a “true” conclusion, an
“afterword,” and “nothing.” The first and last are self-explanatory. The
true conclusion is one that gives the writer’s interpretation and/or choice
of the options discussed in the body of the report. (See Figure 4-5 on page
93 for an example.) The afterword is a general statement on a topic related
to but not actually covered by the report. For example, your report may
have provided background information on a new technology; in your
conclusion you could discuss the future trends with respect to use of that
technology. (See Figure 4-6 on page 94 for an example.)
UP Open University
Remember that the title of the Rather lengthy background

report must go above the first Report before real topic, purpose,
level heading on the On overview are indicated.
first page of the introduction. Light Water Nuclear Reactors
I. Introduction
There are approximately five hundred nuclear power

plants in operation or under construction worldwide.
These plants can produce as much as 370,000 megawatts
of electricity. These nuclear power plants can be categorized
into four types: light water reactors, heavy water reactors,
gas-cooled reactors, and breeder reactors. Basically, a
nuclear power reactor operates by having a central unit, called
the core, in which nuclear fission reactions take place and
produce heat. A liquid, called the coolant, flows through the
system and absorbs the heat produced in the core. The
liquid is then converted into steam that drives a turbo
generators to produce electricity.
Purpose of
the report Exact topic of
indicated. The purpose of this reports is to present the basic design,
the report
operation, and safety measures of light water reactors to indicated here.
city council members. City councils are currently
investigating the possibility of membership in a regional
consortium as an alternative to increased coal-fired production Audience
Situation of of electricity. This report will explain how the two types of indicated, both
the report in terms of who
light water reactors, the design to be used by the consortium,
indicated. it is and what
operate and present the key safety and economic aspects knowledge the
of these reactors. Although the operations of nuclear power readers need to
reactors does involve complex chemistry and physics, these understand this
aspects of the discussion have been avoided; only an report.
introductory discussion of the mechanical operation of the
reactor will be presented.
The four parts of this report discuss (1) the design and
operation of pressurized water reactors, (2) the design and
operation of boiling water reactors, (3) safety measures
employed in these reactors, and (4) economic aspects of
these reactors’ operation. The sections on the two types of
Overview of the light water reactors describe the components and explain
reports contents their operation. The section on safety measures will discuss Overview of
continues with the causes of meltdown, safety systems used in both types the report’s
details on the contents
of reactors, and the role of the Nuclear Regulatory
contents of each using the in-
main section.
Commission plays to ensure the safety of these reactors. sentence list
The final section will review the various costs involved in the format.
construction and operation of a nuclear power plant.
Figure 4-4. Sample introduction of a technical report

(from Online Technical Writing, 2002)
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 93
V. Conclusions
Solar heating can be an aid in fighting high fuel bills if planned carefully, as
has been shown in preceding sections. Every home represents a different
set of conditions; the best system for one home may not be the best one for
next door. A salesman can make any system appear to be profitable on
paper, and therefore prospective buyers must have some general knowledge
about solar products.
A solar heating system should have as many of the best design features as
possible and still be affordable. As explained in this report, the collector should
have high transmissivity and yet be durable enough to handle hail storms.
Collector insulation should be at least one inch of fiberglass mat. Liquid
circulating coils should be at least one inch in diameter if an open loop systems
is used. The control module should perform all the required functions with no
added circuits. Any hot water circulating pumps should be isolated from the
electric drive motor by a non-transmitting coupler of some kind.
Homeowners should follow the recommendations in the guidelines section

carefully. In particular, they should decide how much money they are willing
to spend and then arrange their components in their order of importance. The
control module designs vary the most in quality and therefore should have
first priority. The collector is the second in importance, and care should be
taken to ensure compatibility. Careful attention to the details of the design
and selection of solar heating devices discussed in this report will enable
homeowners to install efficient, productive solar heating systems.
Figure 4-5. Sample “true” conclusion (from Online Technical Writing, 2002)
UP Open University
V. CONCLUSION: FUTURE TRENDS
Everyone seems to agree that the car of the future weigh even less than
today’s down-sized models. According to a recent forecast by the Arthur
Anderson Company, the typical car will have lost about 1,000 pounds between
1978 and 1990 [2:40]. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
estimates the loss of another 350 pounds by 1995. To obtain these reductions,
automobile manufacturers will find or develop composites such as fiber-
reinforced plastic for the major load-bearing components, particularly the
frame and drivetrain components.
Ford Motor Company believes that if it is to achieve further growth in the late
1980’s, it must achieve breakthroughs in structural and semistructural load-
bearing applications. Some of the breakthroughs Ford sees as needed include
improvements in the use of continuous fibers, especially hybridized reinforced
materials containing glassand graphite fibers. In addition, Ford hopes to develop
a high speed production system for continuous fiber performs. In the related
area of composite technology, researchers at Owens Coming and Hercules
are seeking the best combination of hybrid fibers for structural automotive
components such as engine and transmission supports, driveshafts, and
leaf springs. Tests thus far have led the vice president of Owen Corning’s
Composites and Equipment Marketing Division, John B. Jenks, to predict
that hybrid composites can compete with metal by the mid-1980’s for both
automotive leaf springs and transmission supports.
With development in these areas of plastics for automobiles, we can look

forward to lighter, less expensive, and more economical cars in the next
decade. Such developments might well provide the needed spark to rejuvenate
America’s auto industry and to further decrease our rate of petroleum
consumption.
Figure 4-6. Sample “afterword” conclusion

(from Online Technical Writing, 2002)
According to Online Technical Writing, “If you use an afterword-type

last section, make sure you write it at a general level that it doesn’t sound
like yet another body section of the report.” Remember that conclusion
sections should be brief and general.
While these components are presented here as parts of a formal report,

note that the descriptions apply likewise to the introduction, body, and
conclusion and recommendation sections of informal reports.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 95
Activity 4-1
Appendix 4-1 is the body of a report taken from the UP President’s
End-of-Term Report, 1993-1999. It contains the introduction and
discussion sections. It has no executive summary and a concluding
section. Try your hand at a providing these two sections of the
report.
Steps in Preparing the Report

According to Locker, whether formal or informal, an effective report
requires that you:
1. Define the problem.

2. Gather the necessary data and information.
3. Interpret the data.
4. Organize the information.
5. Write the report.
Planning and researching the report

First, a report must have a well-defined problem, or focus/topic. Usually,
in the workplace, this problem is given or assigned to you; that is, it is not
something that you have to think up yourself.
Examples of report problems or topics in organizations are the

environmental impact of a project, the training needs of staff, safety
conditions, equipment requirements, progress in adoption or
implementation of a policy, salary study, marketing problems, job audit,
and sales.
The problem or topic is usually articulated at the beginning of the report

in the form of a purpose statement. According to Locker, a good purpose
statement states the:
• Organizational problem or conflict.

• Specific technical questions that must be answered to solve the problem.
• Rhetorical purpose (to explain, recommend, request, propose) which
the report is designed to achieve.
UP Open University
Having clarified your purpose for doing the report and the focus of the
report, you proceed with doing the necessary research that will enable
you to get the data you need. Research in this context “can be as simple as
getting a computer printout of sales for the last month; it may involve
finding published material or surveying or interviewing people.” (Locker)
There are two general types of research: primary and secondary. Primary
research refers to the gathering of new information by means, for example,
of observations, surveys, and interviews. Secondary research refers to
getting information gathered and/or published by someone else. This
involves conducting library research and/or getting information from a
computer database.
You must know how to do both. This manual will not discuss how to
conduct research, whether primary or secondary, since this is a topic you
discussed in your other courses (notably Comm. II). Suffice it to say that
research is something you can’t run away from; it’s something you do
even at work. Also, your report will only be as good as the data you get. If
you get the wrong information or information that isn’t reliable, then your
report will be worthless. So you must do the step of gathering information
carefully.
Analyzing and organizing information

Once you have gathered the information you need for your report, you
then analyze the information. This step is essential to making a logical
and therefore convincing or effective report. Below are tips on analyzing
data from Locker.
1. Look for:
• Answers to your research questions; and
• Interesting nuggets which may not have been part of your original
questions but which emerge from the data.
2. If your report is based on secondary data, check to be sure you know

what the data actually measure. Examine the survey instrument used
to elicit the data. If your data include words, try to find out what the
words mean to the people who said them.
3. Sum up quantitative data and/or run the appropriate computations

and statistical tests.
4. State accurately what your data show. Do not overgeneralize or

oversimplify. And do not misinterpret.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 97
5. Consider rival hypotheses, or alternative factors that might explain

your results other than those you considered initially. Consciously
search for at least three possible solutions for each problem. In your
report, mention all of the possibilities; discuss in detail only those that
will occur to readers and that you think are the real reasons and the
best solutions.
6. Make both the claim and the evidence explicit in your report. Show
the connection between evidence and claim.
7. Make the nature of your evidence clear to your reader. Do you have
observations which you yourself have made? Or do you have
experiences based on observations or data collected by others?
8. If you can’t prove the claim you originally hope to make, modify your
conclusions to fit your data. Never modify your data to fit your
conclusions!
Pfeiffer gives a useful differentiation between fact and opinion, which

you must keep in mind when analyzing data or information: Facts⎯ which
are presented as findings in your report⎯ you uncover or observe with
your senses (for example, you observed hairline cracks in the casing of a
piece of equipment). Opinions take the form of conclusions and
recommendations in your report. Conclusions are ideas or beliefs you
develop based on your findings (for example, you conclude that the hairline
cracks were caused by mishandling by cargo personnel); recommendations
are suggestions or action items based on your conclusions (for example,
you recommend that the cargo personnel be fined for mishandling the
equipment). Pfeiffer says ideally you move from findings to conclusions to
recommendations.
Which brings us to the next step: organizing information. There are many
ways of organizing information. Choose the one that will help your readers
understand and use the information best. Locker recommends that you:
1. Process your information before you present it to your reader. Do not

present it according to how you gathered it or became aware of it. In
short, do not present it raw.
2. When you have lots of information, group it into three to seven

categories. The average person’s memory can hold only seven chunks.
3. Work with the reader’s expectations, not against them. This means
you must introduce ideas in your overview in the order in which you
will actually discuss them and vice versa.
UP Open University
Pfeiffer recommends what he calls the ABC format for organization:
• Abstract. Start with a capsule version of the information most needed

by decision makers. This usually consists of the statement of purpose
and a summary of the main findings and recommendations.
• Body. Give the details in the body of the report, where technical readers
are more likely to pause to examine supporting evidence. Use headings.
• Conclusion. Place here the conclusions and recommendations.
In formal reports, the abstract consists of several components: the cover/

title page, letter or memo of transmittal, table of contents, list of illustrations,
executive summary, and introduction.
How to organize specific types of reports

Informative and closure report. This type of report summarizes a completed
work or project without further action or recommendation. It includes:
• An introductory paragraph summarizing the problems or successes

of the project
• The purpose and scope section indicating the purpose of the report
and the topics it covers
• A chronological account of the project or, if the topic is a problem,
how the problem was discovered and addressed
• A concluding paragraph
Figure 4-7 (pages 99-101) is an example of a short informative report.
Progress and periodic reports. These are often informal reports for the
purpose of providing your supervisor or client with details about ongoing
work on a specific project. Their components are:
• An introductory summary, highlighting the main progress to date or

since the last report
• Description of work completed since the last report, organized either
by task or time or both
• Enumeration of delays or incomplete work, if any
• A conclusion briefly restating work completed, expressing confidence
or concern about overall work, and indicating willingness to make
any adjustments the reader may want to suggest
Figures 4-8 (pages 102-104) is an example of a progress report.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 99
Figure 4-7. Sample short informative report (adapted from Locker, 1995)
March 14, 2009
To : Kitty O. Locker
From :
SAR
Sara A. Ratterman Informal shor
t reports use
o format. First
letter or mem paragraph
Subject : Recycling at Bike Nashbar summarizes
main points
Two months ago, Bike Nashbar began recycling its corrugated cardboard
boxes. The program was easy to implement and actually saves the company
a little money compared to our previous garbage pickup.
In this report, I will explain how, why, and by whom Bike Nashbar’s program Purpose and
was initiated how the program works and what it costs; and why other scope of report
businesses should consider similar programs.
ne headings
Bold or underli
The Problem of Too Many Boxes and Not Enough Space in Bike Nashbar
Every week, Bike Nashbar receives about 40 large cardboard boxes containing
bicycles and other merchandize. As many boxes as possible would be stuffed
into the trash bin behind the building, which also had to accommodate all the Cause of
other solid waste the shop produces. Boxes that didn’t fit in the trash bin ended problem
up lying around the shop, blocking doorways, and taking up space needed for
customers’ bikes. The trash bin was only emptied once a week, and by that
time, even more boxes would have arrived.
Triple space before
heading
The Importance of Recycling Cardboard Rather than Throwing It Away
Arranging for more trash bins or more frequent pickups would have solved the
immediate problem at Bike Nashbar but would have done nothing to solve the
problem created by throwing away so much trash in the first place.
Double space betwee paragraphs with heading
According to David Crogen, sales representative for Waste Management, Inc.
75% of all solid waste in Columbus goes to landfills. The amount of trash the Further
city collects has increased 150% in the last five years. Columbus’s landfill is seriousness
almost full. In an effort to encourage people and businesses to recycle, the cost of problem
of dumping trash in the landfill is doubling from $4.90 a cubic yard to $9.90 a
cubic yard next week. Next January, the price will increase again to $12.95 a
cubic yard. Crogen believes that the amount of trash can be reduced by
cooperation between the landfill and the power plant and by recycling.
letter of
Capitalize first
How Bike Nashbard Started Recycling Cardboard major words in heading
Waste Management, Inc., is the country’s largest waste processor. After reading
an article about how committed Waste Management, Inc., is to waste reduction
and recycling, I decided to see whether Waste Management could recycle our Solution
boxes. Corrugated cardboard (which is what Bike Nashbar’s boxes are made of)
is almost 100% recyclable, so we seemed to be a good candidate for recycling.
UP Open University
e
Reader’s nam
Kitty O. Locker date
r
March 14, 2009 page numbe
Page 2
To get the service started,

1. I looked up Waste Management’s phone number and called the company.
2. I met with a friendly sales rep. David Crogen, that same afternoon to
discuss the service.
Waste Management, Inc., took care of all the details. Two days later, Bike
Nashbar was recycling its cardboard.
t to
tell reader wha
Talking heads
each section
How the Service Works and What It Costs expect in
Waste Management took away our existing 8-cubic-yard garbage bin and
replaced 1 with two 4-yard bin. One of these bins is white and has “cardboard
Details of only” printed on the outside; the other is brown for all other solid waste. The
solution bins are emptied once a week, with the cardboard being taken to the recycling
plant and the solid waste going to the landfill or power plant.
Since Bike Nashbar was already paying more than $60 a week for garbage
pickup, our basic cost stayed the same. (Waste Management can absorb
the extra overhead only if the current charge is at least $60 a week). The cost
is divided 80/20 between the two bins: 80% of the cost pays for the bin that
goes to the landfill and power plant; 20% covers the cardboard pickup. Bike
Nashbar actually receives $5.00 for each ton of cardboard it recycles.
Each employee at Bike Nashbar is responsible for putting all the boxes he/
she opens in the recycling bin. Employees must follow these rules:
• The cardboard must have the word “corrugated” printed on it, along with
the universal recycling symbol.
Indented
lists
provide
visual
variety
• The boxes must be broken down to their flattest form. If they aren’t, they
won’t all fit in the bin and Waste Management would be picking up air
when it could pick up solid cardboard. The more boxes that are picked
up, the more money and space that will be made.
• No other waste except corrugated cardboard can be put in the recycling

bin. Other materials could break the recycling machinery or contaminate
the new cardboard.
UP Open University
Unit II Module 4 101
Kitty O. Locker
March 14, 2009
Page 3
Minor Problems with Running the Recycling Program
The only problems we’ve encountered have been minor ones of violating the
rules. Sometimes employees at the shop forget to flatten boxes, and the air Disadvantages
of solution
instead of cardboard gets picked up. Sometimes people forget to lock the
recycling bin. When the bin is left unlocked, people do steal the cardboard,
and plastic cups and other solid waste get dumped in the cardboard bin. I’ve
posted signs where they key to the bin hangs, reminding employees to empty
and fold boxes and relock the bin after putting cardboard in it. I hope this will
turn things around and these problems will be solved.
Advantages of the Recycling Program
The program is a great success. Now when boxes arrive, they are unloaded,
broken down, and disposed of quickly. It is a great relief to get the boxes out Advantages
of our way, and knowing that we are making a contribution to saving our of solution
environment builds pride in ourselves and Bike Nashbar.
Our company depends on a clean, safe environment for people to ride their
bikes in. Now we have become part of the solution. By choosing to recycle
and reduce the amount of solid waste our company generates, we can save
money while gaining a reputation as a socially responsible business.
Why Other Companies Should Adopt Similar Programs
Businesses and institutions in Franklin County currently recycle less than

4% of the solid waste they produce. David Crogen tells me he has over 8,000
clients in Columbus alone, and he acquires new ones every day. Many of
these businesses can recycle a large portion of their solid waste at no additional Argues that
cost. Depending on what they recycle, they may even get a little money her company’s
back. experience is
relevant to
The environmental and economic benefits of recycling as part of a other
comprehensive waste reduction program are numerous. Recycling helps companies
preserve our environment. We can use the same materials over and over
again, saving natural resources recycling helps the U.S become less
dependent on imported raw materials. Crogen predicts that Columbus will be
on a 100% recycling system by the year 2000. I strongly hope that his
prediction will come true and the future may start to look a little brighter.
UP Open University
Figure 4-8. Sample progress report (from Locker, 1995)
July 20, 2009
HealthSouth Rehabilitation Hospital of Austin

P.O Box 13366
Austin, TX78711
Dr. David McMurrey

Director of Public Relations
United Cerebral Palsy Association of Texas, Inc.
900 Congress Ave.
Austin, TX78701
Dear Dr. McMurrey:
I am writing to inform you about my progress on the report on Therapeutic

Electrical Stimulation Therapy (TES) for children with cerebral palsy, which
will be handed out at the United Cerebral Palsy Program held at the Hilton
Hotel. Immediately following your organization’s 15 June acceptance of my
bid to present a seminar and background report on this topic, I began
researching and gathering information in all areas of this project.
After much research, I have gathered detailed information on the background

on cerebral palsy in children and the effects of TES as a treatment for these
children. I have made adjustments to the explanation about how cerebral
palsy and TES affects the child’s physiologically so that your clients, the
parents, can fully understand this difficult topic easily.
My colleagues at HealthSouth Rehabilitation Hospital have helped me put

the project together. With their help, I have completed one-third of the project;
therefore, I expect to have the final report before or on the determined deadline,
August 8.
In the following sections of this progress report, I have included a brief project
description on what your clients can expect to receive at the seminar. I discuss
the work that has been completed, the work I am currently involved in, and
the work that needs to be finished. Finally, I will give the overall assessment
of how the project is going.
Project Description
Here is a review of the purpose and the scope of this project.
Purpose. Not many parents who have a child with cerebral palsy know what
treatments are available. Once parents find all this information, they do not know
what is best for their child and/or do not understand how these treatments improve
their children’s physical and social health. The purpose of this project is to
educate parents about TES and its uses for children with cerebral palsy.
UP Open University
Scope. This technical report will cover the basic background about cerebral
palsy and Therapeutic Electrical Stimulation Therapy. The report will be broken
into two major topics: (1) cerebral palsy and (2) TES therapy; however, each
topic is described in detail. Cerebral palsy section will be discussed in the
following four areas:
• Terminology used
• Causes of cerebral palsy
• Forms of cerebral palsy
• Treatments available
TES section however will include four broad areas:

• Background on Electrical Stimulation therapy
• Uses of TES therapy for children with cerebral palsy
• Studies done with TES therapy for children with cerebral palsy
• Advantages and risks of using TES
Work Completed
As of this time, I have completed most of the research work and am putting
the sections of the final report together. The following is what I have already
done on the two major topics of the technical report.
Cerebral Palsy Background. This topic describing cerebral palsy is fully

written. I have described in full detail the impact of this development disorder
on children. This section includes the physiological background of cerebral
palsy, the terminology needed to understand cerebral palsy, the forms of
cerebral palsy, and what treatment is available. All of these points will help
parents understand their children’s condition.
Therapeutic Electrical Stimulation Therapy. This topic of the paper has

been fully researched. I have finished describing the history of electrical
stimulation therapy which will give background to how TES evolved. So far, I
have detailed information to discuss TES’s uses for children with cerebral
palsy, the One 2 One Stimulator, studies done with TES therapy for chidren
with cerebral palsy, advantages and risks of using TES.
Current Work
Right now, I am mainly involved in the organization of the TES information.

Also, I am currently looking for graphics to illustrate cerebral palsy in a child
and the TES effects.
Cerebral Palsy Background. Since this section of the reports is done, I am

currently determining which areas of this topic are lacking information. At
this stage, I am asking my colleagues to proofread this topic of the report for
proper grammar, accuracy of the information, and easy comprehension.
UP Open University
Therapeutic Electrical Stimulation Therapy. For this section of the report,

I am in the process of finishing the written portion of the background on TES,
its apparatus, the studies done with TES, and the advantages and risks of
using TES. Most of my time is devoted in this topic since it is the purpose of
the technical report, I am also putting the finishing touches on the history
and physiological background of electrical stimulation therapy and the
differences between Functional Electrical Stimulation therapy and TES therapy.
Future Work
I have planned to ask my colleagues to proofread the finished report so that

the information in the report is explained accurately and understandably. I
will also do some fine-tuning on the main part of the report, the effects of TES
on children with cerebral palsy.
Cerebral Palsy Background. I will need to insert my graphics in the text of

this section. I plan to use graphics illustrating the nervous system of human
body so that a terminology used in the report can be fully understood. I will
also make the tables about the risks of cerebral palsy, so that parents have
a reference as to what signs to look for to prevent other complications.
Therapeutic Electrical Stimulation Therapy. In this section of the report,

I will include graphics in the text. I plan to put graphics illustrating the
physiological effects of TES on the body, the apparatus, and the tables or
graphics demonstrating studies done on children with cerebral palsy. I am
however concerned that there will be technical terminology that might be
confusing to the reader; therefore, I plan to have a nonspecialist read this
section so I can receive feedback.
Overall Assessment of the Report
The project to give a seminar and technical background report on TES for
children with cerebral palsy is coming along well. I have not come across any
obstacles and have found a great amount of material on this subject.
Enclosed is a full detained outlined of the reports as it stands now. If you

have any questions or suggestions about the outline, or if you would like to
read the report in its current state, please let me know. As it stands, the
progress of the report is coming together well; thus, I expect the final report
to be turn in before or on the scheduled data.
Sincerely,
Lisa Candelas, P.T.

HealthSouth Rehabilitation Hospital
Encl: Outline of the Current Progress of the Report
UP Open University
Recommendation report. This report presents readers with specific

suggestions that affect personnel, equipment, procedures, products, and
so on. Although the main purpose is to persuade, every recommendation
must be supported by objective data. The parts of a recommendation report
are:
• An introduction that states the purpose, the problem to which the

recommendations are pertinent, and a capsule summary of the
recommendations covered in the report discussion
• Details about the problem, if necessary
• Well-organized description of recommendations
• Data that support the recommendations (with reference to
attachments, if any)
• Main benefits of the recommendations
• Any possible drawbacks
• Concluding paragraph
Evaluation report. This type of report is an assessment⎯ of a project, a

piece of equipment, the design of a building or facilities, and even staff
performance. Its components include:
• An introduction stating the purpose of the report and a summary of

the main points of the evaluation
• A thorough description of whatever is being evaluated
• A well-organized critique or evaluation, with evidence, according to
selected criteria
• Additional supporting data, with reference to any attachments
• A brief statement of major findings, conclusions and recommendations
Writing the report

The principles of good writing that you learned in your Communication
Skills courses and in the previous modules apply to report writing, with
three exceptions, which I quote from Locker:
1. Reports use a more formal style than do many letters and memos.
Contractions and informal words are not appropriate for reports.
2. Reports rarely use the word you, because reports usually have multiple
audiences.
3. Reports should be self-explanatory. Explain acronyms and
abbreviations the first time they appear. Explain the history or
background of the problem.
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Except for these three guidelines, reports are best written following the
guidelines for effective writing, specifically:
1. Say what you mean.

2. Tighten your writing.
3. Introduce sources and visuals gracefully.
4. Use transitions, topic sentences, and headings to make the organization
of ideas clear to the reader.
Activity 4-2
By way of illustrating the first two principles indicated above,
consider these incorrect, vague, and wordy examples of report
writing and try to improve on each one. The parts that need to be
improved are underlined.
1. With these recommendations, we can overcome the solutions

to our problems.
2. My report revolves around the checkout lines and the methods

used to get price checks when they arise.
3. The first problem with the incentive program is that middle

managers do not use good interpersonal skills in implementing
it. For examples, the hotel chef couldn’t openly ridicules the
program. As a result, the kitchen staff fear being mocked if
they participate in the program.
4. Campus Jewelers’ main objective is to increase sales.

Specifically, the objective is to double sales in the next five years
by becoming a more successful business. (wordy)
UP Open University
Answers to Activity 4-2

Here are Locker’s suggested revisions:
1. With these recommendations, we can overcome our problems.

OR: With these recommendations, we can solve our problems.
2. My report shows how price checks slow checkout lines and

recommend ways to reduce the number of price checks needed.
3. The first problem with the incentive program is that some

middle managers undercut it. For example, the hotel chef openly
ridicules the program. As a result, the kitchen staff fear being
mocked if they participate in the program.
4. Campus Jewelers’ aims to double sales in the next five years.
A note about wordiness: Some people end up being wordy out of a desire
to make their report longer. If you are one of these people, remember that
length for its own sake is worthless. Don’t waste your reader’s time, or
yours.
Another cause of wordiness is repetition. Repetition can be good for

emphasizing important points. For examples, the conclusion usually
restates the main points in the body. But inadvertent or unplanned
repetition, which is what happens when you write different parts of a
document at different times, is definitely not good.
As for visuals, these are non-text, graphical presentations of information

that can help communicate quantitative information more meaningfully
and succinctly. Visuals include charts, graphs, tables, maps, drawings,
and photos. With computer technology, it is now fairly easy to create
charts, graphs, and tables. But also because of this, many people tend to
use these visuals indiscriminately.
Locker recommends the following steps for designing visuals:
First, check the source of data. Your chart is only as good as the data it
presents.
Second, determine the story you want to tell and then choose the visuals
that will help you tell that story. In other words, be clear about the point
you want to make and then choose your visuals accordingly. Some reports
are filled with pages and pages of tables and graphs the point of which is
not clear.
UP Open University
“Visuals are not interchangeable,” declares Locker. So you must choose

the visual that best fits your purpose. The tips below are from Locker:
• Use tables when the reader needs to be able to identify the exact values.
• Use a chart or graph when you want the reader to focus on
relationships.
* To compare a part to the whole, use a pie chart.
* To compare one item to another item, use a bar chart or a map.
* To compare items overtime, use a bar chart or a line graph.
* To show frequency or distribution, use a bar chart or a line graph.
* To show correlations, use a bar chart, a line graph, or a dot chart.
• Use photographs to create a sense of authenticity or show the item in
use.
• Use drawings to show dimensions or to emphasize a detail.
• Use maps to emphasize location.
• Use Gannt charts to show timeliness of proposals or projects.
Third, follow the conventions for designing typical visuals. For examples,
in a graph, be sure the x and y axis are properly labeled. In both tables
and graphs, be sure the units of measurement used are indicated.
Fourth, use color and decoration with restraint. Here, of course, culture is
a factor. Some cultures (Filipinos?) like to have a lot of colors and a lot of
decoration. But do consider not only your preferences but also those of
your reader. And most of all, consider the purpose for which you are
using the visual. Do no insert unnecessary visuals or visuals that will detract
from your main point.
Also, with respect to color, note that there are cultural associations attached
to these. Know what these meaning are for your audience.
Too, try not to clutter up your visuals with too many markings. Avoid
what Edward Tufte calls chartjunk, or “decorations that at best are
irrelevant to the visual and at worst mislead the reader.” (qtd. In Locker)
Be sure that the visual is accurate and ethical. Check the labels of your
visuals. Do not distort data.
Finally refer to your visuals in your text. Direct your reader’s attention to
them (this includes telling the reader where to find the visuals). Summarize
the main point of the visual before presenting it. (e.g., “As Figure 4 shows,
sales doubled in the last decade.”)
UP Open University
To cap this module and before you buckle down to work on Activity 4-3,
read “Management Reports: The Road to Incoherence” by Meliton Salazar
and “Creativity in Management Communication: The Corporate Report

Revisited” by Maria Teresa Colayco on pp. 59-65 and pp. 48-58,
respectively, of Management Communication in the Global Era.
Activity 4-3
Write a 3-5 page informative memo report (see Figure 4-7 for a
sample) on one of the following topics:
1. Describe a problem or challenge encountered by an organization

where you’ve worked. Describe the problem, show why it
needed to be solved, identify who did what to try to solve it,
and explain how successful the efforts were.
2. Describe the job prospects in your field for the next five years.
Indicate degree requirements, salary range, and opportunities
for advancement. Will some parts of the country offer more
jobs than others? How competitive will the field be?
You may use visuals (e.g., a table and/or chart) in your report.
Observe the guidelines for including visuals.
UP Open University
Appendix 4-1
Sample Report from Volume II
of the U.P. President’s Report, 1993-1999
Further Democratization of Access to a U.P. Education
From the point of view of social distribution, the UP student selection or

admission process has always been problematic, the principal problem
being how to ensure a reasonable balance between recruitment of students
best able to cope with the intellectual requirements of the academic
programs and the obligation of UP to provide educational opportunities
to as many as can profit from it regardless of socio-demographic
considerations. The principal constraint for the first is the highly uneven
quality of secondary education, with private elite schools providing better
quality. That for the second is the limited facilities of the University. These
considerations have been addressed in one form or another by almost all
UP presidents. It will be seen that the changes and modifications of the
admission process have been attempts to redress the balance in favor of
one consideration or the other.
Before 1971, admission was a composite system: all UP High School

graduates were automatically admitted, as well as honor graduates from
private and public high schools, the number depending on size of the
high school graduating class per school. The remaining slots were filled
up based on the results of an entrance examination. In effect, except for
UP Prep and UP High graduates, a quota system for freshman admission
was being used, with the graduates from high schools of substantial size
nationwide more or less represented in the UP freshman population. On
account of the uneven preparations of admitted freshmen, remedial
intensive English and Mathematics classes were given during the time of
President Sinco when this open admission was tried out.
The composite admission system soon became a problem with the increase
in the number of high schools (and therefore of honor graduates) and the
general deterioration of public secondary education. In 1971, on the basis
of a study of drop-out rates and upon advice of a Rockefeller consultant
(the Rockefeller Foundation maintained an office in UP to administer its
foreign aid), the UP College Admissions Test (UPCAT) covering English
Proficiency, Reading Comprehension, Science and Math Achievement was
given, this time to all those interested in UP admission. The result was
that more graduates from elite secondary schools were admitted.
The effect of this policy began to be felt within four years of its institution,
for which reason the 1976 Faculty Conference called for a review of the
UP admission policy. Several initiatives were made along this point
between 1977 and 1989. (Volume 4, Chapter 1)
In 1994, UP President Emil Q. Javier called for adjustments in the

undergraduate admissions system to democratize the geographic and
socioeconomic distribution of UP’s undergraduate student population.
At the same time, he ordered a review of the University’s socialized tuition
and financial assistance program (STFAP) to evaluate the effectiveness of
STFAP in furthering its democratization objective and to assess its fiscal
sustainability. These directives set in motion an integrated set of baseline
and policy studies involving scores of UP faculty and staff from various
disciplines across the autonomous campuses of the UP System.
Why Democratizing Access is a Persistent Problem in U.P.?
The issue of democratization continues to have resonance because the

lopsided distribution of UP’s undergraduate student population first
observed in 1976 persists today. The University’s intake of freshmen is
biased in favor of students from Metro Manila, higher income families,
and/or private high schools who capture a disproportionately large share
of UP’s undergraduate student places. This observation is generally
accurate at the System level, is particularly true in the Diliman and Manila
campuses, but is less pronounced in Los Baños and Visayas.
Democratization seeks to address the chronic underrepresentation of poor,

rural-based, and public school-educated students in UP’s undergraduate
population. This persistent bias in student intake against the majority of
the population is seen as less than satisfactory, given the assumption that
intelligence is normally distributed among the population and in the light
of UP’s mandate as the national university of the Philippines to cast as
wide a net as possible in the search for the best talents among our high
school graduates to be trained in UP as a prospective leaders and competent
professionals of our country.
In the Philippines, completion rates at the tertiary education level are

markedly skewed in favor of higher income groups. At the basic education
levels, the children of the poor are more likely to drop out or get poor
quality education. There exists a large and growing gap in the quality of
basic education across regions and between public and private schools,
which is reflected in the higher achievement scores of students in relatively
affluent regions (e.g., Metro Manila) and in the higher completion rates
among private schools. These findings are reflection in the geographic
and socioeconomic profile of UPCAT qualifiers through the years.
UP Open University
Appendix 4-1 113
The lopsided distribution of tertiary education opportunities endemic to

Philippine higher education is generated by and it abets the deep-seated
structural problem of a highly inequitable distribution of incomes and
assets, which requires long-term solutions, such as a redistributive social
reform agenda.
How U.P has Addressed the Issue of Democratization
Since the socioeconomic bias of competitive admissions was discovered in

1976, UP has tried a number of democratization initiatives. These initiatives
may be classified into two types:
• Experimental or pilot/small-scale democratization programs adopting

integrated approaches combining admissions adjustments with
financial, learning, and psychosocial assistance (e.g., XDS, ARDS,
ARDS, AAPM); and
• Systemwide programs focusing on a single democratization issue (i.e.,

STFAP). (See Volume 4).
Democratization initiatives of the first type have limited scope or duration.

These are usually affirmative action programs that admit applicants from
underrepresented sectors by special rules applying slightly lower University
Predicted Grade (UPG) cut-offs. On the other hand, the Systemwide STFAP
democratization initiative, while comprehensive in scope, addressed only
one particular democratization thrust (i.e., the structure of tuition fees
and financial assistance) and did not change the admissions selection
criteria. Thus, while this single-thrust reform provided assistance to those
admitted, there continued to be a diminution of freshman admissions from
lower income groups.
Learning assistance is usually an integral part of affirmative action pilot

programs that admit applicants with UPGs below the regular cut-off.
Generally, learning assistance is not provided for students who qualify
under regular rules (e.g., STFAP beneficiaries). However, some
departments provide ad hoc tutorials on a referral or voluntary basis to
regular students with deficient preparation, usually for freshman GE skills
courses. This suggests that the potential clientele of learning assistance is
not limited to affirmative action qualifiers and in fact includes a certain
number of regular qualifiers.
STFAP, which was implemented in 1989, is now the single most important
financial assistance package available to UP students. Since the beneficiaries
of affirmative action programs usually qualify for STFAP tuition and cash
grants, it has not been necessary to provide a separate financial assistance
UP Open University
package for them. The STFAP financial package is relatively more generous
compared to most scholarship grants offered by government or the private
sector, although it was not designed to meet the full living expenses of UP
students living away from home. Moreover, the purchasing power of
STFAP stipends, which were last adjusted in 1992, has since depreciated
due to inflation.
The democratization initiatives noted above have been evolutionary in

nature, reflecting both the possibilities and constraints abiding at the time
of their institution. Moreover, affirmative action programs adopting
integrated approaches but piloted on a modest scale have had a salutary
effect on the performance of students covered by these programs. However,
these have improved the distribution of student places only marginally at
the campus level.
In fine, the main lesson to be learned from these past initiatives is the need
to design and implement a policy package that is comprehensive (i.e.,
Systemwide), integrated (i.e., involving admissions adjustments and
learning and financial assistance), and self-adjusting over time.
This last feature is of particular importance because of the sociological

phenomenon whereby, in the absence of an automatic adjustment
mechanism to sustain social change, the gains of incremental reforms in
institutions are reversed as the major characteristics of forces abiding in
the larger social system reassert themselves. This tendency has empirical
basis for UP in the matter of bracket creep (to be discussed in the next
section). It is projected that, without a built-in indexing mechanism
automatically adjusting bracket cut-offs and tuition, the status quo will
prevail, with students from low-income brackets progressively occupying
fewer places and getting less and less of the subsidies.
Why a Comprehensive Integrated, and

Self-Adjusting Policy Package is Needed
Periodic review and adjustments are necessary to stay in the course of

democratization because the problems that democratization policies seek
to resolve tend to reassert themselves. Similarly, a comprehensive and
integrated policy platform is imperative because piecemeal approaches
produce only token results or, worse, introduce new distortions. Two
examples are cited to illustrate these points: (1) the bracket creep
phenomenon, and (2) the differential in academic performance of STFAP
vs. non STFAP grantees.
UP Open University
Appendix 4-1 115
Bracket Creep
In its original conception, STFAP was designed to be self-adjusting to

account for inflation. Two years after it was initiated, UP did rebracket
and adjust the STFAP tuition fee and financial assistance structure, where
it has since remained. The continuing freeze of income cut-offs, tuition
fees, and stipends has resulted in bracket creep, which operates as follows:
The proportion of Brackets 1-4 students is decreasing monotonically over

time as they get pushed to higher brackets of the freezing of STFAP income
cut-offs since 1992. Conversely, the proportion of Bracket 9 students is
increasing.
• The share of automatic subsidies captured by Bracket 9 students is

increasing over time as the tuition-cost differential widens, since cost
escalates due to inflation even as tuition fees remain frozen at their
1992 levels.
• The cash grants given to Brackets 1-4 students are decreasing as they
slowly disappear from the scene. Moreover, the purchasing power of
Brackets 1-4 living stipends are depreciating due to inflation since these
have likewise been frozen at their 1992 levels.
• While net revenue (tuition revenues less cash grants) is rising nominally
over time, the increase in real terms is negligible because of the
combined effects of inflation and the freeze in tuition fees.
Differential Academic Performance
Theoretically, STFAP stipends should have a positive influence on

academic performance, as they augment the grantee’s capacity to acquire
learning aids or help improve the conditions for learning. However, the
findings of the background study on the academic performance of STFAP
grantees vis-á-vis non-grantees did not support this hypothesis, with a
few instructive exceptions.
• Generally, Bracket 9 students performed better than STFAP grantees

in UP Diliman at UP Manila. Among STFAP grantees, Brackets 5-8
students tended to outperform Brackets 1-4 students. However, the
differentials in academic performance by field of study across brackets
were insignificant during the first year at UP Diliman and during the
first three years at UP Manila. In the fourth year, Brackets 1-4 students
outperformed Bracket 9 students in only 2 out of 12 fields
(communications and education) in Diliman.
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• In UP Los Baños, Brackets 1-4 students tended to do no worse than

Bracket 9 students. In the fourth year, Brackets 1-4 students even
outperformed their Brackets 5-8 and 9 counterparts in 8 out of 10
fields. Two reasons are essayed to explain the curious break manifested
by the Los Baños STFAP experience: (a) the relative homogeneity of
UPLB’s undergraduate student population, which is more evenly
distributed across brackets, high school types, and regions; and (b) the
relatively extensive provision of bridging course and other learning
assistance programs by the Learning Resource Center of the UPLB
College of Arts and Sciences. Taken together, these make for a more
hospitable and nurturing academic climate for the target clientele of
democratization initiatives.
• A significant proportion of STFAP students lose their grants due to

poor grades.
• In general, UP is not able to elicit maximum academic performance

from its students who already come from the top rungs of the nation’s
high school graduates. This may be explained by the lack of a coherent
incentive structure to encourage scholarship among students. For
instance: STFAP grade requirements are lax; material incentives for
college and university scholars have been withdrawn; penalties for
poor performance or scholarship delinquency are lacking or not
stringent enough.
Providing Learning Assistance
The observations presented in the preceding section suggest that financial

assistance by itself does not promote good academic performance. In fact,
an overemphasis on financial assistance may be a distorting influence in
that it gives rise to the notion that education subsidy is an entitlement
rather than a privilege that must be earned. The notion of entitlement is a
disincentive to achieving good performance.
While financial assistance may be a necessary condition to promote good

performance among students targeted by democratization, it is not
sufficient to compensate for their disadvantaged backgrounds. To achieve
the twin goals of equity and excellence which democratization policies
must simultaneously address, learning assistance should be integrated into
the package.
We have already noted that STFAP combined with a fairly widespread

offering of learning assistance succeeded in promoting good academic
performance among STFAP grantees at UPLB. The review of pilot scale,
UP Open University
Appendix 4-1 117
affirmative action-type democratization programs with built-in learning

assistance planks, namely, XDS, ARDS, and AAP, consistently showed
that the target clientele of these programs who underwent assistance
performed better than their peers in the control group.
The Excellence-Equity Admissions System (EEAS)
The undergraduate admissions system has two goals: academic excellence

and equity. UP wants the best high school graduates in terms of academic
ability and talent. However, it also aims for geographic representation
and socioeconomic equity.
Applicants (about 51,000 last year) are ranked based on their UPGs. This
is a weighted combination of high school grades (with a weight of about
40%) and scores in the four UPCAT subtests. On the average, 70% of
qualifiers are chosen based on competitive straight ranking or pataasan.
The 30% are chosen based on the principle of equity⎯ i.e., and
economically depressed regions. The 70:30 ratio is called the equity mix.
In general, the system works. The excellence goal is achieved as 10,000 or

12,000 qualifiers each year come from the top 2% (based on NCEE scores)
of 730,000 high school graduates each year. However, the following are
proportionately underrepresented: males, public high school graduates,
place of origin as a surrogate for income class, those from lower
socioeconomic classes are likewise seriously underrepresented.
To correct these inequities, a modification called the Excellence-Equity

Admission System (or EEAS) was introduced in 1998. The new system
takes a two-pronged approach:
1. To improve geographic distribution, focus has been shifted to all 77

provinces instead of just the eight depressed regions. Provinces are
given special chances (though not a guarantee) to get an equitable
number of qualifiers.
2. To improve socioeconomic equity, high school type is used as surrogate

measure. Special advantage is given to graduates from disadvantaged
public high schools (i.e., public general, vocational and barrio/barangay
high schools.) It is presumed they are poorer than average.
To maintain academic standards, the 70:30 equity mix has been kept.
UP Open University
Computer simulations show that the EEAS will mean more geographic
dispersal of qualifiers and more qualifiers (presumably poor) from
disadvantaged public high schools. Statistical studies show the expected
effects of the lower UPG cut-offs on actual academic performance (e.g.,
passing percentage, general weighted average, and the probability of
attaining at least a specific average.) Hence, the introduction of the
Learning Resource Centers as a complement to EEAS.
The Learning Resource Center
Students admitted into the University come from various backgrounds.

Some students have difficulty coping with the demands of academic life.
While most survive, some either drop out or are dismissed; still others stay
longer in college. Various UP offices and some student organizations have
instituted some learning assistance programs to help students cope with
academic as well as psycho-social problems. However, these forms of
assistance need to be coordinated and institutionalized. In particular, with
the institutionalization of democratized admissions under the EEAS and
the growing complexity of student problems, the need to establish at
Learning Resource Center (LRC) in every UP campus was recognized.
The LRC is tasked to supplement, complement, and coordinate existing

learning assistance programs in every campus to ensure that the goal of
promoting academic excellence is realized in a caring and nurturing
environment. As proposed, the LRC has three programs, namely, the
Instructional and Enrichment Assistance Program, the Psycho-Social
Development Program, and the Monitoring and Evaluation Program. The
latter includes a campus and Systemwide student tracking system to
monitor and evaluate student progress.
The LRC’s programs will help bridge the gap between the students’ exit
skills at the secondary level and the requisite entrance skills for the UP
freshman year. The programs begin with the Summer Bridge Program, to
continue well into the freshman year through self-instructional modules
and tutorials to be developed under the supervision of the LRC with the
assistance of the academic departments concerned.
Focus will be on the development of critical thinking skills in

Communication, Mathematics, and Science. To avoid any form of stigma
in students served by the LRCs, and to keep within a reasonable budget, it
was proposed that the programs make use of self-instructional modules
and tutorials that will be supervised and administered by faculty and
student volunteers. To ensure systematization of the programs in all
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Appendix 4-1 119
campuses and an efficient and reliable evaluation of the same, the

programs will be coordinated at the System level by a Director of the LRC
System. Eventually, the programs will use other instructional modes,
particularly those utilizing multimedia approaches.
Initially, the programs will be for new freshmen admitted under the EEAS
and those enrolled under the certificate programs. However, students
referred by GE teachers and other interested students may also be admitted
into these programs.
Socialized Tuition Fee and Financial Assistance
A tuition structure and financial assistance package that builds on STFAP

was likewise proposed. It introduces the following innovations:
• a higher grade requirement set at 2.75 (GWA);

• additional financial incentives for good academic performance over
and above their STFAP grants/subsidies; and
• an indexing mechanism which automatically adjusts for inflation built
into the system.
The latter feature will be stipulated as part of an “implicit social contract”

between the University and students upon the latter’s admission into the
University. In addition to STFAP grants and subsidies, existing financial
packages will be expanded and a Study-Now-Pay-Later financing plan
will be introduced. In order to launch the package on a sound fiscal footing,
it was proposed that tuition fees be raised to a level below the cost of
instruction. Two alternatives were presented. (See Volume 4 for details.)
Preliminary Assessment of the Impact of EEAS
In 1997, the Board of Regents approved the recommendations for EEAS

and Learning Resource Centers. The recommendations for STFAP
adjustments and other financial assistance packages were not submitted
for BOR approval in view of the continuing resistance of the students to
any form of tuition adjustment. However, the number of slots for students
and graduate assistants was increased Systemwide, and the hourly rates
were doubled⎯ from P12 to P25 for student assistants, and from P18 to
P42 for graduate assistants.
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The EEAS is a special effort to democratize access to UP education without

compromising the University’s tradition of academic excellence. This was
achieved by: 1) increasing the number of test centers in order to bring the
UPCAT to the most far flung areas, thereby reducing for the students the
cost of taking the examination; and 2) increasing the number of qualifiers
from underrepresented provinces and lower income groups.
On the first objective, the UP Office of Admissions increased by two and

a half times the number of test centers, from 33 in 1993 to 81 in 1999
(Figure 3.1). The opening of more test centers significantly increased the
number of UPCAT examinees. However, about a third of the equity
qualifiers did not register. There is a need to find out the cause of the no-
shows. Access to scholarships and other forms of financial assistance such
as increase in student assistantships are already being addressed.
Table 3.05 shows the distribution of “equity” qualifiers by region. A follow-

up study of EEAS qualifiers should be initiated by the Office of Admissions
and the LRC in preparation for a mandatory review of EEAS in 2003.
The impact of the EEAS, which was first implemented during the 1998
UPCAT, was dramatic with respect to the socioeconomic distribution of
qualifiers (Q). Its impact on the geographic distribution of qualifiers,
although less dramatic, also improved equity. The share of qualifiers from
outside Metro Manila increased significantly, particularly for those from
Luzon and Mindanao. While the number and proportion of qualifiers
from Metro Manila declined, graduates of high schools from the National
Capital Region still account for more than their fair share of the total Q-
Quota.
Equally significant, selectivity increased overall even as the EEAS

democratized admissions. The main reason for this was the rapid growth
of the number of UPCAT applicants The number of applicants almost
doubled from 1992 to 1998 even as the Qualified-Quota (Q-Quota)
remained relatively flat. Increased competition for freshman slots raised
the median UPG and actual UPG cut-offs across campuses.
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Appendix 4-1 121
Indicators of the impact of EEAS on equity and selectivity are summarized

below.
Impact on socioeconomic distribution (with high school type as surrogate

indicator)
• The number of qualifiers from public high schools increased by 63%

from 3,174 in 1992 to 5,167 in 1998. In terms of percentage share of
the Q-Quota, the proportion of public high school qualifiers grew from
34% to 47% over the same period. However, since public high schools
account for 64% of the total enrollment of secondary schools, they are
still underrepresented.
• The number of qualifiers from private schools decreased absolutely

from 6,103 (1992) to 5,850 and as a proportion of the Q-Quota, down
from 66% (1992) to 53% in 1998. However, the quota for private high
school graduates is still oversubscribed since their share of secondary
school enrollment is only 36%.
Impact on geographic distribution.
• The number of qualifiers from Metro Manila declined slightly from

3,554 in 1992 to 3,471. This represents a decrease from 38% to 32%
over the same period in terms of percentage share. However, Metro
Manila’s share is still more than double their quota since NCR accounts
for only 15% of the total enrollment of secondary schools.
• NCR’s loss represents a gain for the rest of the country. Luzon gained
the most, increasing its share of qualifiers from 28% in 1992 to 39%.
Mindanao’s share also posted a slight increase from 12% to 13%. But
the share of Visayas decreased significantly from 21% to 16%.
• The regions that benefited most from EEAS are Cagayan Valley and
the Cordillera Autonomous Region in Luzon, and ARMM and Caraga
in Mindanao. More than half of the qualifiers from these regions were
admitted via the equity round of the EEAS.
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90
81
80
74
70 67
61
60
53
Number of Test 50
Centers
40
40
33
30
20
10
0 4
1993 199 199
5 1996 199
7
199
8 1999
Year
Figure 3-01. Test centers opened from 1993-1999
Total 3-05. Profile of equity admission qualifiers by region (with enrollment

data)
Region/Area Q Q Enrolled Enrolled Not- Not- E/Qa

Actual Actual % % Enrolled Enrolled %
R1: Ilocos 144 4.7 99 4.9 45 4.3 69
R2: Cagayan Valley 185 6.1 137 6.8 48 4.6 74
R3: Central Luzon 482 15.8 372 18.5 110 10.5 77
R4: Southern Tagalog 521 17.1 392 19.5 129 12.3 75
R5: Bicol 221 7.2 157 7.8 64 6.1 71
R6: Western Visayas 256 8.4 154 7.7 102 9.8 60
R7: Central Visayas 89 2.9 36 1.8 53 5.1 40
R8: Eastern Visayas 163 5.3 118 5.9 45 4.3 72
R9: Western Mindanao 99 3.2 41 2.0 58 5.5 41
R10: Northern Mindanao 71 2.3 30 1.5 41 3.9 42
R11: Southern Mindanao 167 5.5 72 3.6 95 9.1 43
R12: Southwestern Mindanao 72 2.4 27 1.3 45 4.3 38
R13: Caraga 72 2.4 30 1.5 42 4.0 42
National Capital Region 330 10.8 258 12.8 72 6.9 78
Cordillera Autonomous Region 109 3.6 59 2.9 50 4.8 54
Autonomous Region 73 2.4 26 1.3 47 4.5 38
of Muslim Mindanao
Foreign School 1 0.0 1 0.0 0 0.0 100
Total 3,055 100.0 2,009 100.0 1,046 100.0 66
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Appendix 4-1 123
Impact on Selectivity
• The ratio of qualifiers to applicants has been decreasing from 28% in

1992, to 25% in 1995, and farther down to 16% in 1998.
• The median UPG of qualifiers improved from 2.52 in 1995 to 2.46 in

1998. The actual cut-off UPG remained unchanged at 2.80 for 1995
and 1998.
80,000
70,000 66,958
60,000
49,412
Population
50,000
40,000
34,573
30,000
20,000
12,085
 11,017
Figure 3-2. 10,000
9,277 

Number of
8,531 8,050
applicants, 0
5,418
1992, 1992 1995 1998
1995, and Year
1998 Applicant Qualifier Enrollee
100%
90%
Quota of Public High School
80%
70%
66 68
Percentage
60%
50% 53
Figure 3-3. 40%

Shares of 30%
public vs. 20%
private school 10%
qualifiers
0%
(percentage), 1992 1995 1998
1992, 1995, Year
and 1998 Public school Private school
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5000 4946
4000
3554
Number of Qualifiers
3471
3000
2122
2000 1990 1776
1424
1109
1427
1000
Figure 3-4.
Number of
0 qualifiers
1992 1995 1998 (cumulative)
Year
by Region,
1992, 1995,
NCR Luzon Visayas Mindanao
and 1998
100%
12 12 13
90%
80%
22 18 16
70%
Percentage
60%
28 30 39
50%
40%
30% 38 40
20% 32
10% NCR’s Quota
0%
1992 1995 1998
Year
NCR Luzon Visayas Mindanao
Figure 3-5. Number of qualifiers (percentage) by Region, 1992, 1995 and 1998
Actual refers to the actual qualifiers (including resolved pending cases as of June 19, 1998
F/QA as the ratio of enrolled over Q Actual in percentage
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Appendix 4-1 125
Implementation of the Learning Resource Centers (LRCS)
Administratively, the Learning Resource Center for each autonomous unit

is under the Office of the Vice-Chancellor for Academic Affairs, except
the LRC in UP Diliman which is under the Office of the Vice-Chancellor
for Student Affairs. The System LRC is under the Office of the Vice-
President for Academic Affairs. A Director heads each AU LRC, while a
coordinator heads each campus LRC under an AU (including the College
of Engineering LRC of UP Diliman and the College of Engineering and
Agro Technology of UP Los Baños). Coordinators are administratively
under the AU LRC Director. The System Director coordinates the activities
and oversees the implementation of the programs of the AU LRCs.
Learning assistance starts with the summer bridge program (SBP)

conducted during the summer before the start of the first semester of the
new freshman. During the regular semester, enrichment comes in the form
of general study-learning skills development through the use of self-help
instructional materials or through tutorial sessions held in the LRC or in
classrooms handled by peer tutors or by faculty members. The LRC also
offers training in new skills such as computer literacy and Internet use.
Mathematics is a priority area of the learning assistance program because

of the alarming mortality rate of students in math courses in all the UP
campuses. Data presented by the President’s Committee to Upgrade
Mathematics Education (PCUME) in 1997 revealed that fully one-third of
new freshmen fail in College Algebra, or an estimated 5,700 students for
the whole UP System in two semesters. This finding indicates very poor
preparation for College Math courses in elementary and high school
education (this is also manifested in the very low performance of 13 year-
old Filipino students who placed in the bottom third in Math in the Third
International Mathematics and Science Study.)
The LRC has embarked on the development of a ladderized type of

instructional materials for Math courses starting with the Summer Bridge
Math, followed by Freshman Mathematics, and lastly the Calculus Series.
The six Math books cover the most number of courses among the LRC
learning assistance programs. Other subject areas where learning assistance
materials have been developed are Communication and the Natural
Sciences⎯ in particular, Chemistry, Natural Science I and II, and Biology.
The Natural Science I and II, Biology, and Communication enrichment
programs are only for courses in the freshman year. Letting assistance for
Chemistry and Math covers the freshman and sophomore years.
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Faculty members actually teaching the courses, their students, and

recognized experts in the field who act as critics develop the LRC materials.
These materials are prepared as self-help modules using the personalized
system of instruction (PSI) approach. They are not meant to replace the
lessons taken during the regular class hour. All published LRC materials
are copyrighted in the name of UP, and are expected to be made available
at a reasonable cost not only to LRC users but also to other interested UP
and non-UP students in other higher education institutions. In this way,
the LRC will be able to extend its work to a much wider public.
To date, the following learning assistance materials have been completed:

6 handbooks for the summer bridge program (chemistry, communication,
mathematics, biology, NatSci I and II); 8 handbooks for the regular semester
tutorials (Math 11 and 14; Calculus I, II and III; and Organic Chemistry;
and 3 modules for the life skills or psychosocial development program.
The LRC has set up linkages with System committees and units with similar
tasks, namely, the President’s Committee for Upgrading Math Education,
the President’s Committee for Improving English Teaching; the Office of
the Student Guidance Counselor; and the Ugnayan ng Pahinungod.
The Summer Bridge Program (SBP)
The development of the instructional materials for the Summer Bridge

Program of the LRC started in early 1997 as part of a project of the UP-
CIDS Education Research Program (ERP). Thus, a day after the BOR
approval of the institutionalization (April 18, 1997), the LRCs of UPLB,
UP Visayas in Miag-ao, and UP Mindanao were able to hold the Summer
Bridge Program for a total of 94 freshman qualifiers for AY 1997-1998 in
the three campuses. In 1998 and 1999, the LRCs in all UP campuses
conducted the SBP. It was implemented for six weeks each in UPLB, the
four campuses of UP Visayas, and UP Mindanao, and for three weeks
each in UP Manila and UP Diliman (including UP Clark and UP Baguio).
UP Manila modified the Summer Bridge Program by starting it during the
first semester registration period; consequently, it was not able to finish
the three-week modules.
A preliminary evaluation of the SBP as a learning assistance program

was done by comparing the academic performance during the first semester
of 1998-99 of the SBP participants with that of a control group from the
same cohort. Data collected included the place of origin, high school of
origin, and STFAP bracket.
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Appendix 4-1 127
The results showed that although the UPCAT scores of the summer
bridgers were significantly lower than those of the control group (an
indication of their inadequate academic background in high school), the
UPGs of the two groups were not significantly different. However, the
summer bridge participants generally had a higher high school average
compared to the control group. The results of statistical analyses of their
grades in two subjects, Communication I and Math (1, 11 and 17, analyzed
separately) showed that the mean grades of the two groups did not differ
significantly. This suggests that although the summer bridge participants
had less adequate academic background, the program was unable to bring
them up to the level where they could compete with most of the other
students in their cohort.
During the first semester of AY 1998-99, three summer bridge participants

in UP Tacloban made it to the Dean’s list. In UP Mindanao, eight bridgers
made it to the Honor’s list, one to the Dean’s list, and seven to the honor
roll.
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Module 5
Proposals and
Feasibility Studies
I s there anyone among us who hasn’t yet

heard the word ”proposal”? Maybe not.
Indeed, I’m almost a hundred percent sure that
Objectives
we all know what a proposal is and that we After working on this
have made a proposal at least once in our lives. module, you should be able
Whether that proposal was written or made to:
orally doesn’t matter for the moment. For
whether oral or written, a proposal aims for 1. Describe proposals in
one thing: to get its target audience to agree to terms of their purpose,
(do) something. sections or components,
and format;
In this module, we will learn about proposals 2. Write effective proposals;
in the business setting, as well as the proposal’s 3. Describe feasibility
“twin”⎯ the feasibility study. studies/reports in terms
of their purpose, basic
features, and
Definitions organization; and
4. Write a short feasibility
Let’s get our terms right first of all. report following the
guidelines for writing
A proposal is a document that aims to effective feasibility reports.
persuade its readers to adopt an idea, product,
or service (Pfeiffer, 1997). More formally defined, a proposal is “an offer
or bid to do a certain project for someone.” (Online Technical Writing, 2002)
Its main purpose is to get its audience “to approve, fund, or grant
permission to do the proposed project.” (Online Technical Writing, 2002)
The feasibility study or report, on the other hand, is a document that

aims “to show the practicality of a proposed policy, product, service, or
other change within an organization.” (Pfeiffer, 1997) I call it the proposal’s
“twin” because a feasibility study is often prompted by a proposal; it
evaluates the components of a proposal such as its costs, the advantages/
benefits it poses, and its probable effects.
Pfeiffer illustrates the relationship between a proposal and a feasibility

study, as well the documents that prompt a proposal and which are
prompted by a successful feasibility study. (Figure 5-1, next page)
Another way of understanding the relationship between a proposal and

a feasibility study is that the latter studies the merits of an idea that a
proposal is seeking management approval for.
The feasibility report belongs to a category of reports that include

recommendation reports, evaluation reports, and assessment reports.
Aren’t these one and the same, you might well ask. The authors of Online
Technical Writing define these reports as follows:
Feasibility report: This type studies a situation (for example,

a problem or opportunity) and a plan for doing something
about it and then determines whether that plan is
“feasible”⎯ which means determining whether it is
technologically possible and whether it is practical (in terms
of current technology, economics, social needs, and so on).
The feasibility report answers the question, “Should we
implement Plan X?”... Not only does it give a
recommendation, it also provides the data and the reasoning
behind that recommendation.
Recommendation report: This type starts from a stated need,

a selection of choices, or both, and then recommends one,
some, or none. For example, a company might be looking
at grammar-checking software and want a recommenda-
tion on which product is the best. As the report writer on
this project, you could study the market for this type of
application and recommend one particular product, a
couple of products (differing perhaps in their strengths and
their weaknesses), or none (maybe none of them is any good).
The recommendation report answers the question, “Which
option should we choose?” (or in some cases “Which are
the best options?”)...
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Sent by real estate developer to a number

RFP of construction design firms. This request
for proposal (RFP) gives details about the
kind of building the developers want built.
Proposal Sent by interested construction design firms

to the developer, in response to the RFP.
Done in-house by the developer, to determine

Feasibility
which of two top designs is the most
Study
practical, given the funds available and needs
of potential building inhabitants.
Contract Agreed upon by construction design firm

and developer.
Project
Figure 5-1. Flowchart showing the main documents involved

in one possible construction project (from Pfeiffer, 1997)
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Evaluation report: This type provides an opinion or judgment

rather than a yes-no-maybe answer or a recommendation.
It provides a studied opinion on the value or worth of
something. For example, for over a year the city of Austin
had free bus transportation in an attempt to increase
ridership and reduce automobile traffic. Did it work? Was
it worthwhile?⎯ These are questions an evaluation report
would attempt to answer. This type of report compares a
thing to a set of requirements (or criteria) and determines
how well it meets those requirements. (And of course there
may be a recommendation⎯ continue the project, scrap it,
change it, or other possibilities.)
The authors of Online Technical Writing admit that the distinctions stated
above are too fine and overlapping and are in fact rendered moot by the
fact that in real life, professionals who are trying to communicate the
appropriateness of a course of action or the extent to which it can be
accomplished or brought about write a combination of all three.
Having clarified our definitions, let’s move on to a more detailed description

of proposals and feasibility studies.
All About Proposals

Well-written proposals are an important tool for bringing in business,
whether to a government agency, nonprofit organization, or corporation.
In the professional setting projects spring from proposals; certainly, all
successful projects started out as written proposals. The latter are the seeds
that, if adopted and implemented appropriately, germinate and bloom
into successful projects, and finally bear fruit for both the organization
and the project proponents.
Types of proposals
Proposals may be solicited or unsolicited, formal or informal, and internal
or external to the organization.
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The Online Technical Writing group explains the difference between internal
and external and solicited and unsolicited proposals thus:
Internal, external. If you write a proposal to someone within your

organization (a business, a government agency, etc.), it is an internal
proposal. With internal proposals, you may not have to include certain
sections (such as qualifications), or you may not have to include as much
information in them. An external proposal is one written from one separate,
independent organization or individual to another such entity. The typical
example is the independent consultant proposing to do a project for
another firm.
Solicited, unsolicited. If a proposal is solicited, the recipient of the proposal

in some way requested the proposal. Typically, a company will send out
requests for proposals (RFPs) through the mail or publish them in some
news source. But proposals can be solicited on a very local level: for example,
you could be explaining to your boss what a great thing it would be to
install a new technology in the office; your boss might get interested and
ask you to write up a proposal that offered to do a formal study of the
idea. Unsolicited proposals are those in which the recipient has not
requested proposals. With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes just
convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before you can begin
the main part of the proposal.
Requests for proposals or RFPs are “documents…sent out by organizations

that want to receive proposals for a product or service. The RFP gives
guidelines on (1) what the proposal should cover, (2) when it should be
submitted, and (3) to whom it should be sent.” (Pfeiffer, 1997)
As for the difference between formal and informal proposals, Pfeiffer says
informal proposals are more appropriate for smaller projects, are usually
no more than five pages in length, and are usually in the form of a letter
(for external proposals) or memo (for in-house proposals). Formal
proposals, on the other hand, are required for major projects and are
usually 10 pages or longer (excluding attachments).
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Parts of a proposal
Introduction (optional). The introduction should do all of the following
things (but not necessarily in this order):
• Indicate that the document to follow is a proposal.
• Refer to some previous contact with the recipient of the proposal or to
your source of information about the project.
• Find one brief motivating statement that will encourage the recipient
to read on and to consider doing the project.
• Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.
Background on the problem, opportunity, or situation. The background

section discusses what has brought about the need for the project⎯ what
problem, what opportunity there is for improving things, what the basic
situation is.
If the audience of the proposal knows the problem very well, this section
might not be needed. Writing the background section still might be useful,
however, in demonstrating your particular view of the problem. If the
proposal is unsolicited, a background section is a requirement⎯ you will
probably need to convince the audience that the problem or opportunity
exists and that it should be addressed.
Benefits and feasibility of the proposed project. Most proposals discuss

the advantages or benefits of doing the proposed project. This acts as an
argument in favor of approving the project. Also, some proposals discuss
the likelihood of the project’s success. In a forestry proposal, for example,
the proponent is recommending that the landowner make an investment;
at the end of the proposal, he explores the question of what return there
will be on that investment, how likely those returns are. In the unsolicited
proposal, this section is particularly important.
Description of the proposed work (results of the project). Most proposals

must describe the finished product of the proposed project.
Method, procedure, theory. In most proposals, you’ll want to explain

how you’ll go about doing the proposed work, if approved to do it. This
acts as an additional persuasive element; it shows the audience that you
have a sound, well-thought-out approach to the project.
Schedule. Most proposals contain a section that shows not only the
projected completion date but also key milestones for the project. If you
are doing a large project spreading over many months, the timeline would
also show dates for submitting progress reports. If you can’t cite specific
dates, cite amounts of time or time spans for each phase of the project.
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Qualifications. Most proposals contain a summary of the proposing

individual’s or organization’s qualifications to do the proposed work. It’s
like a mini-résumé contained in the proposal. The proposal audience uses
it to decide whether you are suited for the project. Therefore, this section
lists work experience, similar projects, references, training, and education
that shows familiarity with the project.
Costs, resources required. Most proposals also contain a section detailing

the costs of the project, whether internal or external. With external projects,
you may need to list your hourly rates, projected hours, costs of equipment
and supplies, and so forth, and then calculate the total cost of the complete
project. With internal projects, there probably won’t be a fee, but you
should still list the project costs: for example, hours you will need to
complete the project, equipment and supplies you’ll be using, assistance
from other people in the organization, and so on.
Conclusions. The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring

readers back to a focus on the positive aspects of the project (especially
since you’ve just showed them the costs!). In the final section, you can
end by urging them to get in touch to work out the details of the project,
to remind them of the benefits of doing the project, and maybe to put in
one last plug for you or your organization as the right choice for the project.
The sections discussed above are typical or common in written proposals,

not absolute requirements. Some proposals may require other sections not
discussed above. Always ask yourself what else might your audience need
to understand the project and to be convinced to approve the project and
to agree that you do the project.
In formal proposals, there may be appendices or attachments containing

supporting information. Common items for appendices or attachments
are: résumés, organization charts, company histories, detailed schedule
charts, contracts, cost tables, detailed options for technical work, summaries
of related projects already completed, questionnaire samples.
Organization of proposals
The preceding discussion of the basic parts of a proposal imply the way
these parts are organized. To make the sequence explicit:
1. Introduce the proposal, telling the readers its purpose and contents.
2. Present the background⎯ the problem, opportunity, or situation that
brings about the proposed project. Get the reader concerned about
the problem, excited about the opportunity, or interested in the situation
in some way.
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3. State what you propose to do about the problem, how you plan to
help the readers take advantage of the opportunity, how you intend
to help them with the situation.
4. Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages
that come from approving it.
5. Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it
would look like, how it would work⎯ describe the results of the project.
6. Discuss the method and theory or approach behind that method.
7. Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the
project.
8. Briefly list your qualifications for the project.
9. Now (and only now), list the costs of the project, the resources you’ll
need to do the project.
10. Conclude with a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case
the shock from the costs section was too much), and urge the audience
to get in touch or to accept the proposal.
The authors of Online Technical Writing say: “Notice the overall logic of
the movement: you get them concerned about a problem or interested in
an opportunity; then you get them excited about a problem or interested
in an opportunity, then you get them excited about how you’ll fix the
problem or do the project, then you show them what good qualifications
you have⎯then hit them with the costs, but then come right back to the
good points about the project.”
Activity 5-1
Figure 5-2 is an example of a proposal. It does not include all of the
sections enumerated above (the budget, for one, has been
deliberately omitted from this copy). You can try your hand at
filling in the gaps.
UP Open University
Figure 5-2. Sample proposal.
Project Title
Development of the Project RISE Online Program
Proponents
1. Science Education Institute, Department of Science & Technology
2. UP Open University
3. UP National Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development
Objectives
The project aims to:
1. Restructure the current Project RISE curriculum for online delivery;
2. Develop self-instructional learning packages for the Project RISE
online program;
3. Assist in the formulation of guidelines for the Project RISE online
program;
4. Train RSTC staff in online teaching and learning; and
5. Conduct and evaluate a pilot offering of the online program.
Rationale
This project aims to help the Department of Science and Technology-Science
Education Institute redesign Project Rescue Initiatives in Science Education
(RISE) into an online program in order that a greater number of elementary
and high school science and mathematics teachers can be reached by the
Project.
The current Project RISE program, delivered face-to-face through the Regional
Science Training Centers (RSTCs), benefits only a limited number of teachers
for several reasons, among these the fact that resources for face-to-face
instruction (such as qualified trainors, classroom space) are limited.
The proposed online program also has the added advantage of training teachers
in the new paradigms of teaching and learning in the new knowledge society,
even as their skills in science and mathematics teaching are enriched.
A third advantage of an online program is that training is done throughout the

school year, instead of in the summers only, since the teachers do not need
to be physically present in a real classroom and instead meet in a virtual
one. This means that they can immediately apply what they learn from the
online program in their own classrooms.
Features of the Online Program

The online Project RISE program shall consist of:
• self-instructional learning packages in print format for all 10 courses/
subjects in the Project RISE curriculum
• online discussions/interaction in all courses
• learning activities using the Internet in all courses
Aspects of the curriculum that require face-to-face laboratory sessions may

be redesigned such that there is one short (say, five days) lab course for the
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entire program to be taken in the summer when the target learners are free to
attend such a session.
While there are a number of approaches to online learning, including delivering

course content in multimedia format through the Web, the approach proposed
for Project RISE (as described above) is the most appropriate for the Project
RISE learning context.
First, from the instructional design point of view, the science and mathematics
concepts in the Project RISE curriculum can be taught effectively through
print modules only (without multimedia components). Second, print is more
accessible to the target learners (i.e., science and math elementary and
high school teachers), most of whom do not have ready access to networked
computers. With a print module, they can study and review lessons as often
as they need to. Third, from an administrative point of view, print modules are
much cheaper to produce.
The online component of the courses shall consist of structured discussions

conducted online, through which learners who are studying on their own for the
most part can interact with their tutors/teachers and classmates. This kind of
dialogue enables them to have a broader as well as a deeper understanding of
what they are studying. Some online learning activities that use Web resources,
such as Webquests, may also be designed for some modules.
Later on, the modules can be stored in CD-ROMs to make it easier for the
learners to access links to online resources.
Project Components
Component 1: Course Development
1.1 Review of Project RISE curriculum vis-à-vis the new BEC, orientation to
online learning, and identification of module authors (Workshop 1)
1.2 Development of print modules (includes a workshop to review the second
draft and come up with the final draft of the modules and the course guides)
Component 2: Course Delivery

2.1 Formulation of guidelines for program delivery
2.2 Training of RSTC staff in online teaching and learning
2.3 Pilot offering of program (including reproduction of modules and course
guides for use in the pilot offering)
2.4 Evaluation of pilot offering
Results of the evaluation shall be used to come up with the final versions of
course materials and finetune the delivery mechanism.
Project Team Members: Roles and Responsibilities
The following roles and responsibilities of DOST-SEI span both Components

1 and 2 of the project:
• Provide funding support for the project (to be released to NISMED, which
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shall disburse the funds as agreed upon by the parties— i.e., DOST-SEI,
UPOU and NISMED).
• Facilitate the processing of documents necessary for the implementation
of the project.
• Provide the necessary supervision and coordination work with the RSTCs
for the smooth implementation of the project.
• Summarize project results for future planning and implementation.
Component 1: Course Development

UP NISMED shall:
• Designate subject matter experts who will serve as authors and (content)
reviewers of the modules.
• Coordinate the work of the authors and ensure the completion of drafts
on schedule.
• Disburse funds for this component of the project as agreed upon among
the parties, including releasing to UPOU its share in the project funds
(e.g., payment of course team members designated by UPOU).
UPOU shall:
• Train authors in the design of self-instructional modules.
• Provide instructional design services.
• Provide editing and layout services.
Component 2: Course Delivery

UP NISMED shall:
• Participate in formulating guidelines for delivering the online program.
• Participate in the training of RSTC faculty and staff in online course delivery.
• Participate in drawing up a monitoring and evaluation plan for the pilot
offering.
• Reproduce the learning packages for use in the pilot offering.
• Participate in the monitoring and evaluation of the pilot offering.
UPOU shall:
• Conduct the training on online course delivery.
• Provide technical support for the delivery of the e-learning program,
including hosting the online discussions in the UPOU Integrated Virtual
Learning Environment if necessary.
• Participate in drawing up a monitoring and evaluation plan for the pilot
offering.
The RSTCs shall:

• Participate in the training on online course delivery.
• Offer the online program following the guidelines agreed upon, including
assigning faculty members who shall serve as instructors and tutors,
enrolling students, monitoring student progress, and the like.
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Format of proposals
As already mentioned, proposals can come in various formats. The
summary below is adopted from Online Technical Writing. You can use
any format. But remember that you use the memorandum format for
internal proposals and the business-letter format for external proposals.
Cover letter with separate proposal. In this format, you write a brief
“cover” letter and attach the proposal proper after it. The cover letter
briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the contents of it.
In fact, the contents of the cover letter are pretty much the same as the
introduction (discussed in the previous section). Notice, however, that
the proposal proper that follows the cover letter repeats much of what
you see in the cover letter. This is because the letter may get detached
from the proposal or the recipient may not even bother to look at the letter
and just dive right into the proposal itself.
Cover memo with separate proposal. In this format, you write a brief
“cover” memo and attach the proposal proper after it. The contents of the
cover memo are the same as the contents of the cover letter (above).
Now let’s see if you remember this: When do you write a cover letter and
when a cover memo?
Business-letter proposal. In this format, you put the entire proposal within
a standard business letter. You include headings and other special
formatting elements as if it were a report.
Memo proposal. In this format, you put the entire proposal within a
standard office memorandum. You include headings and other special
formatting elements as if it were a report. Figure 5-3 (next page) is an
example of a memo proposal.
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Figure 5-3. Sample proposal in memo format (adapted from Online Technical
Writing)
M E M O R AN D U M
TO : Dr. David David McMurrey
FROM : Joan A. Student
DATE : March 1, 2009
RE : Proposal to Conduct a Feasibility Study for an Employee Wellness Program
The following is a proposal to conduct a feasibility study for the personnel section on
the need for, and the benefits to be expected from, instituting an employee wellness
program for the Automation Division of the Highway Department. The following proposal
contains background on the need for and benefits from a wellness program, an
outline of the work I plan to do, my qualifications, and a schedule. This study may have
to be expanded to include the entire department. I understand that the Automation
Division cannot arbitrarily effect such a drastic policy change. I look forward to hearing
your ideas on the scope of this feasibility report.
Need for a Wellness Program
Current work and home schedules prevent employees from exercising enough. Current
health insurance policies focus on curing illnesses rather than preventing them.
Medical research has proven that healthy choices can prevent many diseases. The
current system has resulted in steeply increasing group health insurance costs. Also,
current budget restrictions force us to think of new ways to increase employee
productivity.
Benefits of a Wellness Program
In the report, I will document the following: (1) wellness programs produce healthier
employees, (2) healthy employees are more productive, (3) healthy employees file
fewer health insurance claims, (4) healthy employees live longer, and (5) employee
group health insurance costs will decrease.
Report Audience
I will address the report to you. However, I will target the report to the administration of
the Highway Department and to the directors of the Employees Retirement System. As
you know, the ERS negotiates and administers our group health insurance plans.
My Qualifications
I have worked for the Highway Department for thirteen years. I have been in the
Automation Division for eight years. I have an eleven-year old son. I go to night school
at Austin Community College. Therefore, I have personal experience with how difficult
it is to find enough time during the day to exercise or to prepare healthy, nutritious
meals. I have no experience in the medical or actuarial fields. However, I know that I
can find documentation to support the establishment of a wellness program. Please
review the tentative bibliography.
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Plan for Feasibility Report
I will deliver the report to your office on April 26, 2009. Here is my plan for completing
the project:
1. Library research through March 15

2. Correspondence through March 5
3. Review correspondence received finish March 23
4. Conduct interviews finish March 30
5. Write preliminary draft finish April 18
6. Produce graphics finish April 23
7. Finalize preliminary draft finish April 25
8. Deliver preliminary draft on April 2
Costs
There will be no costs involved in producing this study, other than the minimal costs of
an hour a day for the next four weeks to do the study and write the report, and costs for
typing, binding, and duplicating the report.
List of Graphics
A list of graphics I plan to use is presented here:
1. Health and longevity relationship Graph

2. Health and absenteeism relationship Graph
3. Reduction in health insurance costs by Table
health insurance
4. Recent increases in group health insurance rates Graph
Tentative Outline
I. Introduction
A. Description of wellness programs
B. History of wellness programs
II. Need for a Wellness Program

A. Need to contain rising health insurance costs
1. Private sector costs
2. Public sector costs
B. Need to increase productivity
1. Budget restrictions
2. Workplace constraints
3. Employee-related problems
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III. Benefits of a Wellness Program

A. Healthier employees
B. More productive employees
C. Lower health costs
IV. Instituting a Wellness Program

A. Workplace changes
B. Education needs
1. Nutrition education
2. Exercise education
3. Substance abuse counseling
C. Cost
D. Policy changes
V. Conclusion
A. Summarize benefits
B. Summarize costs
C. Recommend action
Tentative Bibliography
“Advances in Preventive Medicine: New Ways Not to Get Sick.” Cosmopolitan

(November 1989), 272.
“Better Than Cure.” The Economist (October 3, 1987).
Bloom, Jill. HMOs: What They Are, How They Work, and Which One Is Best for You.
Tucson: Body Press, 1987.
Brackenridge Hospital. Choices: A Catalog of Wellness Course. Austin: The Hospital,
1985.
Bud, Brian. Executive Guide to Fitness. Toronto: Von Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.
“Cutting Back on Fringe Benefits.” Management Today (October 1987).
Dres, Fredrick R. and Jerel M. Zoltick and James B. Emerson. A Healthy Life: Exercise,
Behavior and Nutrition. U.S.: Benchmark Press, 1986.
Eilers, Robert and Robert M. Crowe. Group Insurance Handbook. New York: R. D.
Irwin, 1965.
Rein, Rashi. Medical Care, Medical Costs. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.
“Fending Off the Leading Killers.” U.S. News and World Report (August 17, 1987), 56.
Harrington, Geri. The Health Insurance Fact and Answer Book. New York: Harper and
Row, 1985.
“Health.” Encyclopaedia Brittanica. 15th Ed., 1986.
“Health Costs: What? Me Worry?” Esquire (June 1989), 82.
Health Insurance Institute. Source Book of Health Insurance Data. New York: Health
Insurance Institute of America, 1988.
“Health Insurance Trends in Cost Control.” Monthly Labor Review (September 1986).
UP Open University
Here’s a revision checklist for proposals from Online Technical Writing:
Revision Checklist for Proposals
As you reread and revise your proposal, watch out for problems such as the
following:
 Make sure you use the right format. Remember that the memo format is
for internal proposals and the business-letter format is for proposals written
from one external organization to another.
 Write a good introduction— in it, state that this is a proposal, and provide
an overview of the contents of the proposal.
 Make sure to identify exactly what you are proposing to do.
 Make sure that a report— a written document— is somehow involved in

the project you are proposing to do.
 Make sure the sections are in a logical, natural order. For example, don’t
hit the audience with schedules and costs before you’ve gotten them
interested in the project.
 Break out the costs section into specifics; include hourly rates and other
such details. Don’t just hit them with a big final cost.
 For internal projects, don’t omit the section on costs and qualifications:
there will be costs, just not direct ones. For example, how much time
will you need? Will there be printing, binding costs? Include your
qualifications— imagine your proposal will go to somebody in the
organization who doesn’t know you.
 Be sure to address the proposal to the real or realistic audience— not

your instructor. (You can use your instructor’s name as the CEO or
supervisor of the organization you are sending the proposal to.)
 Watch out for technobabble. Yes, some of your proposal readers may
know the technical side of your project— but others may not. Challenge
yourself to bring difficult technical concepts down to a level that non-
specialists can understand.
UP Open University
Subject: Feasibility Studies

According to Pfeiffer, feasibility studies may be “viewed as a cross bet-
ween technical reports and proposals.” They require you to provide
objective information as well as your viewpoint and recommendation.
“Feasibility studies guide readers toward a certain line of action.” (Pfeiffer,
1997) The authors of Online Technical Writing state this idea thus:
The structural principle fundamental to this type of report

is this: you provide not only your recommendation, choice,
or judgment, but also the data and the conclusions leading
up to it. That way, readers can check your findings, your
logic, and your conclusions and come up with a completely
different view. But, more likely, they will be convinced by
all your careful research and documentation.
Feasibility studies can be in-house or external. But they are always solicited
(never unsolicited), usually as an aid in decision-making. And, they always
include an analysis of advantages and disadvantages, and a comparison
of courses of action, ideas, or products.
Contents of the feasibility study

The discussion that follows is adapted from Online Technical Writing.
Introduction. Indicate that the document that follows is a feasibility report.

You can also indicate its purpose and provide an overview of the contents
of the report.
Technical Background. Some feasibility reports may require some

technical discussion in order to make the rest of the report meaningful to
readers. The dilemma with this kind of information is whether to put it in
a section of its own or to fit it into the comparison sections where it is
relevant. For example, a discussion of power and speed of laptop computer
is going to necessitate some discussion of RAM, megahertz, and processors.
Should you put that in a section that compares the laptops according to
power and speed? Should you keep the comparison neat and clean, limited
strictly to the comparison and the conclusion? Maybe all the technical
background can be placed in its own section⎯ either toward the front of
the report or in an appendix.
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Background on the Situation. For many feasibility reports, you’ll need to

discuss the problem, need or opportunity that has brought about the report.
If there is little to be said about this, the information can go in the
introduction.
Requirements and Criteria. A critical part of feasibility and

recommendation reports is the discussion of the requirements you’ll use
to reach the final decision or recommendation. If you’re trying to
recommend a laptop computer for use by employees, there are likely to be
requirements concerning size, cost, hard-disk storage, display quality,
durability and battery function. If you’re looking into the feasibility of
providing every student with an ID on the computer network, you will
need define the basic requirements of such a program⎯ what it would be
expected to accomplish, problems that it would have to avoid, and so on.
If you’ve evaluating the recent program of free bus transportation, you’ll
need to know what was expected of the program and then compare its
actual results to those requirements.
Requirements can be defined in several basic ways:

 Numeral values: Many requirements are stated as maximum or
minimum numerical values. For example, there may be a cost
requirement⎯ the laptop should cost no more than Php50,000.00.
 Yes/no values: Some requirements are simply a yes-no question. For

example, does the laptop come equipped with a modem? Is the car
equipped with air conditioning?
 Rating values: In some cases, key considerations cannot be handled

either with numerical values or yes/no values. For example, we might
want a laptop that has an ease-of-use rating of at least “good” by
some nationally accepted ratings group. Or we may have to assign a
rating ourselves.
The requirements section should also discuss how important the individual
requirements are in relation to each other. Picture the typical situation
where no one option is best in all categories of comparison. One option is
cheaper; another has more functions; one has better ease-of-use ratings;
another is known to be more durable. Devise a method by which you can
pick a “winner” in a situation where there is no clear winner.
Discussion of the Options. In certain kinds of feasibility or

recommendation reports, you will need to explain how you narrowed the
field of choices down to the ones your report focuses on. Often, this follows
right after the discussion of the requirements. Your basic requirements
may well narrow the field down for you. But there may be other
considerations that disqualify other options⎯ explain these as well.
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Additionally, you may need to provide brief descriptions of the options

themselves. Don’t get this mixed up with the comparison that comes up
in the next section. In this description section, you provide a general
discussion of the options so that readers will know something about them.
The discussion at this stage is not comparative. It’s just a general orientation
to the options. In the laptop example, you might want to give some brief,
general specifications on each model about to be compared.
Category-by-Category Comparisons. One of the most important parts of

a feasibility or recommendation report is the comparison of the options.
Remember that you include this section so that readers can check your
thinking and come up with different conclusions if they desire. This should
be handled category by category, rather than option by option. If you
were comparing laptops, you’d have a section that compared them on
cost, another section that compared them on battery function, and so on.
You wouldn’t have a section that discussed everything about option A,
another that discussed everything about option B, and so on. That would
not be effective at all, because the comparisons must still be made
somewhere.
Each of these comparative sections should end with a conclusion that

states which option is the best choice in that particular category of
comparison. Of course, it won’t always be easy to state a clear winner⎯
you may have to qualify the conclusions in various ways, providing
multiple conclusions for different conditions.
Conclusions. The conclusions section of a feasibility or recommendation

report is in part a summary or restatement of the conclusions you have
already reached in the comparison sections. In this section you restate the
individual conclusions⎯ for example, which model had the best price,
which had the best battery function, and so on.
But this section has to go further. It must untangle all of the conflicting
conclusions and somehow reach the final conclusion, which is the one
that states which is the best choice. Thus, the conclusion section first lists
the primary conclusions⎯ the simple, single-category ones. But then it must
state secondary conclusions⎯ the ones that balance conflicting primary
conclusions. For example, if one laptop is very inexpensive and has poor
battery function, but another is rather expensive but has good or even
excellent battery function, which do you choose and why? The secondary
conclusion would state the answer to this dilemma.
Recommendation or Final Option. The final section of feasibility and

recommendation reports states the recommendation. You’d think that that
ought to be obvious by now. Ordinarily it is, but remember that some
readers may skip right to the recommendation section and bypass all your
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hard work! Also, there will be some cases where there may be a best choice
but you wouldn’t want to recommend it. For example, early in their history,
laptops were heavy and unreliable⎯ there may have been one model that
was better than the rest, but even it was not worth having.
The recommendation section should echo the most important conclusions

leading to the recommendation and then state the recommendation
emphatically. Ordinarily, you may need to recommend several options
based on different possibilities. This can be handled with bulleted lists.
Organizational plans for feasibility studies

There are two basic organizational plans for a feasibility report.
The traditional plan corresponds to the order in which the parts of a

feasibility report were presented above. You start with background and
criteria, then move to comparison, and end with conclusions and
recommendations.
The executive plan moves the conclusions and recommendations to the

front of the report and places the full discussion of background, criteria
and comparisons into appendices. That way, the “busy executive” can
see the most important information right away, and turn to the detailed
discussion only if there are questions.
Figure 5-4 is an example of a feasibility report. Which of the two

organization plans does it follow?
Activity 5-2
Figure 5-5 is an example of the main part of a feasibility report,
consisting of a discussion of the options and category-by-category
comparison. Provide the missing sections (introduction,
requirements and criteria, conclusions, and recommendation or
final option).
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Figure 5-4. Sample feasibility report (from Online Technical Writing)
Fire Ant Control: Feasibility Study

by Jacquie Shillis
Plans to develop a commercial campground on a 10-acre plot in western Bastrop

County are contingent on establishing a fire ant control program to allow people and
domestic animals to use the land for recreational purposes. This report describes
the current fire ant problem on the property, lists the criteria set by the potential
developer, gives the reasons for a limitation of the study to a comparison of broadcast
treatments, compares two fire ant control programs, outlines conclusions based
on the comparisons, and offers recommendations.
Current Fire Ant Infestation Levels
Fire ant infestation rates on the 10-acre property average 80 visible mounds per
acre. In the most heavily infested areas, more than 100 mounds per acre are visible.
Since mounds are not visible during the first 30 days of the development of the
colony [3], the total infestation rate should be assessed at a level higher than the
visible mounds suggest. Without treatment, the infestation can be expected to
increase. At current levels, development as a campground is not feasible.
Fire Ant Control Criteria
Criteria for the fire ant control program are based on the needs of the potential
developer. The goal of the study is to identify a program that will:
 Reduce fire ant population by 90% or more.

 Maintain fire ant population at a level appropriate for safe, continuous use of
camping facilities from April through October.
 Maintain environmental toxicity levels well below those allowing recreational
use of property.
 Minimize costs.
 Minimize frequency of product application.
Limitations of the Study
Two types of fire ant control treatments are available: individual mound treatments
and broadcast treatments. The most common treatments for individual mounds
include chemical drenches, surface dusts, injected toxicants, fumigants, and baits
[11:20]. Broadcast treatments are baits composed of corn grits coated with soybean
oil and a toxicant. With the exception of bait, treatments for individual mounds are
fast-acting pesticides designed to kill high numbers of fire ants [12:144]. Since the
only way to destroy a fire ant colony is to kill the queen [5,7], the individual mound
treatments often fail because they do not affect the queen.
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Although thousands of ants may be killed, the queen is whisked to safety deep in
the mound. A queen can lay up to 1,500 eggs a day [12:143] and quickly repopulate
the colony or she can simply move to a new location and establish a new colony.
Another disadvantage of individual mound treatments, including bait products used
to treat individual mounds, is that developing colonies are not visible and, therefore,
may not be treated [11:20]. In addition, locating the mounds takes more time than
broadcasting a product over the entire area.
Given the shortcomings of individual mound treatments, this study is limited to a

comparison of the two existing types of broadcast treatments, most commonly
marketed as Amdro and Logic. These bait products are based on the knowledge
that both the larval stage and adult ant stores liquid food and regurgitates it to feed
other ants, including the queen. The baits include slow-acting chemical agents
which are passed along until they reach the queen and kill her to eradicate the
colony.
Comparison of Fire Ant Broadcast Treatments
Amdro and Logic represent different types of fire ant broadcast treatments. The two
products will be compared on the basis of the following factors:
 Chemical actions
 Application requirements
 Environmental hazards
 Effectiveness
 Cost
Chemical actions of Amdro and Logic. The active ingredient in Amdro, tetrahydro-
5,5-dimethyl-2 (1H)-pyrimidinone(3-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1-(2(4-(trifluoro-
methyl)phenyl)-2- propenylidene)hydrazone, is an insecticide that is activated slowly
to allow time for it to reach the queen [8:122]. The active ingredient in Logic is
fenoxycarb, a growth regulator, that, when consumed by the queen, prevents her
from laying eggs that normally would develop into worker ants. As the number of
worker ants diminishes by natural death and no new workers take the place of the
dead ants, the queen dies from lack of care and feeding [3]. Logic also affects eggs
that would normally develop into the males which swarm and mate to produce new
queens. These swarmers are born with deformed wings, preventing them from
swarming and mating [3]. Both Amdro and Amdro and Logic are designed to eradicate
a fire ant colony by killing the queen, but do so by different chemical actions. Amdro
kills the queen with a poison; Logic inhibits normal ant development.
Application requirements of Amdro and Logic. All bait treatments should be applied
when ants are active and the ground temperature is between 7005 and 9505F. The
ground must be dry, with no rain forecast for the next few hours [7]. Amdro is designed
for broadcast application on pastures, range grass, lawns, turf, and noncrop areas
[8:122] at a rate of 1 to 1-1/2 pounds per acre [1]. It may also be distributed around
the base of an individual mound at a rate of 5 tablespoons per mound, not to exceed
a total of 1-1/2 pounds per acre, including any bait broadcast in the area [1].
Logic is recommended for controlling fire ants around homes, office buildings, city
utilities, on roadsides, in parks, cemeteries, school yards, and on golf courses at a
rate of 1 to 1-1/2 pounds per acre. For best results, both mound and broadcast
treatment are recommended [3]. The application rates of Amdro and Logic are the
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same. Both products are designed primarily as broadcast treatments on turf but
individual mount treatment is recommended in conjunction with the broadcast
method.
Environmental hazards of Amdro and Logic. Environmental hazards can be

assessed on the basis of toxicity of the product, the range of organisms affected,
and product accumulation in the environment.
Toxicity. The toxicity of a substance is generally expressed in terms of its lethal

dosage, the amount of the substance which, when ingested, results in the death of
50% of the test animals [2]. Lethal dosage is abbreviated as LD50. The lower the
LD50 number, the more toxic the substance [5]. The LD50 is 1131 mg per kg of body
weight for the active ingredient in Amdro [8:122]. The LD50 of the active ingredient in
Logic is 9220 per kg of body weight [8:49]. The active ingredient in Amdro is
approximately eight times more toxic than that of Logic. However, a lethal dosage
ratio of 1131 (Amdro) to 8813 (Logic) more accurately compares the difference in
toxicity between the two products because Amdro contains 0.88% active ingredient
and Logic contains 1% active ingredient. As purchased, the commercial product
Amdro is approximately seven times more toxic than Logic.
In practical terms, a lethal dosage for a medium-sized dog (weighing approximately

35 pounds) is more than 3 pounds of the active ingredient of Amdro. Since a one
pound bag of the product contains only 1% active ingredient, the entire amount of
Amdro purchased to treat a 10-acre camp ground would not constitute a lethal
dosage for a medium-sized animal. Smaller animals are in greater danger of
ingesting a lethal dosage. However, non-fatal health effects, such as diarrhea, can
result for any size animal from consumption of a tablespoon of Amdro [6]. Logic, by
virtue of its lower toxicity level, would need to be consumed at a much higher rate to
produce comparable effects.
Organisms affected. In addition to killing fire ants, Amdro kills harvester ants. At a
higher concentration, the active ingredient in Amdro kills cockroaches. Amdro may
attract pets and rodents [8:123] and, if consumed in sufficient amounts, can kill
pets. Amdro is toxic to fish [1]. When used as recommended, Logic affects only ants,
including harvester ants and other ant species that compete with fire ants. Since it
has the same corn grit and soybean oil base as Amdro, it is attractive to pets and
rodents [2], but must be consumed in greater amounts to be fatal, due to its lower
toxicity. Logic is also toxic to fish.
Environmental accumulation. Amdro does not accumulate in the environment and

is not systemic in plants [8:123]. Logic dissipates rapidly in soil. No residues can be
detected three days after application [10:3]. Neither product remains toxic for an
extended period of time in the environment.
Effectiveness of Amdro and Logic. The initial effects of Amdro are noticeable 1 to 2
weeks after application and the product reaches maximum effectiveness in 1 to 1-
1/2 months [2]. In a study conducted by Texas Department of Agriculture (TDA)
personnel [9:2-3], 8 weeks after a single broadcast application of Amdro on 4 test
plots, the number of fire ants and colonies had been reduced by 88% and the total
ant population by 92%. After 35 weeks, 86% fewer colonies existed, compared to
pretreatment levels. Ant population had been reduced by 98%. One year and 13
days after the Amdro application, the number of mounds on the test plots ranged
from 47% fewer than pretreatment level to 32% more than that level. Population
reduction averaged 35%.
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Initial effects of Logic are not apparent until 2 to 3 months after application [2]. In the
TDA study [9:2-3], 50% of the fire ant colonies had been eradicated and the ant
population had been reduced by 92% at 8 weeks after a broadcast treatment of
Logic. At 35 weeks, Logic-treated plots averaged an 81% reduction in the number of
fire ant colonies and a 98% reduction in fire ant population. One year and 13 days
after the application of Logic, levels of mound reduction ranged from 91% to 46%,
depending on the plot. Ant population reduction was 87%. Table 1 is a summary of
the results of the study.
Table 5-1. Table of fire ant mound and population reduction rates
for a single application of Amdro and Logic.
Products 8 Weeks 35 Weeks 1 year, 13 Days

Population Mound Population Mound Population Mound
Amdro 88% 92% 86% 98% 47-32% 35%
Logic 50% 92% 81% 98% 91-46% 87%
Early spring application (as soon as soil temperatures reach acceptable levels) of
Amdro would bring fire ant population levels into the range desirable for recreational
use of the 10 acre property in 8 weeks or less. An additional fall application of Amdro
would be required to maintain acceptable fire ant population levels. Early spring
application of Logic would bring fire ant population level under control in 8 weeks. A
single annual application in every Spring would maintain desirable fire ant population
levels.
Cost. Both Amdro and Logic have a com grit and soybean oil base [7] and must be
used within three months after opening to be effective [1]. Baits are available in large
25 pound and 50 pound quantities for a low price per pound but, for the purposes of
this study, large purchase are not cost effective due to the short life of the open
product. For the purpose of treatment of the 10-acre property, purchases of quantities
of 15 pounds or less are appropriate. Therefore, this cost survey is limited to retail
prices of small quantities. Only the lowest prices are reported, excluding taxes. A 1-
pound container of Amdro costs $7.99 at HEB grocery stores. At application rates of
1 pound per acre, broadcast twice a year, the cost is $159.80 per year. At application
rates of 1-1/2 pounds per acre, the annual cost is $239.70. B&G Company sells 4-
pound bags of Logic for $28.79. At application rates of 1 per pound per acre, the
annual cost of Logic is $86.37. At rates of 1-1/2 pounds per acre, the annual cost is
$115.16.
Product costs for Logic are significantly lower than costs for Amdro. Additionally, only
one annual application of Logic is required, compared to two applicants of Amdro,
so labor costs for Logic are half those of Amdro.
Conclusions
From a business perspective, the comfort and safety of campers are probably the
most important factors in the consideration of fire ant control measures. If campers
are not relatively free from ant bites (most people expect a few— this IS Texas) and
protected from harsh chemicals, they will not return to the campground or recommend
it to friends and family. Once comfort and safety are achieved, cost effectiveness
becomes an important factor. The following conclusions can be drawn from the
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preceding comparison of chemical action, application requirements, environmental

hazards, product effectiveness, and cost of Amdro and Logic:
 Amdro and Logic have identical application requirements and rates.
 Amdro is approximately 7 times more toxic than Logic. Neither product accumulates
significantly in the environment. At recommended application rates, neither product
poses a serious threat to people or pets.
 Amdro acts more quickly than Logic, but Logic has better long-term control
capabilities. One annual spring application of Logic maintains approximately the
same level of fire ant control as two applications of Amdro per year.
 The annual product cost for application of Logic at a rate of 1 pound per acre is
47% lower than the cost of Amdro applied at the same time. At rate of 1-1/2
pounds per acre, the cost of Logic is 53% lower than the cost of Amdro.
 Labor costs for Logic application are half those of Amdro.
A factual summary of these conclusions is presented in Table 2.
Table 5-2. Factual summary of comparisons of Amdro and logic.
CATEGORY AMDRO LOGIC

Application rates in pounds/acre 1-1.5 1-1.5
Lethal dosage of active ingredient in
mg per kg 1131 9220
Initial effects 1 to 2 weeks 2 to 3 months
Duration of effects at desirable levels 35 weeks 1 initial year work
Number of annual applications 2 times 1 time
Annual product costs $159.80 -239.70 $86.37 - 115.16
Recommendations
To achieve long term fire ant control on the proposed campground, a single annual
application of Logic in the early spring is recommended as the most effective, least
toxic, and most cost-effective long-term method. However, since spring has already
passed, I recommend a broadcast treatment with Amdro now to control fire ants
immediately and allow development of the campground. If the property can be
treated with Amdro and left undisturbed for 6 to 8 weeks, the fire ant population
should be brought to and maintained at a level allowing recreational use of the
property for the remainder of this year’s camping season. A single application of
Logic early next spring and each subsequent spring should maintain the level of
fire ant infestation within the desired level for the proposed use of the property.
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Resources Cited
Amdro Fire Ant Insecticide. Produce label. Wayne, NJ.: American Cyanamid Co.,
1987.
Clair, Dan. Pest Management Program, Texas Department of Agriculture. Personal
Interview, Austin, TX. June 26, 1989.
Logic Fire Ant Bait, Technical Data. Commercial brochure. n.d.
Logic Professional Fire Ant Bait. Product label. Memphis: Terminix International
Inc. n.d.
Mulder, Roger. Pest Management Program, Texas Department of Agriculture.
Personal interview, Austin, TX. June 14, 1989.
Rhodes, T.C. DVM. Personal interview, Cedar Creek, TX. June 16, 1989.
Texas Department of Agriculture, How to Safely and Successfully Manage Fire Ants
(without resorting to the use of harsh chemicals). Austin, TX. n.d.
Thomson, W.T. Agricultural Chemicals: Book 1, Insecticides. Fresno, CA: Thomson
Publications, 1989.
Trostle, Mark R. “Ground Application of Bait Toxicants to Texas Sod Farms.” Paper
presented at the 1989 Imported Fire Ant Conference, Biloxi, MS.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Pesticide Fact Sheet, No. 78.
Washington, DC: February, 1986.
Vison, S. Bradleigh, and A. Ann Sorenson. Imported Fire Ants: Life History and
Impact. Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas, and Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, Texas Department of
Agriculture, 1986.
Yoffee, Emily. “The Fire Ant: Ruthless, Dangerous, Unstoppable – and It’s After
You.” Texas Monthly, August, 1988: 80-85 and 142-146.
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Figure 5-5. Sample feasibility report (from Garrido, 2003)
CAR COMPARISON
Table 1: Comparative Prices

Make/Model/Trim (Yr) Current MSRP Pre-excise MSRP
Ford Lynx RS/CE 2.0 M/T (03) 795,000/808,000 N.A./888,000
Toyota Corolla Altis 1.6E M/T (03) 712,000 752,000
Honda Civic VTI 1.6 M/T (03) 710,000 745,000
Ford Lynx Ghia 1.6 M/T (03) 667,000 737,000
Peugeot 206 1.4 (LX) M/T (03) 648,000 N.A.
BMW (E36) 316i (96,97) pre-owned 600,000-650,000 N.A.
Toyota Vios 1.5G M/T (03) 593,000 643,000
The choice of the seven candidates and the 3 short-listed models were based
mainly on value for money. The Lynx 2.0 RS or Centennial Edition while pricey given
its higher displacement, is still less expensive than even the top-of-the-line Toyota
(Altis 1.8G – PhP848K) or Honda (Civic VTI-S – PhP800K) models. Likewise, the
priciest model on the short list (Ghia) even when equipped with Ford’s Sunroof/
Leather trim package (PhP705K), is still less expensive than the rudimentarily-
trimmed Altis 1.6E and Civic VTI.
Box 1: Pros and Cons of Short-listed Models
Peugeot 206 1.4 Ford Lynx 1.6 Toyota Vios

(LX) M/T Ghia M/T 1.5G M/T
Pros:· Pros:· Pros:·
• Great styling; best • Conservative • Good value for
looking of the lot styling; great money
• Most extensive looking headlights • Toyota reliability
standard equipment and taillight cluster • Extensive dealer
and features • Assembled locally network and
• Super-mini: small-car and for export independent parts/
exterior dimensions; • Extensive dealer service suppliers
adequate interior network and parts • Highest power to
space· availability weight ratio
• Efficient engine: • Reasonably priced
superior fuel luxury options
economy; high torque • Standard safety
at low rpm equipment
Cons:· Cons:· Cons:

• Reliability suspect • Old engine, poor • Center-mounted
(Glowing fuel economy. Big- digital instrument
testimonials but quite car footprint panel, untried and
a few horror stories) • Too much chrome cluttered
• Only one local (radiator grille, • High center of
dealership, new license plate gravity
entrant garnish) • Lacks OEM options
• Rear suspension
not independent
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Peugeot 206 1.4 [LX]

If looks were the only criterion, Peugeot 206 wins by a mile. Also, behind it is the
legendary performance of the Peugeot 206 WRC rally cars that won the last three
consecutive world championships. However, adverse Internet postings by frustrated
206 owners who had bought lemons raise doubts about its reliability. But most if not
all of the horror stories had to do with electrical or electronic problems. That is, loss
of engine power or erratic rpm, and lights or instrumentation going haywire. These
gremlins were traced to Peugeot 206’s sophisticated digital electronics
(“multiplexing”). Perhaps these problems, which were reported in 2002, were just
“growing pains” of Peugeot’s multiplexed engines that have since been corrected.
Another drawback is tight local availability of 206 parts and service. Peugeot has
just re-entered the domestic market and has only one dealership. Scarcity of parts
and service centers implies not only higher prices but also longer downtimes in
case of breakdowns.
In addition to styling, other strong points of the 206 are superior handling and safety.
The low-slung 206 has the lowest center of gravity among the short-listed models.
Also, it has a flat underchassis with few protruding suspension members such that
snags and bumps are less likely even in rough road conditions despite its low
ground clearance. With its rigid monocoque shell, fore and aft crumple zones, and
side impact beams, the 206 performed strongly in European NCAP crash tests
(rated 4/5). Unfortunately, the local dealer offers only one trim of which ABS, EBFD
and the front passenger airbag are optional equipment (driver airbag and pre-
tensioned front seatbelts are standard).
The 206’s comfort and convenience features are class leading. It has more unique
features than the Lynx and Vios combined. For example, it has a Multiplex Digital
display (upgradeable to a trip computer) in addition to its analog instrument panel.
The local 206 trim is equivalent to that of the 1.4 LX at Peugeot U.K. and costs a bit
less. However, the rear seat headrests are optional, a glaring omission. Another
“must have” touring accessories are the removable roof bars and luggage rack,
which will come handy during family trips to Leyte and back. The 206’s boot is
surprisingly large for a subcompact hatchback and will suffice for about town
shopping and groceries. With its split-folding rear seats down, even small appliances
or furniture can be loaded. But this feature is not available when there is more than
one passenger at the back.
Ford Lynx 1.6 Ghia

Ford is the price leader among local assemblers in the compact sedan class. The
Ghia also offers more amenities as standard equipment for less money than the
Altis and Civic models in our list. Even with options thrown in at extra cost, the Ghia
still undersells Altis and Civic. A big plus for the Ghia is that it is practically
manufactured here. Ford exports more Ghias (and Escapes) to Thailand (itself an
auto manufacturing hub) and Indonesia than are sold locally. This means that parts
are readily available and factory service back up can be tapped for problems that
dealers can’t solve. Moreover, local factory presence makes customisation possible
(of which more below).
While the Ghia takes a back seat to the 206 style-wise, it is not a bad looking car.
Ghia’s euro-styled headlights and taillight clusters actually looks more refined than
that of the 206, subjectively speaking. Unfortunately, the liberal use of chrome on
Ghia’s radiator grille, the bumper inserts, and rear license plate surround betrays
its American lineage and detracts from an otherwise conservative design. The
offending chrome parts may be painted in body color. A more radical (and expensive)
modification is to upgrade to the RS or Centennial Edition body kit. This involves
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replacing the front and rear bumpers, side skirts, and radiator grille. It remains to be
seen whether Ford accommodates this type of customization, or if the body kit is
available in colors other than red (Infrared Metallic that is exclusive to the RS) or
black (Panther Black, the only available CE color). If customizing the Ghia is not
possible before delivery, the only alternative is after sale modification. This will be
more expensive but postponeable.
The Ghia’s instrumentation is of the traditional analog kind. Not glitzy but no glitches
either. It lacks the sophisticated gauges and warnings (e.g., outside temperature,
key-in-ignition) preprogrammed into the digital displays of the 206 or Vios. But it
does have convenient electrical and power features absent from the other two, e.g.,
illuminated vanity mirrors in both driver and passenger sun visors and the optional
power sunroof. The Ghia powerplant (from Mazda) is also a bit old. It has more
valves than the 206 (16 vs. 8) but lacks the variable-valve timing of the modern Vios
engine. Given its higher displacement and dated design, the Ghia engine consumes
more fuel (9.33 km/liter) compared to the other two. It is also the heaviest car in the
short list. On the other hand, the Ghia has the largest interior space and the most
capacious trunk (which can be increased further with its split rear seats folded
down) to show for its size. Also, a parking sensor is standard equipment that
comes handy given its big footprint.
Toyota Vios 1.5G

The Vios is Toyota’s bet to the entry-level car market. It replaces the radically designed
Echo which didn’t sell well and competes head-to-head with the new Honda City,
which looks like the hatchback U.S. edition Echo. (The Honda City did not make it to
our list for subjective reasons. It looks like a duck.) The one thing that recommends
the Vios is the price, the price, and the price. For less than 600K you get a 1.5
16-valve variable timing engine and standard features that are extensive for an
entry-level model (e.g., power everything: windows, door locks, mirrors). Thus, Vios
offers good value for money.
On the other hand, Toyota does not offer any original equipment options for the Vios,
not even ABS. Any modification has to be aftermarket. Another thing that a prospective
owner has to get used to is the Vios’ center-mounted, digital instrument panel
(taken from the Echo). Unlike the 206 that has analog as well as digital
instrumentation, Vios is all digital.
Vios’ powerful 1NZ-FE engine and light curb weight gives it a high power-to-weight
ratio (114 hp/1,000 kg.), the best in the short list. In spite of its tall overall height,
6-inch ground clearance, and light weight it handles well (according to local reviewers).
The Vios’ external dimensions are closer to the Lynx than the 206. Its overall length
and wheelbase are shorter than the Lynx’s by only 7 and 4 inches, respectively.
Although the Vios is more than a foot longer than the 206, it has the same minimum
turning radius (4.9 m) as the latter. The Vios’ has a longer legroom than the 206’s
particularly at the back. Its trunk capacity is almost as large as the Lynx’s but there is
no room for expansion because of its fixed rear seats.
Because of its tallboy looks, the Vios’ 14-inch wheels look rather puny. Upgrading to
15-inch wheels and corresponding tires is called for. The suspension of the Vios with
standard front and rear stabilizers seems robust enough that upgrading its wheels
and tires should not adversely affect performance. Inside, one feature that is crying
out for an upgrade is the in-car entertainment headunit. Because Vios’ instrument
panel is center-mounted and digital, the ICE stands out. But the standard headunit
(Fujitsu) does not live up to its prominent position and even looks tacky. Upgrading to
an aftermarket Radio/MP3 player that looks as good as it sounds is in order.
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BMW E36 316i [96-98]

Although not short-listed, a pre-owned BMW E36 316i (the model superseded by
the current one) is a dark horse. That a second hand car is even considered side-
by-side with brand new models affirms the appeal of BMW’s certified pre-owned
slogan: “Sometimes brand is better than new” (emphasis mine). BMW’s reputation
for reliability, durability, and build quality is well deserved.
BMW’s certified pre-owned program is limited to Bimmers that are not more than 6
years old or have not yet reached the mileage upper limit of 120K kilometers. A 1996
316i with 100K on it can be had for PhP600K. At 40-60,000 km, the asking price
rises to PhP650K. However, at 100K the useful life of some underchassis, engine
bay, and electrical parts are at or near its end and will need replacing. Thus, the
premium for less mileage (about 1 peso for each kilometer) is probably worth it.
Pre-owned BMWs undergo a 100-item checklist before being certified. If this checklist
can be accessed, and the car’s service history is preserved, the true extent of the
physical depreciation of the car may be determined more accurately than by inspection
alone. (Buying a used car is more complicated than buying new because of
information asymmetry. That is, the seller knows more about the car than he is
letting on to the buyer. Even if BMW is transparent, the previous owner of the car may
not have been and this asymmetry will be passed on.)
E36 316i Bimmers have only few of the features that are now standard equipment in
post-2000 models. ABS, 15" alloy wheels, and aircon are standard but door locks,
windows and mirrors are manual. However, Bimmers are built to last which is why
their resale value is among the highest. Service intervals are far between and although
genuine parts are priced at a premium they last long. BMW dealers may charge more
for labor compared to other makes. On the other hand, BMW cars especially the E36
models are probably the best documented in the Internet. Information on parts, repairs,
and upgrades are readily available for DIY-inclined owners. Bottom line though: Is a
used BMW 316i worth the price of a brand new Peugeot 206?
Cost of Ownership
Cost of ownership includes acquisition cost, running costs (maintenance and fuel),
and depreciation. Acquisition cost includes the following: delivery price (MSRP with
options), insurance, and registration. Maintenance includes the cost of labor, parts,
and consumables (e.g., oil and filters; sparkplugs). Parts (but not consumables)
that fail within the warranty period may be replaced for free. Fuel costs are self-
explanatory and depends upon the car’s fuel economy and driving conditions.
Depreciation cost is the difference between the acquisition cost and resale value of
the car over a certain period or mileage. Resale value is mainly market determined
(based on the car make’s reputation). The car’s actual physical depreciation and
installed optional equipment can also influence its resale value. Table 2 (below)
compares the estimated cost of ownership of the short-listed models.
As far as acquisition cost is concerned the following rule of thumb may be followed.
The delivery price (MSRP with options) of a short-listed car must not exceed the
base price of the next higher priced model in the list. Thus, the upper limit for a Vios
with options is the base price of the Peugeot. The Peugeot’s upper limit is the base
price of the Ghia. The upper limit of the Ghia, which is the most expensive model in
the short list, is the base price of the Lynx 2.0 RS or Centennial Edition.
The Vios has no problem meeting this rule of thumb; at the 607K delivery price it is
already equipped with upgraded wheels/tires and wind deflectors. These priority
upgrades makes the car a lot more “drivable” than the base model. Even with its ICE
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upgraded (+22 K), it will still cost less than the 206 base model. The Ghia likewise
meets the rule. The 705K delivery price already includes the Sunroof/Leather package
that is reasonably priced at 38K. The body kit upgrade package should cost much
less than 90K, otherwise we might as well buy the Lynx 2.0 RS or Centennial
Edition. The Peugeot barely meets the rule. Its 663K delivery price includes only
touring accessories (roof bars/luggage rack) and wind deflectors. It still does not
cover essential equipment upgrades such as the rear seat head restraints and
front passenger airbag. To meet the rule, either the touring package or safety
equipment upgrade can be installed, but not both. The pre-owned BMW’s acquisition
cost is on an “as-is” basis (no options, no replacement parts).
Table 2: Cost of Ownership Estimates
Peugeot Lynx 1.6 Toyota BMW

206 1.4 Ghia Vios 1.5 G E36 316i
A. Base Price 648,000 667,000 593,000 625,000
B. MSRP with Options 663,082 705,000 607,000 625,000
C. Insurance 1 65,000 67,000 59,000 62,000
D. Cash outlay (B)+(C) 728,082 772,000 666,000 682,000
E. Fuel Costs p.a. 2 15,000 26,000 24,000 25,000
F. Annual depreciation 3 97,000 100,000 89,000 62,000
G. Maintenance High Medium Low Medium
H. Warranty 2 yrs/ 2 yrs / 3 yrs/ 3 mos/
50,000 km 50,000 km 100,000 km 3,000 km
Source: See Appendix Table 1 for details and cost of standard equipment and options.
Notes on Table 2:
1
Comprehensive insurance is computed at 10 per cent of base price.
2
Estimated fuel cost is based on 10,000 km total mileage per year.
3
Depreciation estimate is based on a resale value of 40 per cent of base price after four years.
From Table 2, the Peugeot has the least fuel consumption, but this is offset by
higher than usual maintenance (parts and service) costs due to the scarcity of parts
and service centers. The Ghia’s running cost is expected to be marginally higher
than that of the Vios. While warranty is in effect, running costs cover only fuel and
consumables since replacement parts are guaranteed. Thus, the Vios has the
advantage because of its longer warranty period. Insurance costs, which are
proportional to the base price, are significantly high during the first year due to
comprehensive coverage (own-damage, third-party liability). In subsequent years,
premiums will fall with less comprehensive coverage (e.g., TPL only) in effect.
Depreciation is a non-cash expense. As for the Bimmer, fuel consumption is fair
while maintenance is expected to be medium (parts are priced high but seldom
needs replacement).
References (Partial List):
Manufacturers: Reviews/Enthusiasts:
Peugeot Philippines http://www.motioncars.com/
www.peugeot.co.uk CarSurvey.org
FORD Philippines Unofficial BMW
Toyota Motors Philippines John G. Burns - BMW
http://www.bmw.com.ph/ McEnearney’s: Peugeot 206
Appendix Table 1:
Comparative Specifications
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Appendix Table 1: COMPARATIVE SPECIFICATIONS
I. Technical Model/Trim Peugeot 206 Ford Lynx Toyota Vios

Specifications 1.4 MT 1.6 Ghia MT 1.5 G MT
Pre-excise MSRP N.A. 737,000 643,000

Post-excise MSRP 648,000 667,000 593,000
Engine & Chassis
Engine TU3JP Mazda B6 (?) 1NZ-FE(VVT-I)
No. of cylinders, valves I-4, 8 valves I-4, 16 valves I-4, 16 valves
Bore x Stroke, mm 75 x 77 71 x 83.6 75 x 84.7
Displacement, cc 1360 1597 1496
Fuel Induction EFI EFI EFI
Maximum power, hp at rpm 90@5500 118@5500 107@6000
Maximum torque, Nm at rpm 120@2800 148@4,000 142@4200
Brakes & Suspension

Front brakes Discs Vented Discs Vented Discs
Rear brakes Drums Discs Drums
Servo assistance S S
ABS/EBFD = S/S _
Front suspension Independent Independent Independent
Macpherson Macpherson Macpherson
type struts type struts type struts
Rear suspension Independent trailing Independent ETA Beam

arms, transverse struts…twin
torsion bars track control,
trailing arms…
Anti roll bars, F/R = S/S S/S

Tires size 175/65 R14 T 195/55 R15 V 175/65 R14 H
Wheel size 14" X 5.5 J 15" X 6.0 JJ 14" X 5.5 JJ
Wheel type 14" Alloy 15" Alloy 14" Alloy
Engine insulation/shield _ S _
Dimensions
Length, mm (ft-in) 3,835 (12’6") 4,470 (14’6") 4,285 (13’11")
Width, mm (ft-in) 1,652 (5’4") 1,705 (5’6") 1,695 (5’6")
Height, mm (ft-in) 1,428 (4’8") 1,420 (4’7") 1,450 (4’9")
Wheelbase, mm (ft-in) 2,442 (7’11") 2,610 (8’6") 2,500 (8’2")
Front Track width, mm (ft-in) 1,437 (4’8") 1,470 (4’9") 1,455 (4’9")
Rear Track width, mm (ft-in) 1,428 (4’7") 1,470 (4’9") 1,430 (4’8")
Front overhang, mm (in) 785 (30.6) 865 (33.7)
Rear overhang, mm (in) 608 (23.7) 995 (38.8)
Minimum turning radius, m (ft) 4.9 5.2 4.9
Curb weight, kg 1,025 1,134 940
Gross vehicle weight, kg 1,535 1,564 1,480
Fuel tank capacity, liters 50 55 45
Trunk capacity, liters 237 (8.3) 416 400
Performance
Power-to-weight ratio, Hp/1000 kgs 88 104 114
Acceleration 0-100 km/h (60 mph), sec 12.2
Combined drive cycle, km/liter (MPG) 16 (45.6) 9.33 (26.4) 10
Total mileage at full tank, km (miles) 805 (500) 513 (320) 450
Max. braked trailer towing weight, kg 1,100
Legend: = – Standard; = – Optional; _ – Not Available; N.A. – Not Applicable
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II. Features & Peugeot 206 Ford Lynx Toyota Vios

Equipment Safety 1.4 MT 1.6 Ghia MT 1.5 G MT
& Security: Interior
Driver airbag = = _
Front passenger airbag = = _
Front seat belts: 3-pt/pre-tensioned =|= =| =|
Rear seat belts, ELR: 3-pt + 2-pt 3 2+1 2+1
Front head restraints, ht. adjustable X2 = = =
Rear head rests, low profile, adjust. X3 = Fixed, X2 Fixed, X2
Isofix port: Front/Rear =|= Rear (pin) _
Immobilizer = = _
Side impact beams = = =
Exterior:
High mounted 3rd brake light = = =
Front fog lights = = =
Rear fog light/s = _ _
Keyless entry, remote central locking = = TVSS
Parking sensor = = _
Side indicator lights = = =
Tool kit =
Comfort & Convenience: Interior

Power windows: F/R Front only =|= =|=
One-touch driver window w/ anti jam = = =
Power door locks = = =
Power mirrors/power folding =| =|= =|
Power steering = = =
Tiltable steering wheel = _ _
Adjustable driver seat = = =
Reclining front seats = = =
Split folding rear seats = = _
Front seat back map pockets = Passenger
Door Pockets, front = = =
Vanity mirror in both sun visors =|= =|= w/ lights Driver only
Courtesy light = =
Map light = = _
Illuminated glovebox =
Rear grab handles with coat hook = = =
Ashtray = = =
Cigar lighter = = =
Boot light = =
Carpeted boot = = =
Air conditioning w/ pollen filter = =
Exterior:
Automatic headlights on = _ _
Heat reflective windscreen = _ laminated
Tinted glass =
Intermittent front wipers/rain sensor =|= =|_ =|_
Rear wiper = N.A. N.A.
Rear window defogger = =
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Instrumentation Peugeot 206 Ford Lynx Toyota Vios

1.4 MT 1.6 Ghia MT 1.5 G MT
Multiplex Digital display/Trip computer =|= _ _

Digital odometer and trip meter = Analog =
Digital clock = = =
Tachometer = = Digital
Service indicator = _ _
External temperature gauge = _ _
Fuel level warning = =
Door ajar warning = = =
Key in ignition warning = buzzer
Headlights on warning = buzzer
Seatbelt indicator _ _ Driver only
In-car entertainment
Radio = = = +cassette
In-dash CD player = 6-CD =
Speakers + tweeters 4+2 4+2 4
Exterior Styling
Euro-style head-, tail lights =|= =|= =|=
Radiator grille Blk hc mesh Chrome Blk hc mesh
Grille surround, emblem/garnish Chrome Chrome Chrome
Body color front & rear aprons/bumpers = =|= =|=
Body-color door mirrors= = =
Body color door handles = = =
Body color rear number plate housing = Chrome Chrome
Rubber side strips = = body color
Antenna roof, front glass printed roof, rear
III. Manufacturer/Dealer Options Peugeot 206 Ford Lynx Toyota Vios

Accessories, Interior: 1.4 MT 1.6 Ghia MT 1.5 G MT
Sunroof & Leather seats/trim package N.A. 38,000 N.A.

Rear sunshade/blind 4,341 = _
Radio/MP3 Player headunit (2 DIN) _ 22,000
Exterior:
Roof bars 5,678 N.A. N.A.
Roof luggage rack 7,000 N.A. N.A.
Wind deflectors 2,405 N.A. 2,000
Wheel arches, pre-painted (set of four) 10,992 N.A. N.A.
Wheels, Tires Upgrade

Alloy wheels: 14" x 5.5 JJ to 15" x 6.0 JJ N.A. N.A ‘
Tires: 175/65 R14 H to 185/65 R15 V N.A. N.A. ‘
Peugeot 206 Equipment Upgrade

ABS/EBFD ‘ = =
Anti roll bars, F/R ‘ = =
Front passenger airbag ‘ = _
Rear head rests, adjustable X3 ‘ Fixed, X2 Fixed, X2
Trip computer ‘ _ _
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Ford Lynx 2.0 RS body kit:

Front apron/bumper N.A. ‘ N.A.
Rear apron/bumper N.A. ‘ N.A.
Side skirts N.A. ‘ N.A.
Radiator grille N.A. ‘ N.A.
Smoked headlights N.A. ‘ N.A.
Rear spoiler with 3rd brake light N.A. 11,600 N.A.
IV. MSRP with Options Peugeot 206 Ford Lynx Toyota Vios
1.4 MT 1.6 Ghia MT 1.5 G MT
Base Price 648,000 667,000 593,000

Add: Accessories (I) 15,082 38,000 4,000
Sub-total 663,082 705,000 597,000
Wheels, Tires Upgrade _ _ 10,000

Sub-total 663,082 705,000 607,000
Accessories (II) 15,333 _ 22,000
Sub-total 678,416 705,000 629,000
Equipment/body kit upgrade < 26,584 < 80,000 _
Max. SRP with Options < 705,000 < 795,000 629,000
Sources: Websites: Peugeot Philippines, UK, AU, IE; Ford Philippines; Toyota Motor Philippines
Notes on Options, Upgrades, and Accessories:

Options refer to equipment or accessories not included in the base price but which can be
installed at additional cost. Upgrades refer to equipment available on higher trim levels of the
same model, which are compatible for installation in the base model. Upgrades that require
bodywork, modification, or customization (e.g., body kits, sunroof) must be ordered and installed
before delivery. Upgrades that involve replacement of standard equipment (e.g., leather seats,
wheels, and tires) must likewise be ordered prior to delivery so that the owner pays only for the
price differential between the standard equipment and the upgrade. Accessories are usually
add-on and may be installed after delivery. Some upgrades are also add-on (e.g., Peugeot’s
rear seat headrests which are mounted to pre-existing slots on the rear seats.) Accessories
that do not require special tools can be installed by the owner.
All options discussed here are manufacturer or dealer options including OEM parts. Third-
party accessories or parts are referred to as “aftermarket” (e.g., the Radio/MP3 player upgrade
for the Vios which may be of a different make than the OEM headunit supplied by Fujitsu).
• Peugeot accessory prices are peso equivalents of the lowest quote taken from Peugeot
web sites at U.K., Australia, and Ireland. Ford accessory prices are quoted from Ford
Philippines. Toyota Vios accessory prices are my estimates.
• - Price not available
Peugeot 206:
• Accessories (I) – Roof bars, roof luggage rack, and wind deflectors
• Accessories (II) – Rear sunshade, wheel arch extensions
Ford Lynx 1.6 Ghia
• Accessories (I) – Sunroof/Leather package
Toyota Vios:
• Accessories (I) – Wind deflectors
• Accessories (II) – Radio/MP3 player headunit
UP Open University
Before we leave this module, here’s another set of useful tips from Online
Technical Writing:
Revision Checklist for Feasibility and Recommendation Reports
 Write a good introduction in which you indicate the situation and the audience
and provide an overview of the contents.
 State requirements— those factors that influence the decision or the choice
of options. (And remember to state how important requirements are in relation
to each other.)
 Indicate how the field of options was narrowed to the ones being compared.
 Organize the comparison of the options using the point-by-point approach.

Don’t use the whole-to-whole approach.
 At the end of each comparative section, state the best choice in terms of that
point of comparison.
 Include a summary table, if possible, in which you summarize all the key data
in table form. (For example, see the summary table in the laptop computer
recommendation.)
 Discuss the background on the problem or opportunity— what brought about

the need for the report.
 Include strong sections of definition, description or both, as necessary, using

the guidelines on content, organization and format in the chapters on definition
and description.
 Include a conclusions section where you restate all the key conclusions from
the comparison section.
 State secondary conclusions in the conclusion section— and base them on

requirements that you state in the requirements section of the report.
 State a final conclusion in the conclusion section— one that states which is
the best choice.
 Include a recommendation section where you make the recommendation.

Briefly mention the key factors influencing the recommendation.
UP Open University
Activity 5-3
Option A: Community-Related
Write a formal proposal in which you propose a change in (1) the

services offered by a city or town (for example, mass transit or
waste management) or (2) the structure or design of a building,
garden, parking lot, shopping area, school or other civic property.
Option B: School-Related
Write a proposal in which you propose a change in some feature

of a school you attend or have attended.
Choose from topics such as operating procedures, personnel,

curricula, activities, and physical plant.
Select an audience that would actually make decisions on such a

proposal.
Activity 5-4
1. Choose any one of the proposal assignments that you
completed in Activity 5-3.
2. Take yourself out of the role of proposal writer. Instead, consider

yourself to be someone assigned (or hired) to complete the task
of evaluating the practicality of the proposal, after it has been
received. In short, write a feasibility report.
UP Open University
Module 6
Job Applications
and Résumés
J ob hunting is something else that most, if

not all, people go through at some point in
their career. In this module, we discuss the job
Objectives
application letter and the résumé, two forms of After working on this
written communication that you need for job module, you should be able
hunting. to:
1. Explain the difference

between the job
Job Application Letters application letter and
vs. Résumés the résumé;
2. Evaluate samples of
both; and
A job application letter is usually accompanied
3. Write an effective job
by a résumé. Or to put this another way, the
application letter and
résumé is usually an attachment to a job
résumé.
application letter, although a résumé does not
always need to be attached to the latter.
Confused? Well, a job application letter, as its name implies, is a letter you
write to a prospective employer to persuade him/her to give you a job. A
résumé is a document that you attach to your letter to serve as “a persuasive
summary of your qualifications for employment.” (Locker, 1995) Of
course, your job application letter also contains a summary of your
qualifications for the job you are applying for. But you are usually not
able to detail all of your qualifications in such a letter. This detailing is best
done in your résumé.
Here’s a better differentiation between the two by Locker (1995):
Résumé Job Application Letter
adapted to a position adapted to the needs of a

particular organization
summarizes all your shows how your qualifications can

qualifications help the organization meets its needs,
how you differ from other
applicants, and your knowledge
of the organization
uses short, parallel phrases uses complete sentences in well-

and sentence fragments written paragraphs
Focus: Job Application Letters

Content and organization
Locker’s advice is that your letter focus on:
• Major requirements of the job for which you are applying
• How you differ from other applicants
• What you know about the organization
• Qualities that every employer is likely to value: the ability to write and
speak effectively, to solve problems, to get along with other people
Let’s discuss the above in terms of how they look in two types of job
application letters: the solicited letter and the prospecting letter.
Organizing solicited letters
A solicited letter is called for “when you know the company is hiring,
you’ve seen an ad, you’ve been advised to apply by a professor or friend,
you’ve read in a trade publication that the company is expanding.” (Locker,
1995)
UP Open University
Organize a solicited letter this way: (Locker, 1995)
1. Begin with a summary paragraph that states that you are applying
for the job (use the name or phrase for the job used by your source),
and where you learned about the job. Briefly show that you have the
major qualifications required and then summarize your other
qualifications.
2. Elaborate on your major qualifications by specifying what you have

done and by relating your experiences to the job requirement.
3. Elaborate on your other qualifications. This is what will show how

you differ from other applications. Here, demonstrate your knowledge
of the organization (which means you must do some research on it!).
4. End with a request for an interview. State when you are available to
be interviewed and to begin work. End on a positive, forward-looking
note.
Organizing prospecting letters
A prospecting letter is one that “helps you tap into the hidden job market.”
(Locker, 1995) You send in such a letter when the company hasn’t
announced any job openings but you think, or hope, there may be a possible
opening for someone with your qualifications. This is the kind of letter
that in Tagalog we say is “nagba-bakasakali.”
You organize a prospecting letter this way: (Locker, 1995)
1. Start with an attention-getter, something that will catch the reader’s

interest.
2. Create a bridge between the opening and your qualifications. This is a

summary sentence of what you know and can do.
3. Elaborate on your strong points. Be specific. Relate what you’ve done

in the past to what you could do for this company. Show that you
know something about the company. Identify the specific niche you
want to fill.
4. Ask for an interview and state when you will be available for it. But
do not state when you will be able to begin work. Remember that they
haven’t said they’re hiring. End on a positive, forward-looking note.
UP Open University
Writing style, tone, and length

Locker says: “In a letter of application, use a smooth, tight writing style.
Use the technical jargon of the field, but avoid business and stuffy words
like utilize, commence, and transpire (for happen).”
And: “Unless you’re applying for a creative job in advertising, use a

conservative style: few contractions, no sentence fragments, clichés, or
slang. However, you still want a lively, energetic style that makes you
sound like a real person.”
Word choice
Locker: “Use vivid word choices and details. Avoid words that can be
interpreted sexually.”
An example of the latter from Locker is: “I have been active in campus
activities and have enjoyed good relations with my classmates and
professors.” (from a woman applicant) “Good relations” may be
interpreted to mean something sexual. Do you agree?
Positive emphasis
Locker: “Be positive. Don’t plead (‘Please give me a chance’) or apologize

(‘I cannot promise that I am substantially different from others’).”
“Avoid word choices with negative connotations.” Locker’s examples:
Negative: I have learned an excessive amount about writing through courses in

journalism and advertising.
Positive: Courses in journalism and advertising have taught me to recognize
and to write good copy. My profile of a professor was published in the
campus newspaper; I earned an “A+” on my direct mail campaign for
the American Dental Association to persuade young adults to see their
dentist more often.
Negative: You can check with my references to verify what I’ve said.
Positive: Professor Hill can give you more information about the program in
Industrial Distribution Management.
Negative: I am anxious to talk with you about the opportunities for employment
with Arthur Andersen.
Positive: I look forward to talking with you about opportunities at Arthur Andersen.
Which words in the above examples have negative connotations? Post your
answers in our online discussion board.
UP Open University
You-attitude
Locker: “Create you-attitude by describing exactly what you have done

and by showing how that relates to what you could do for this employer.”
Locker’s examples below:
Lacks you-attitude: An inventive and improvising individual like me is a necessity

in your business.
You-attitude: Building summer house-painting business gave me the

opportunity to find creative solutions to challenges. At the end
of the first summer, for example, I had nearly 10 gallons of
exterior latex left, but no more jobs. I contracted the home
economics teacher at my high school. She agreed to give
course credit to students who were willing to give up two
Saturdays to paint a house being renovated by Habitat for
Humanity. I donated the paint and supervised the students. I
got a charitable deduction for the paint and hired the three
best students to work for me the following summer. I could
put these skills in problem solving and supervising to work
as a personnel manager for your company.
Lacks you-attitude: A company of your standing could offer the challenging and
demanding kind of position in which my abilities could flourish.
You-attitude: (Omit the sentence.)
Lacks you-attitude: I want a job with your company.
You-attitude: I would like to apply for Procter and Gamble’s management

trainee program.
Locker again: “Remember that the word you refers to your reader.” Since
you’re talking about yourself (i.e., your qualifications etc.) you can use I,
but don’t overdo it. “In particular, avoid beginning every paragraph with
I. Begin sentences with prepositional phrases or introductory clauses”
instead. For example:
As my résumé shows, I…
In my coursework in media and advertising management, I…
As a summer intern, I…
Paragraph length and unity
Locker: “Keep your first and last paragraph fairly short⎯ preferably no
more than four or five typed lines. Vary paragraph length within the
letter; it’s OK to have one long paragraph, but don’t use a series of eight-
line paragraphs.”
UP Open University
“When you have a long paragraph, check to be sure that it covers only
one subject. If it covers two or more subjects, divide it into two or more
paragraphs. If a short paragraph covers several subjects, consider adding
a topic sentence to provide paragraph unity.”
Overall length
Locker: “Always use at least a full page. A short letter throws away an
opportunity to be persuasive; it may also suggest that you have little to
say for yourself or that you aren’t very interested in the job.”
“Without eliminating content, tighten each sentence to be sure that you’re

using space as efficiently as possible. If your letter is still a bit over a page,
use slightly smaller margins, a type size that’s one point smaller, or justified
proportional type to get more on the page.”
“However, if you need more than a page, use it. The extra space gives you
room to be more specific about what you’ve done and to add details about
your experience that separate you from other applicants. Employers don’t
want longer letters, but they will read them if the letter is well written and
if the applicant established early in the letter than he or she has the
credentials which the company needs.”
Figure 6-1 (next page) is an example of a job application letter. Is it a

solicited letter or a prospecting one?
Finally, before we leave this section on job application letters, remember

that for both solicited and prospecting letters, you need to:
• Address the letter to a specific person. Be sure to get the name and
designation right.
• Be specific about your qualifications.
• Show what makes you different from other applicants.
• Show a knowledge of the company.
• Refer to your résumé, which you should enclose with your letter.
• Ask for an interview.
UP Open University
Figure 6-1. Sample job application letter (adapted from Locker, 1995)
Block format is also

acceptable for letters of
218 Curtis Hall application
Greensboro, NC 27411
February 3, 2009 19-
9 (Figure
sum e in Chapter 1 of the
ne’s re ps som e
If the ad doesn’t Ms. Victoria Jarrat See Dyan her letter develo g it to this
ow n
specify a Personnel Deparment 1) to see h sume, rela
ti
n in her re
woman’s Burlington Industries informatio co mpan y.
b and this
courtesy title, 3330 West Friendly Avenue specific jo
phone the Greensboro, NC 27420
company to
learn what title
she prefers
Dear Ms. Jarrat: as it appeared in the ad
Phrase job title exactly
I would like to apply for the entry-level position in the Personnel Department
announced in Sunday’s Greensboro News and Record. I will receive my B.S. Summarizes
degree in Administrative Services from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical credentials in the
State University in May. I offer a solid educational background, skills in writing and order in which
speaking, and experience in working with people and computers. she’ll discuss them.
My courses at North Carolina A&T have given me a solid background in

management and information systems. Courses in personnel Management and
Human Behavior have helped me understand the role of benefits in motivating Specifies
and retaining employees— and the importance of managing benefit programs topics in
carefully to control costs. A core course in Business Law introduced me to same courses that
Educational of the complex legal requirements which companies must meet in hiring and relate to this
background job.
appraising employees. I had the chance to explore this topic in more depth by
writing a report on employment-at-will for my report writing course. My professor
gave the report an “A” and asked me for a copy of it to show later classes.
Communication skills seem essential to business in general and to personnel

work in particular. I’ve developed my writing and speaking skills by taking courses
in business communication and report writing. Our basic business
communication course stressed problem-solving and creating messages that
met the needs of the organization, the writer, and the reader. I had the opportunity
the interview business people and to write many letters and memos. Some of the
Writing
situations for course problems— writing letters of cut-backs and layoffs-are similar
to those I might encounter in a personnel department— in report writing, we had
Good the opportunity to research a topic in depth, write a formal report, and make oral Low-key
specifics presentations. reference to
cutbacks.
Negative
I’ve had the chance to hone my speaking skills by making presentations to a
information
variety of school and civic groups as a member of Angel Flight. Interest in the Air
about a
Speaking Force has been strong ever since the Gulf War. I’ve talked about topics ranging
company
from Smart Missiles to career opportunities in the Air Force to groups as diverse must be used
as grade-school children, business people, and senior citizens. This experience tactfully.
would enable me to quickly adapt to the variety of people I might talk with
Good at Burlington. Whether discussing the “Quick Response” program with a new
specifics
nnel. But
She might not do this much speaking in Perso
her speaking skills help separate her from other
applications, so she wants to discuss them.
UP Open University
Ms. Victoria Jarrat

s, practices,
February 3, 2009 to program
References ton
Page 2 es at Burling
and challeng
Response” program with a new employee, the use of robots with a factory worker,
or the competitive position of textiles in the global market to a college recruit, I feel
Working that I have the speaking skills to represent Burlington effectively.
with people
is important My experience working with people comes from participating in small groups in
for most Good way
classes, from summer jobs, and from serving in several leadership positions in
jobs, worth to present
my sorority. Group projects for classes have taught me to work effectively with a
discussing an
variety of different kinds of people to create a good product. Working as a temporary
even if not achievement
secretary in 14 different businesses and government offices taught me the value for which
specified in of understanding organizational cues quickly so that I could fit into each
ad. she was
organization and meet its expectations. In my sorority, I’ve had the chance to only partly
teach, to motivate, and to work with others to achieve a common goal. During my responsible.
term as Philanthropic chair, our sorority raised nearly $7000 for research into Good
sickle-cell anemia— over three times the amount that we had previously raised in
a single year.
I college computer courses, I have learned BASIC and COBOL on mainframe

computers. I’ve used both IBM and Macintosh personal computers to complete
Working with class assignments. My job last summer at AT&T also gave me the chance to use
computers is the UNIX system. As Administrative Assistant in the Employee Benefits department specifics
important
at AT&T, I was using computers to create business information. To compile statistics
for most
on employment status, I extracted information from existing databases and reports.
jobs.
I also used Harvard Graphics to graph some of the information so that readers
could quickly see the trends and stories in the data.
Burlington has an excellent record of attracting good people and training them to
be the best. Conducting exit interviews last summer helped me understand what
She’s people are looking for in a job and why they choose to stay at or leave a company.
learned Sales and Marketing Management has ranked Burlington’s sales force at the top
this by
of your category. I’d like to be part of a company with that kind of track record, and
reading
I’d like to work as a part of Personnel to help keep that good sales forces happy.
trade
journals.
Could we arrange an interview to discuss my credentials further? I am available
for an interview any day after 3 p.m. or any time before 11 a.m. on Wednesday. In
1998, Burlington will celebrate its 75th year as a company. I’d like to join you now
to help make the three years leading up to that celebration as exciting as the first
72 years have been.
Sincerely, This information comes from an old annual

report. The company’s 70th year was 1993 –
simple addition brings her up to 1998.
Dyanne Allen
555-2300
want to
your resume, too. If you
Phone number will be on er you r nam e. OK to omit
it und
include it in the letter, put
der is in the same town.
area code when your rea
UP Open University
Focus: Résumés
How employers use résumés
1. Employers use résumés to decide whom to interview. (The major
exceptions are on-campus interviews, where the campus placement
office has policies that determine who meets with the interviewer.)
Since résumés are used to screen out applications, omit anything that
may create a negative impression.
2. The search committee skims résumés. Companies often get 50 to

100 résumés a day even when they have not advertised positions; a
company that advertises an opening may get 50 to 1,000 applicants
for a single position. A résumé gets a quick glance, 30 to 60 seconds at
most. Only the résumés that pass the “skim test” are read more closely.
Use layout and visual impact to highlight your credentials.
3. Employers assume that your letter and résumé represent your best
work. Neatness, accuracy, and absence of typographical errors are
essential.
4. Interviewers usually reread your résumé before the interview to

refresh their memories. Be ready to offer fuller details about everything
on your résumé.
5. After the search committee has chosen an applicant, it submits the

applicant’s résumé to people in the organization who must approve
the appointment. These people may have different backgrounds and
areas of expertise. Spell out acronyms. Explain Greek-letter honor
societies, unusual job titles, or organizations that may be unfamiliar to
the reader.
Guidelines for résumés

The discussion below is quoted from Locker.
Length
“A one-page résumé is sufficient, but do fill the page. Less than a full page
suggests that you do not have very much to say for yourself.
UP Open University
“If you use more than one page, the second page should have at least 10
to 12 lines. Use a second sheet and staple it to the first so that readers who
skim see the staple and know that there’s more. Leave less important
information for the second page. Put your name, and Page 2 or Cont. on
the page. If the pages are separated, you want the reader to know whom
the qualifications belong to and that the second page is not your whole
résumé.
“A three-page résumé for someone who’s 22 looks pretentious. If you’ve

done a great many things, combine similar small items and omit less
important items to keep your résumé to two pages.”
Emphasis
“Emphasize the things you’ve done that (a) are most relevant to the position
for which you’re applying, (b) show your superiority to other applicants,
and (c) are recent.
“Show that you’re qualified by giving details on relevant course projects,

activities, and jobs where you’ve done similar work.
“You can emphasize material by putting it at the top or the bottom of a

page, by giving it more space, and by setting it off with white space. The
beginning and end— of a document, a page, a list— are positions of
emphasis. When you have a choice (e.g., in a list of job duties), put less
important material in the middle, not at the end, to avoid the impression
of “fading out.”
“You can also emphasize material by presenting it in a vertical list, by

using a phrase in a heading, and by providing details.”
Details
“Details convince the reader and separate you from other applicants. Tell
how many people you trained or supervised, how much money you
budgeted or raised. Describe the aspects of the job you did.
Too vague: Sales Manager, The Daily Collegian, University Park, PA,
1994-95.
Supervised staff: promoted ad sales.
UP Open University
Good details: Sales Manager, The Daily Collegian, University Park, PA,
1994-95. Supervised 22-member sales staff; helped recruit,
interview, and select staff; assigned duties and scheduled
work; recommended best performer for promotion.
Motivated staff to increase paid ad inches 1-% over
previous year’s sales.
“Omit details that add nothing to a title, that are less impressive than the
title alone, or that suggest a faulty sense of priorities (e.g., listing minor
offices in an organization that tries to give everyone something to do).
Either use strong details or just give the office or job title without any
details at all.”
Writing style
“Without sacrificing content, be as concise as possible.
Wordy: Member, Meat Judging Team, 1993-94

Member, Meat Judging Team, 1994-95
Member, Meat Judging Team, 1995-96
Captain, Meat Judging Team, 1995-96
Tight: Meat Judging Team, 1993-96; Captain 1995-96
Wordy: Performed foundation load calculations

Tight: Calculated foundation loads
“Résumés normally use phrases and sentence fragments. Complete

sentences are acceptable if they are the briefest way to present information.
To save space and to avoid sounding arrogant, never use I in a résumé.
Me and my are acceptable if they are unavoidable or if using them reduces
wordiness.
“Verbs or gerunds (the –ing form of verbs) create a more dynamic image
of you than do nouns. In the revisions below, nouns, verbs, and gerunds
are in bold type.”
Nouns: Chair, Income Tax Assistance Committee, Winnipeg, MB, 1994-

95. Responsibilities: recruitment of volunteers; flyer design,
writing, and distribution for promotion of program; speeches
to various community groups and nursing homes to advertise the
service.
Verbs: Chair, Income Tax Assistance Committee, Winnipeg, MB, 1994-

95. Recruited volunteers for the program. Designed, wrote, and
distributed a flyer to promote the program; spoke to various
community groups and nursing homes to advertise the service.
UP Open University
Gerunds: Chair, Income Tax Assistance Committee, Winnipeg, MB, 1994-

95. Responsibilities included recruiting volunteers for the program;
designing, writing, and distributing a flyer to promote the
program; and speaking to various community groups and nursing
homes to advertise the service.
Observe parallelism.
Kinds of résumés
There are two kinds of resumes: chronological and skills. A chronological
résumé summarizes what you did in a time line (starting with the most
recent events, and going backwards in reverse chronology). It emphasizes
degrees, job titles, and dates. It is the traditional résumé format. Use it
when:
• Your education and experience are a logical preparation for the position
for which you’re applying.
• You have impressive job titles, offices, or honors.
A skills résumé emphasizes the skills you’ve used, rather than the job in
which or the date when you used them. Use a skills résumé when:
• Your education and experience are not the usual route to the position
for which you are applying.
• You want to combine experiences from paid jobs, activities, volunteer
work, and courses to show the extent of your experience in
administration, finance, speaking, and so on.
• You lack impressive job titles, offices, or honors.
· Your recent work history may create the wrong impression (e.g., it
has gaps, shows a demotion, shows job-hopping, etc.).
Parts and format of résumés

Read about the parts and format of resumes at the Purdue University
Online Writing Lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/564/
01/.
Figure 6-2 (next page) is an example of a résumé. Is it a skills résumé or a

chronological one?
In closing, remember the following rules for better résumés (Locker, 1995):
1. Be realistic.
2. Use layout to emphasize key points.
3. Relate your experience to the job you want.
UP Open University
Always put your name and “page 2” or “cont.” on the

second page. Save less important information for page 2.
Page 2
Allyson Karnes
Employment History
Use two-
margin address
1993-94 Child care and house management, Worthington, OH. Part-
format
to visually time daily during school year.
Summer Mother’s helper, Princeton, NJ. Cared for six-month-old baby;

Jobs in 1993 cared for all three children when parents were away on week
reverse
ends.
chronological
order
Summer Maid, Harvard Student Agency, Boston, MA. Part-time while
1992 attending Harvard University Creative Writing Program.
Summer Law Clerk, Garson and Associates, Cleeveland, OH. Did

1987-91 independent research in medical malpractice case which the
firm used to reach a $7 million out-of-court settlement for the
client
References
Paula DiPerna Fill page H. Thomas Hubbard

Thurber Writer in Residence Give names of Department of Journalism
The Ohio State University references or The Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210 delete this Columbus, H 43210
(614) 555-6200 category. (614) 555-6200
However,
David M. Becher, Partner since you’ll Gloria Solomon The city and
have only one state here allow
Garson and Associates 8774 Thorne St.
copy of your the reader to
Cleveland, OH 44139 Worthington, OH 43085
portfolio, it’s Identify “Gloria
(216) 555-3200 (614) 555-8943
OK to say Solomon” under
that you’ll “References”
Samuel T. Tennenbaum make it
Director, Harvard University available
Creating Writing Program “upon
Harvard University request.”
Boston, MA 02163
(617) 555-4700
Portfolio Available upon Request
UP Open University
Unit III
Oral Communication
in Business
and the Professions
Module 7
Oral Presentations
I n the previous modules, we focused on

writing for business and the professions. We
stressed the importance of certain written
Objectives
genres or forms, namely: letters and memos,
reports, proposals, and feasibility studies.
to:
Of course, not all of the communication done
in the workplace is in the written mode. Much
1. Explain the need for
of it in fact is oral. As the Online Writing Lab
making effective oral
(OWL) of Rice University puts it:
presentations;
2. Discuss the features of
The ability to speak effectively is as crucial
an effective oral
as the ability to write effectively according
presentation; and
to studies about kinds of communications
3. Apply the principles of
most often required of employees.
making effective oral
presentations.
During a routine week, employees will
actually spend more time speaking than
writing; using the phone; conversing
informally with colleagues, subordinates, and superiors on routine
office topics; conducting meetings; working in problem solving
groups; conducting employee evaluation sessions; participating in
teleconferences and sales presentations; and frequently becoming
involved in formal speaking situations before groups inside and
outside the organization. Communication research also reveals that
the higher an employee moves in an organization, the more
important speaking skills become.
Hence this unit, consisting of two modules: this one on making oral
presentations and the next on meetings and job interviews.
This particular module should be read alongside or in conjunction with

 “Facing the Presentation Challenge: Tips and Notes from a Survivor” by
Cesar Jose Jesena (in Management Communication in the Global Era edited
by Gloria S. Chan, pp. 95-105).
What is an Oral Presentation?

The Learning Advisers of the University of South Australia define an oral
presentation as “a talk given to a group in which you present your views
on an issue or topic based on your readings or research.”
According to John Molson, the oral presentation is one of the most

important communication genres in business. He says:
…nothing has more impact, or is quite as impressive, as a

well-delivered oral presentation. Properly executed and in
the right context, they (sic) can inform, motivate and
convince more effectively than any other single form of
communication. As a result, employers place great value
on presentation skills; your abilities in this area can literally
make or break your career.
Indeed, there are many business occasions for which you will be required
to make an oral presentation, such as:
• Your boss asks you to take 10 minutes during a management meeting

in which to bring the rest of the team up-to-date on a project.
• A client requests you to make a product presentation.
• You are told to attend an out-of-town conference to launch a new
company service.
I’m sure you can think of many other instances in which you are required
to make an oral presentation. The presentation could be long or short,
and formal or informal. It could be made for one or more of several possible
goals or purposes, namely, to inform, to persuade, or to generate goodwill.
(Locker, 1995)
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Unit III Module 7 187
In his article, Jesena identifies the purposes of oral presentations as: (1)
selling an idea; (2) seeking approval (for a new scheme or policy, for
example); (3) setting directions (as when putting forward your vision for
the company during a start plan meeting); and (4) conducting an
orientation.
Note that the purposes of oral presentations are not unique to this form of
business communication. The purposes outlined above could just as easily
and in fact do apply to written forms of business communication. The
Learning Advisers say that “the oral presentation may be associated with
a writing assignment or can lead to one.”
For Locker, the written and the oral forms are two channels of
communication one can choose from. Each has its advantages, thus:
A written message makes it easier to:

• Use emotion to help persuade the audience.
• Focus the audience’s attention on specific points.
• Answer questions, resolve conflicts and build consensus.
• Modify a proposal that may not be acceptable in its original form.
• Get immediate action or response.
Both, however, require that you, the communicator, should:

• Adapt the message to the specific audience.
• Show the audience how they benefit from the idea, policy, service, or
product.
• Overcome any objections the audience may have.
• Use you-attitude and positive emphasis.
• Use visuals to clarify or emphasize material.
• Specify exactly what the audience should do.
These are basic requirements for effective presentations, whether oral or

written. What follows is a discussion of these requirements with specific
reference to oral presentations. But before moving on, try this exercise
(Activity 7-1).
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Activity 7-1
In each of the following situations, would an oral presentation or
a written message be more effective? Justify your choice.
a. You want to persuade your organization to buy the hardware

and software for desktop publishing so that the Information
Department can produce the company newsletter. Although
an investment of P500,000 will be needed, it should pay for
itself in three years. The executive committee must approve all
major expenditure.
b. You want to persuade your organization to change the way

new employees are taught about safety and company
procedures. Your proposal will affect every department. The
directors of Personnel and of Education and Training are
worried that a change would be difficult to implement and
make more work for them. The director of Safety favors your
idea, feeling that it would reduce on-the-job accidents. The
director of Quality Control will support your proposal if it
reduces the number of defective parts. Supervisors wonder
whether their authority will be increased or reduced.
c. You want to teach employees how to improve their listening

skills.
d. You want to teach new employees how to fill out expense

vouchers.
e. You want to tell employees that now they can be reimbursed

for tuition and books for courses that enable them to do their
current jobs more effectively or for courses that would prepare
them for higher-level jobs in the company. Employees have
been asking for a program like this for some time.
f. You want to persuade the Day Care Center on whose board of

directors you serve to revise its fee schedule so that fees are
based on parents’ ability to pay.
g. You want to persuade the City Council to reduce the speed

limit in your subdivision.
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Making an Effective Oral Presentation

Jesena’s article organizes this topic into (1) preparation and (2)
presentation, with a note on (3) postpresentation. The Learning Advisers
label these stages in making effective oral presentation as the before, during,
and after stages.
This section will simply supplement Jesena’s discussion with some

elaborations of certain elements adopted from a number of authors.
Preparing for the presentation

The Rice University OWL suggests the following checklist of questions for
planning your presentation:
Situation
 What situation creates the need for this presentation?
 Who is involved?
 What is the scenario for this situation?
 Where will I be speaking?
Audience
 Who is my audience?
 What do I know about my audience’s background, knowledge, position
in the organization, attitudes toward me and my subject?
Purpose
 What is my purpose in giving this oral presentation?
 Is there (or should there be) a long-range purpose?
 What is the situation that led to this presentation?
 Given my audience’s background and attitudes, do I need to reshape
my purpose to make my presentation more acceptable to my audience?
Content
 What issues, problems, questions or tasks are involved in the situation?
 What do I want to include or omit?
 Based on the audience and the context, what difficulties do I need to
anticipate in choosing content?
 Can any ideas be misconstrued and prove harmful to me or my
organization?
 What questions does the audience want answered?
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Graphics
 What kinds of visual aids will I need to enhance the ideas I will present?
 Which points could be understood better with a visual?
 Where should I use these in my presentation?
Style
 What kind of tone do I want to use in addressing my audience?
 What kind of image of myself and my organization do I want to project?
 What level of language do I need to use, based on my audience’s
background and knowledge of my subject?
 What approach will my audience expect from me?
 How formal should I be?
According to Rice OWL, “the first step in preparing for the presentation
is to analyze each point…by answering [these] questions, just as you did
in planning your written communication. Once you have done so, you
are ready to design, structure, and organize your presentation so that it
will effectively satisfy the constraints that arise from your consideration
of each point.”
Making a strong opening and close

As in a written document like a report or memo, the beginning and closing
element of an oral presentation are positions of emphasis.” So plan your
opening and closing well.
For openings, Locker advises that you choose one of four types: a startling
statement, a narration or anecdote, a question, a quotation. Locker’s
examples:
Startling statement:
Twelve of our customers have cancelled orders in the past month.
Narration or Anecdote:
A mother was having difficulty getting her son up for school. He pulled the
covers over his head.
“I’m not going to school,” he said. “I’m not ever going again.”
“Are you sick?” his mother asked.
“No,” he answered. “I’m sick of school. Why should I go?”
“I can give you two good reasons,” the mother replied. “The first is that you’re
42 years old. And the second is that you’re the school principal.”
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Question:
Are you going to have enough money to do the things you want to when you
retire?
Quotation:
According to Towers Perrin, the profits of Fortune 100 companies would be
25% lower— they’d go down $17 billion— if their earnings statement listed the
future costs companies are obligated to pay for retirees’ health care.
Try humor, too, says Locker. For example:
It’s both a privilege and a pressure to be here.
Activity 7-2
Try your hand at evaluating these openers and closes.
 Does each opener make you interested in hearing the rest of
the presentation?
 Does each opener provide a transition to the overview?
 Does the closing end the presentation in a satisfying way?
a. Opener: I interviewed Mark Perry at AT&T.

Close: Well, that’s my report.
b. Opener: How many of you know what you want to do

when you graduate?
Close: So, if you like numbers and want to travel, think
about being a CPA. Arthur Andersen can take
you all over the world.
c. Opener: You don’t have to know anything about

computer programming to get a job as a technical
writer at Compu-Serve.
Close: After talking to Raj, I decided technical writing
isn’t for me. But it is a good career if you work
well under pressure and like learning new things
all the time.
d. Opener: My report is about what it’s like to work in an

advertising agency.
Middle: They keep really tight security; I had to wear a
badge and be escorted to Susan’s desk.
Close: Susan gave me samples of the agency’s ads and
even a sample of a new soft drink she’s developing
a campaign for. But she didn’t let me keep the
badge.
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Activity 7-3
Write three possible openers and three possible closes for a
presentation on one of the following:
1. The best class you’ve taken so far.

a. For an audience of students in your field.
b. For an audience of faculty interested in improving
education.
c. For a committee choosing “The Best Instructor” Award.
2. An evaluation of a stock for investment.

a. For brokers recommending investments to clients.
b. For an investment club of people interested in the stock
market.
c. For an organization that is investing its pension fund.
3. The results of your own research.

a. For the group that would have the power to implement
your recommendations.
b. For an audience of your classmates.
c. For an alumni association meeting.
Choosing and organizing your information

Here are some pointers from Locker:
1. Choose the information that is most interesting to your audience and

that answers their questions. Link information to what your audience
already knows.
2. Limit your talk to three main points.
3. Show the relationship between each of the main points.
4. Back up each point with solid support. Statistics and numbers can be
convincing if you present them in ways that are easy to hear. Simplify
numbers by reducing them to two significant digits (for example,
instead of saying 17,006,802,720 people, say 17 billion people).
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5. In a persuasive situation, start with your strongest point, your best

reason. Put your weakest point in the middle and then end on a strong
note.
6. Early in your talk, provide an overview of the main points you will
make. For example:
First, I’d like to talk about who the streetchildren in Quezon City are. Second, I’d
like to talk about the services The Home for Kids on the Streets provides. Finally,
I’ll talk about what you— either individually or as a group— can do to help.
7. Offer a clear signpost as you come to each new point. A signpost is an

explicit statement of the point you have reached (for example, “Now
we come to the third point: what you can do to help.” or “Now let’s
talk about what you can do to help.”).
Using visuals
The Media Services group of Pacific Lutheran University (PLU) enumerate
the following reasons for using visuals:
• To improve communication effectiveness

• To improve audience’s perceptions of presenter
• To improve speaker’s confidence
The first reason is supported by findings from a University of Minnesota/

3M study (quoted by PLU):
• Visuals add another sensory channel to the oral communication

process
• Visuals utilize right brain visual and spatial processing to complement

the left brain processing used in listening
• Synergism between left and right brain processes create better whole
picture’ communication
• Using visuals results in improved efficiencies:
 Improved group consensus

 Less time spent in discussing decisions
 Less time spent in meetings
 Highly significant improvements in audience action
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• Using visuals results in improved audience:

 attention
 comprehension
 agreement
 retention
 action
Improvements with Use of Visuals

Characteristic Percent Change
Action 43.0
Perceptions of presenter 11.0
Retention 10.1
Comprehension 8.5
Attention 7.5
Agreement 5.5
Presenters using visuals are perceived as significantly more⎯

• prepared
• professional
• persuasive
• credible
• interesting
Presenters using slides are perceived as “more professional” than those using
overhead transparencies.
The boost to the speaker’s confidence comes from the fact that
“visualization encourages preliminary and early organization and
planning.”
Significantly, the Minnesota/3M study also finds that “poor presenters

using visuals can be as effective as good presenters not using visuals.”
According to the study (as quoted by PLU): “A typical presenter using
presentation support has nothing to lose and can be as effective as a better
presenter using no visuals. The better a presenter is, however, the more
one needs to use high quality visual support.”
According to Rice OWL, when using visuals “use anything that will help
people SEE what you MEAN!”
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This means that you must ensure that “all visuals are as simple as possible
and as easy to read.” You can do this by following these guidelines:
 Avoid too much information on any single visual.
 Use boldface type in a font size that can be easily read.
 Use sans serif type because it produces a sharper image for slides and
transparencies.
 Limit the fonts you use to two per visual.
 Avoid all caps.
 Use a type⎯ size and font⎯ that contrasts distinctly with the
background.
 Avoid visuals that use too many colors⎯ more than four on any one
aid.
 Avoid making your audience study your aids. If they are busy trying
to decipher your visual aid, they will not be listening to you. Bar graphs,
circle graphs, simple diagrams, pictures and lists are standard types
of visual aids. Whatever aid you decide to use, limit the aid to only the
concept, data set, or point you are trying to make.
 Be sure that what the visual says is immediately evident. Computer

graphics and programs such as Harvard Graphics, Powerpoint, and
Excel in combination with color printers and slide projection equipment
give you the opportunity to experiment with graphic design. Try
developing visual aids that are visually pleasing as well as clear.
 Use technology whenever possible. Some web sites have visuals that
you can use for presentations about that topic. Technology allows
speakers to download graphs, drawings, and figures from the World
Wide Web. The Web is perhaps one of the richest, newest, most colorful
sources of visual aids.
Two examples of visuals (i.e., charts) are given in the next few pages.
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Chart 2.4a. Tutor-Student Ratio: 1998(S1) - 2001(S1), by Faculty
35
30
25
AA
20 22 FEd
FHS
FMS
FSSH
15 FST
UPOU
Ave.
13 13
11
10
5
Unit III Module 7
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197
1-1998 1-1999 1-2000 1-2001

Box 7-1 shows Locker’s advice for making multimedia presentations.
Box 7-1. Making multimedia presentations
Manufacturers of software packages suggest the following tips for

better multimedia presentations.
 Use audio and video within slides, not as cues to change sides
or topics, to make it easier to match your oral presentation to
your multimedia support.
 Use sound to keep the audience interested when nothing is

happening on screen (while high-resolution images are loading,
for example).
 Be consistent. Use the same background, color scheme and font

throughout. Use a single special effect for each element. It’s
distracting if each line of bulleted text enters the screen in a
different way.
 Use specialty products for animation, paint, and sound to create

each element of your multimedia presentation. You’ll get higher
quality and a more professional presentation.
 Keep it legal. Make sure you have permission and pay any fees
necessary to use music, video clips, and scanned art.
On speaker anxiety
PLU says one of the reasons for using visuals is that they boost the speaker’s
confidence. Nervousness or anxiety over making an oral presentation is
common to many people.
Locker says: “…you can harness that nervous energy to help you do your
best work. As one student said, you don’t need to get rid of your butterflies.
All you need to do is make them fly in formation.”
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Locker’s tips for reducing anxiety about speaking publicly:
 Be prepared. Analyze your audience, organize your thoughts, prepare

visual aids, practice your opener and close, check out the arrangements.
Use only the amount of caffeine you normally use. More or less may
 make you jumpy.
Avoid alcoholic beverages.


Re-label your nerves. Instead of saying, “I’m scared,” try saying, “My
 adrenaline is up.” Adrenaline sharpens our reflexes and helps us do
our best.
Just before your presentation, consciously contract and then relax your
 muscles, starting with your feet and calves and going up to your
shoulders, arms, and hands; and take several deep breaths.
Here’s food-for-thought from the Student Learning Center of the University

of Otago:
Try to enjoy your presentation. Look at it as a performance⎯ you

are a bit like an actor playing a part. Even if you are not feeling
confident and at ease, pretend that you are.
What do you say to that?
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A Self-Assessment Checklist
This checklist is also from the Student Learning Center of the University
of Otago.
Did you introduce yourself to your audience? Yes No
Did you aim to arouse the interest of your audience? Yes No
Did you begin with a clear introduction of your topic
with an overview of what you would cover? Yes No
Were your ideas presented clearly with a logical
flow from one point to the next? Yes No
Did you conclude by summing up what you had covered? Yes No
Were your visual aids clear and easy to read? Yes No
Did you have good control of your material with
everything in the correct order? Yes No
Did you give the right amount of facts and figures?
Could your audience understand them? Yes No
Did you avoid reading too much from your notes? Yes No
Did you look comfortable and relaxed? Yes No
Did you display any nervous gestures, such as
hand-waving or pen-clicking? Yes No
Did you look and sound interested and enthusiastic? Yes No
Was your voice loud enough to be heard? Yes No
Did you speak too quickly or too slowly? Yes No
Were there any words you had problems pronouncing? Yes No
Did you get your timing right? Too long? Too short? Yes No
Did you allow time for questions, and invite
your audience to make comments (rather than just
asking, ‘any questions?’)? Yes No
Did you provide hand-outs for people to take away? Yes No
In closing, I leave you with this thought from Rice OWL:
Your audience expects you to be:

knowledgeable,
prepared,
organized, and
trustworthy.
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Activity 7-4
Make a short (two-to-five-minute) presentation on one of the
following topics:
a. Describe the best course you’ve taken so far. What made it a

good course? Should everyone try to take it?
b. Describe a project you are involved in right now, or a major

undertaking of your company/organization.
c. Evaluate a stock as an investment. Describe your criteria for

evaluation. Should investors buy now? Why or why not?
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Module 8
Meetings and
(Job) Interviews
I n this module, we shall focus on two forms

of oral communication: meetings and job
interviews. Why lump the two together in one
Objectives
module? After working on this
If truth be told, that question has been to:
bothering me because in fact I have no good
answer. The two are entirely different genres 1. Enumerate the features
or communication forms, so to speak. I put of an effective meeting;
them together here only because my 2. Enumerate the features
discussion of each is not comprehensive or of an effective job
detailed, and putting the two discussions interview, from the
together will make for a better-sized module point of view of the
than if I put them in two separate modules. interviewee; and
3. Apply the principles for
But another way of answering the question conducting effective
is to consider the two in contrast to the meetings and job
previous module on oral presentations. Both interviews.
meetings and job interviews are more
obviously interactive than is the oral
presentation.
 This module should be read alongside Cherry-Lyn Ricafrente’s

“Communicate Your Way to a Successful Negotiation” (in
Management in the Global Era edited by Gloria S. Chan, pp. 106-120).
Conducting Meetings
Why meet?
I’m sure you’ve attended countless meetings, not just in your place of
work but also in your (or your child’s) school, your neighborhood or
barangay, and the organizations of which you are a member. You’ve
probably even chaired or conducted one or more of those meetings yourself.
The Youth in Action Bulletin (September 1999) defines a meeting as “a gathering

of people to present or exchange information, plan joint activities, make
decisions, or carry out actions already agreed upon. Almost every group
activity or project requires a meeting, or meetings, of some sort.”
Good meetings help make projects successful because of the following:

• Participant’s ideas are heard. This generates enthusiasm for a project
on everyone’s part. Also, the more ideas there are to work with, the
better for decision-making.
• Decisions are made collectively. Also, these decisions are arrived at
more quickly than if you were passing around a proposal, for example,
about which different people make different comments that are difficult
to reconcile or put together.
• Activities are focused on desired results.
Who meets?
The success of a meeting depends on both the leader or chair, and the
participants.
A good leader—
• Understands the purpose of a meeting;
• Makes sure that all participants understand this purpose;
• Helps keep discussions on track;
• Works with participants to carry out the business of the meetings in
the time allotted; and
• Tries to ensure that everyone is involved appropriately in discussions.
Good participants—
• Come to a meeting prepared for the business at hand⎯ that is, with
reports ready, concerns over issues thought out, and questions about
key issues organized; and
• Bring their best listening skills and group manners⎯ for example, they
stick to the point, take turns talking, are constructive (they help move
decisions forward), and are courteous (they disagree without being
disagreeable).
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How to meet
Successful meetings don’t just happen by chance. They are structured.
The eight tasks for setting up successful meetings below are adopted from
the Youth in Action Bulletin (September 1999):
1. Set a time that works.
Choose a time of day when people are not likely to be tired, hungry, or
otherwise distracted. Let people know that you will begin the meeting
on time and take attendance with a sign-up sheet.
Set a realistic time limit for meetings (for example, a two-hour meeting
that will begin at 1 p.m. and end at 3 p.m.). Try to stick to the time
limit. Make sure the meeting room is free of distractions.
2. Set the agenda.
Agenda help spell out the items and issues to be discussed and the
results that everyone expects. For some groups, reports from officers,
approval of minutes from a previous meeting and reports from
subcommittees are routine for general meetings. There may be specific
old and new business. In other situations, a meeting may focus on
making decisions or recommendations on a series of issues.
Agenda should help participants see what will be expected of them.

You may want to leave time for suggestions from the group about any
new subjects that participants want to discuss. Don’t forget to review
the agenda as you start the meeting to let participants know what to
expect and to find out whether additional items need to be addressed.
Box 8-1 (below) is a sample agenda.
Box 8-1. Sample agenda (1)
I. Call to order
II. Announcements
III. Approval of the minutes of the previous meeting
IV. Matters arising from the minutes
V. Office reports
VI. Project reports
VII. Other matters
VIII. Adjournment
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In some agenda, the main issues for discussion are specifically identified
and/or itemized. Box 8-2 is an example.
Box 8-2. Sample agenda (2)
I. Call to order
II. Announcements
III. Approval of the minutes of the previous meeting
IV. Matters arising from the minutes
V. Progress report on reorganization of Student Support Services
VI. Progress report on job audit
VII. Enrollment report
VIII. Other matters
IX. Adjournment
3. Distribute available written materials before the meeting.
Sending out a draft agenda and any available proposals or reports a

week or two ahead of the meeting helps participants think through
issues, prepare for discussions, and feel more comfortable making
decisions.
4. Set up tasks and divide chores.
You may be very energetic, but you are only one person. Dividing the
chores⎯ asking specific group members to report on specific topics,
establishing a subcommittee to investigate a major issue, or getting
someone to help with finding resources⎯ helps strengthen the group
and makes for more productive meetings in two ways. First, more
work gets done. Second, the more your committee members are
involved, and the more active and productive they are, the more
committed they will be to the group’s goals. Don’t be afraid to delegate
tasks!
5. Set up discussions so that everyone gets a say.
Discussing topics sometimes takes more time than you would like.
Although there are ways to keep a discussion moving, it is essential
that the person running the meeting preside impartially. Make sure
that people who disagree have a chance to state their cases. Your job
in facilitating discussions or debates is to be the referee, a person who
does not show favor to people or their ideas. As a referee, you will
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allow discussion to flow and provide participants a chance to discuss

differing opinions on issues. Your job is to bring opposing sides together
by showing areas where they agree and asking how they can “give a
little” to come to a decision that will permit a win-win outcome for
everyone.
6. Set up a structure that keeps discussion orderly.
Keeping discussions organized and moving forward is a major task

and often the most difficult one you will face. It is sometimes hard to
remind participants to pay attention and stay on task. One way to
head off these problems is to get your group to agree in advance on
the operating rules for meetings. Rules may be as simple as “one speaker
or topic at a time” or “everybody gets a chance to speak one time
before anybody else speaks a second time on the same issue.”
7. Set up ways to stick to the subject.
Too often, meetings run over their time limit because the group tries to
do all the work through discussion, when finding the right answer
may require some research. The group may get tangled in a conflict
between two people who disagree on a topic that is not easily resolved.
A good way to deal with this problem is to move on to other business,

agreeing to either leave the subject for a future meeting or have a
smaller group (a committee) look into the issue. Bring up the idea of
using a “parking lot”⎯ some place to acknowledge unresolved issues
or additional topics to ensure that they are brought up for later
discussion.
8. Set up time to summarize.
Build in time at appropriate points during the meeting and especially

at the end of the meeting to very briefly review and summarize what
has taken place. If your meeting has dealt with complex or far-ranging
topics, this is particularly important.
Building in time to summarize your meeting also affirms commitments

others have made to the group and confirms everyone’s understanding
of decisions, next steps, and assignments of tasks to be completed.
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Youth in Action Bulletin also suggests that you take care of meeting logistics
thus:
 Make sure the meeting space is a comfortable area, where everyone

will be able to see and hear the others in the group. The room should
be neither too hot nor too cold and should have sufficient lighting.
 Make sure the meeting space has been reserved for the time and date
agreed upon.
 Remind participants of the meeting time, date, and place with a phone
call or an e-mail. A postcard reminder can be helpful for groups that
meet only a few times a year.
 Check at least a week in advance with anyone who is expected to

present a report to the group. Make sure that everyone involved is
clear on the subject of the report and confirm that there will be a
sufficient number of handouts, if any.
 Examine logistical needs. Do you need a TV, VCR, overhead projector,

or flipcharts? Will you serve refreshments? Will you need additional
chairs?
Below is a meeting checklist that you may find useful:
MEETING CHECKLIST
_____ 1. Ensure a comfortable and conducive physical setting.
_____ 2. Make sure that people see each other face-to-face.
_____ 3. Get people introduced and at ease before the meeting starts.
_____ 4. Have the agenda and stick to it.
_____ 5. Deal with the most important things first.
_____ 6. Develop the agenda by consulting key group members or people
interested in the topics to be covered.
_____ 7. Get the agenda out at least a week before the meeting.
_____ 8. Under each agenda item, indicate the specific questions to be
discussed so that meeting participants will have time to think
about them beforehand.
_____ 9. Start the meeting by clearly stating, and agreeing on, the purpose
of the meeting.
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The chair should:

_____ 10. Facilitate, not direct or dominate.
_____ 11. Help the group reach its own conclusions, rather than
predetermined conclusions.
_____ 12. Use the first 10-15 minutes of a meeting to (1) review and
finalize the agenda and (2) agree on how the group will
accomplish the task(s) before it.
_____ 13. Set up and enforce appropriate rules for participation to give
everyone an equal opportunity for self-expression.
_____ 14. Act as a traffic cop: (1) keeping the group to the task before it;
(2) ensuring open positive communication; and (3) protecting
individual participants from manipulation and personal attack.
_____ 15. Be prepared. Don’t call a meeting until the facts are together.
_____ 16. Develop ground rules for participation in direct response to
problems that the group anticipates or has encountered in past
meetings.
_____ 17. Keep the discussion going by asking pertinent questions.
_____ 18. Indicate that input is appreciated.
_____ 19. Rather than answering questions that are directed to the chair,
rebound them to the group thus, “What do the rest of you
think about this?”
_____ 20. Periodically summarize.
_____ 21. Don’t force a group to make a decision before it is ready.
_____ 22. Be aware of non-verbal communication, and respond to it.
_____ 23. End the meeting with a review of what was accomplished,
and what yet needs to be done or decided.
_____ 24. Review what each person has agreed to do in carrying out the
activity or in preparing for the next meeting.
_____ 25. Keep in touch with members between meetings.
_____ 26. Make sure members follow through on their commitments.
_____ 27. Avoid unnecessary meetings.
_____ 28. Be certain that officers understand their responsibilities and
carry them out.
_____ 29. Be certain that committee members understand their
responsibilities and carry them out.
_____ 30. Be certain that the group’s goal are clear, are appropriate, and
are carried out.
UP Open University
Activity 8-1
Recall a meeting you’ve attended recently and evaluate it using
the checklist above. On each item, place a “-“ (minus sign) if it is a
problem which needs attention, a “+” (plus sign) if it is a strong
point in the meeting, and a “o” (zero sign) if it’s neither a problem
nor a strength or if it is irrelevant for any reason.
After you have finished, review the items you gave a “-“ and list
the 5 greatest problems. Below each of those 5 items, write an idea
that would help correct the problem. Finally, write down specific
personal steps and a deadline date that will discipline you to get
the ideas into use to correct the 5 greatest problems that you
identified.
Taking the minutes

Minutes are a written record of what took place at a meeting. In meetings,
the person designated to act as the secretary takes down the minutes.
Now why bother to have minutes? Well, it is important to remember what

decisions were made during meetings in order to be able to implement
them. The minutes serve to remind people of those decisions. Also, minutes
provide a historical record that can help illuminate certain developments
in the organization’s life that continue to have a bearing on the present.
Minutes normally contain:

1. The name of the organization
2. The nature of the meeting (regular or special)
3. The date and place of the meeting
4. The names of the presiding officer and secretary
5. The approval of minutes of the previous meeting
6. All reports and action taken
7. All main motions carried or lost with the vote count where needed
8. All other motions carried that contain information necessary to
subsequent meetings
9. Adjournment
UP Open University
The Meeting Wizards suggest the following for taking minutes:
1. Make sure that all of the essential elements are noted, such as type of
meeting, name of the organization, date and time, name of the chair
or facilitator, main topics, and the time of adjournment. For formal
and corporate meetings include approval of previous minutes, and all
resolutions.
2. Prepare an outline based on the agenda ahead of time, and leave plenty
of white space for notes. By having the topics already written down,
you can jump right on to a new topic without pause.
3. Prepare a list of expected attendees and check off the names as people
enter the room. Or, you can pass around an attendance sheet for
everyone to sign as the meeting starts.
4. To be sure about who said what, make a map of the seating

arrangement, and make sure to ask for introductions of unfamiliar
people.
5. Don’t make the mistake of recording every single comment, but

concentrate on getting the gist of the discussion and taking enough
notes to summarize it later. Remember that minutes are the official
record of what happened, not what was said, at a meeting.
6. Use whatever device is comfortable for you⎯ a notepad, a laptop

computer, a tape recorder, a steno pad, shorthand. Many people
routinely record important meetings as a backup to their notes.
7. Be prepared! Study the issues to be discussed and ask a lot of questions

ahead of time. If you have to fumble for understanding while you are
making your notes, they won’t make any sense to you later.
8. Don’t wait too long to type up the minutes, and be sure to have them
approved by the chair or facilitator before distributing them to the
attendees.
9. Don’t be intimidated. You may be called upon many times to write

meeting minutes, and the ability to produce concise, coherent minutes
is widely admired and valued.
UP Open University
The Job Interview

In Module 6, we talked about writing job application letters and résumés.
If you do both documents fairly well, chances are you’ll be called in for an
interview. Usually, only the shortlisted candidates are interviewed. This
makes the job interview all the more important.
The discussion that follows takes the point of view of the interviewee.
That is, what does an interviewee need to know to ensure a “successful”
job interview?
Preparing for the interview

Locker talks about the need for developing what she calls an interview
strategy from your answers to three questions:
First, what about yourself do you want the interviewer to know? Pick
two to five points that represent your strengths for the job. Think of a
specific action or accomplishment to support each strength.
During the interview, be alert for questions that will enable you to put
across these strengths. If the questions do not allow you to make your
points, bring them up at the end of the interview. (For example: “I really
appreciate your giving me this opportunity to let you know what I can do
if I were employed by your company. If you hired me, you can count on
my ability to get things done quickly, my good communication skills, and
my attention to details.”)
Second, what disadvantages or weaknesses do you need to minimize?

Anticipate requests for explanations of weaknesses or apparent weaknesses
in your record like your age, your sex, your lack of experience, and so on.
Plan how to deal with these issues if they come up.
Third, what do you need to know about the job and the organization to
decide whether or not you want to accept this job if it is offered to you?
Come up with criteria on which to base your decision and plan questions
for eliciting the information you need.
The last item above highlights the fact that job interviews are two-way.
Don’t be passive, simply waiting for questions to be thrown at you. But
don’t be pushy either. Show that you’re alert, that you’re paying attention,
and that you can “think on your feet.”
UP Open University
Also, take care of the details such as what to wear. Wear something
appropriate for the job you’re applying for, such as a suit for an office job
and “sturdy clothes” for fieldwork. Shoes should be comfortable.
You will need to bring extra copies of your résumé, something to write on
and a pen or pencil, and copies of your work.
Practice is also an important aspect of preparing for an interview. Practice

shaking hands, walking, sitting and standing up. Practice how to answer
questions that may be asked.
During the interview

Interviews have an opening, a body, and a close. Good interviewers will
try to set you at ease in the opening of the interview. Other interviewers
begin by explaining what they’re looking for. Pay attention to the latter so
you can answer questions about what you can do for the company more
accurately (and to your advantage).
Maximize the body of the interview (which usually lasts a mere 10-25
minutes). Be to the point in your answers. Try to stress your strengths
without belaboring the point.
In the closing, the interviewer usually tells you what happens next. Take
note of any instructions, like whether to make a follow-up call, when,
and to whom.
As stated earlier, it is adviseable to anticipate and plan your answers to

the kinds of questions you may be asked. Box 8-3 is a list of traditional job
interview questions, as well as remarks about each from Locker.
UP Open University
Box 8-3. Traditional job interview questions (Locker, 1999)
1. Tell me about yourself.

Don’t launch into an autobiography. Instead, use this as a
chance to state the things about yourself that you want the
interviewer to know. Give specifics to prove each of your
strengths.
2. What makes you think you’re qualified to work for this

company? Or: I’m interviewing 120 people for 2 jobs. Why
should I hire you?
This question may feel like an attack. Use it as an opportunity
to state your strong points: your qualifications for the job, the
things that make you different from other applicants.
3. What two or three accomplishments have given you the

greatest satisfaction?
Pick accomplishments that you’re proud of, that create the
image you want to project, and that enable you to share one of
the things you want the interviewer to know about you.
4. Why do you want to work for us? What is your ideal job?
Make sure you have a good answer⎯ preferably two or three
reasons why you’d like to work for that company. If you don’t
seem to be taking the interview seriously, the interviewer won’t
take you seriously.
If your ideal job is very different from the one the company has
available, the interviewer may simply say there isn’t a good
match and end the interview. If you’re really interested in this
company, do some research so that what you ask for is in the
general ballpark as the kind of work the company offers.
5. What college subjects did you like best and least? Why?
This question may be an icebreaker; it may be designed to
discover the kind of applicant they’re looking for. If your favorite
class was something outside your major, prepare an answer
that shows that you have qualities that can help you in the job
you’re applying for: “My favorite class was a seminar in the
American novel. We got a chance to think on our own, rather
than just regurgitate facts; we made presentations to the class
every week. I found I really like sharing my ideas with other
people and presenting reasons for my conclusions about
something.”
UP Open University
Box 8-3 continued
6. What is your class rank? Your grade point? Why are your
grades so low?
If your grades aren’t great, be ready with a non-defensive
explanation. If possible, show that the cause of low grades now
has been solved or isn’t relevant to the job you’re applying for:
“My father almost died last year, and my schoolwork really
suffered.” “When I started, I didn’t have any firm goals. Once
I discovered the field that was right for me, my grades have all
been Bs or better.” “I’m not good at multiple-choice tests. But
you need someone who can work with people, not someone
who can take tests.”
7. What have you read recently? What movies have you seen
recently?
These questions may be icebreakers; they may be designed to
prove your intellectual depth. When you’re anticipating being
called in for an interview, read at least one book or magazine
regularly and see at least one movie that you could discuss at
an interview.
8. Show me some samples of your writing.

Many jobs require the ability to write well. Employers no longer
take mastery of basic English for granted, even if the applicant
has a degree from a prestigious university. Go through your
old papers and select the best ones, retyping them if necessary,
so that you’ll have samples if you’re asked for them. If you
don’t have samples at the interview, mail them to the
interviewer immediately after the interview.
9. Where do you see yourself in five years?

Employers ask this question to find out if you are a self-starter.
You may want to say, “Well, my goals may change as
opportunities arise. But right now, I want to…”
10. What are your interests outside work? What campus or

community activities have you been involved in?
While it’s desirable to be well rounded, naming 10 interests is
a mistake: the interviewer may wonder when you’ll have
time to work. If you mention your fiancé, spouse or children
in response to this question (“Well, may fiancé and I like to go
UP Open University
Box 8-3 continued
sailing”), it is perfectly legal for the interviewer to ask follow-up

questions (“What would you do if your spouse got a job offer in
another town?”), even though the same question would be illegal
(in the U.S.) if the interviewer brought up the subject first.
11. What have you done to learn about this company?

An employer may ask this to see what you already know about
the company (if you’ve read the recruiting literature, the
interviewer doesn’t need to repeat it). This question may also
be used to see how active a role you’re taking in the job search
process and how interested you are in this job.
12. What adjectives would you use to describe yourself?

Use only positive ones. Be ready to illustrate each with a specific
example of something you’ve done.
13. What is your greatest strength?

Employers ask this question to give you a chance to sell yourself
and to learn something about your values. Pick a strength
related to work, school, or activities: “I’m good at working with
people.” “I really can sell things.” “I’m good at solving
problems.” “I learn quickly.” “I’m reliable. When I say I’ll do
something, I do it.” Be ready to illustrate each with a specific
example of something you’ve done.
14. What is your greatest weakness?

Use a work-related negative, even if something in your personal
life really is your greatest weakness. Though this isn’t the place
for unrelieved honesty, you can’t get away with a “weakness”
like being a workaholic or just not having any experience yet.
Instead, use one of the following three strategies:
a. Discuss a weakness which is not related to the job you’re

being considered for and which will not be needed when
you’re promoted. Even if you won’t work with people or
give speeches in your first job, you’ll need those skills later
in your career, so don’t use them for this question. End
your answer with a positive which is related to the job.
Some examples are:
[For a creative job in advertising:] “I don’t like accounting.

I know it’s important, but I don’t like it. I’d even rather hire
someone to do my taxes. I’m much more interested in be-
UP Open University
Box 8-3 continued
ing creative and working with people, which is why I find

this interesting.”
[For a job in administration:] “I don’t like selling products.

I hated selling cookies when I was a Girl Scout. I’d much
rather work with ideas⎯ and selling the ideas that I believe
in.”
[For a job in architecture:] “I hate fund-raising. It always

seemed to me if people wanted to give, they would anyway.
I’d much rather have something to offer people which will
help them solve their own problems and meet their own
needs.”
b. Discuss a weakness which you are working to improve:

“In the past, I wasn’t a good writer. But last term I took a
course in business writing that taught me how to organize
my ideas and how to revise. I may never win a Pulitzer
Prize, but now I’m a lot more confident that I can write
effective reports and memos.”
c. Discuss a work-related weakness:

“I procrastinate. Fortunately, I work well under pressure,
but a couple of times I’ve really put myself in a bind.”
15. What questions do you have?

This gives you a chance to cover things the interviewer hasn’t
brought up; it also gives the interviewer a sense of your priorities
and values. Don’t focus on salary, fringe benefits, or how hard
you’ll have to work. Better questions are:
• What would I be doing on a day-to-day basis?

• What kind of training program do you have? If, as I’m
rotating among departments, I find that I prefer one area,
can I specialize in it when the training program is over?
• How do you evaluate employees? How often do you review
them? Where would you expect a new trainee (banker, staff
accountant) to be three years from now?
• What happened to the last person who had this job?
• How are interest rates (or a new product from competitors,
imports, demographic trends, government regulation, etc.)
affecting your company?
• How would you describe the company’s culture?
• This sounds like a great job. What are the drawbacks?
UP Open University
Expect questions “from left field,” too. These are completely unexpected
questions such as “What vegetable would you like to be?” and “If you
were a cookie, what kind of cookie would you be?”
Check with other people who have been interviewed recently to find out
what questions are being asked in your field.
Remember too that some interviews are designed to test your reaction to
stress. These “stress interviews” put you through the proverbial wringer,
requiring you to answer really tough questions or questions posed in rapid
succession or questions that are downright insulting (for example, “Aren’t
you just looking for a husband?”).
Keep cool but respond assertively. Treat inflammatory questions as requests

for information. Locker gives this sample answer to the question above:
“You may be asking whether I’ll stay with you long enough to justify the
expense of training me as a staff accountant. Well, I’m not promising to
work for you for the rest of my life, just as you’re not promising to employ
me for the rest of my life. How long I stay will depend on whether my
assignments continue to be interesting and challenging and whether I
can advance.”
Locker also advises keeping an eye out for non-verbal cues about how the
interview is going:
Nonverbal communication⎯ especially body language⎯

can tell you how the interviewer is responding.
Leaning forward, facing a person squarely, looking him or

her in the eye, and using hand motions indicate interest
and agreement. Crossed legs or arms are sometimes a sign
of distance, defensiveness, or resistance. Drumming fingers
on the table, tapping a foot, and blank stares usually signal
boredom. Piling papers in a neat stack and looking at a
watch are almost always signs that the person is trying to
bring the interview to an end.
UP Open University
After the interview

It may be necessary to follow up after your first interview. This can
sometimes lead to your landing the job, as it shows that you are persistent.
The follow-up can be in the form of a phone call or a thank you letter.
According to Locker, the latter gives you an opportunity to:
• Remind the interviewer of what he or she liked about you.

• counter any negative impressions that may have come up during the
interview.
• Use the jargon of the company and refer to the specific things you
learned during your interview.
• Be enthusiastic.
• Refer to the next move (that is, whether you will wait to hear from the
employer or whether you want to call to find out the status about
your application).
Box 8-4 gives Locker’s advice about phone manners. All the phoning
required in interviews today places a special emphasis on phone skills.
Box 8-4. Phone manners (from Locker’s “Cultivating the Gatekeeper”)
If you speak to a secretary, be nice to him or her. Find out the

person’s name on your first call and use it on subsequent calls.
“Thank you for being so patient. Can you tell me when a better
time might be to try to get Mr. or Ms. X? I’ll try again on [date].”
If you get someone’s voice mail, leave a concise message⎯ complete

with your name and phone number. Even if you’ve called ten times,
keep your voice pleasant.
If you get voice mail repeatedly, call the main company number to
speak with a receptionist. Ask whether the person you’re trying to
reach is in the building. If he or she is on the road, ask when the
person is due in.
UP Open University
Suppose you are told during a follow-up phone call that the job is yours
for the taking. But you have several other promising offers to choose from.
How do you make this important choice?
Well, you must know what is truly important to you. What are your
priorities? What do you value? List down the features of your ideal job.
(See the sample list in Box 8-5, next page.) Then to see which items are
really important to you, says Locker, do a forced choice. Locker describes
this thus:
“In a forced choice, you compare each item against every other one.
Number the items in the order in which they happened to occur to you.
Then, using the table of fractions [Figure 8-1], rank each pair. For “1/2”
compare item 1 and item 2. If you could have only one of the two, which
one would you prefer? Circle that half of the pair…Repeat until you’ve
made a choice between each of the possible pairs. Then count the number
of times you’ve chosen each item. The things you’ve chosen most often
are the ones that matter: they’re the ones you should look for in your job.”
Box 8-5. Sample list of features of someone’s ideal job
1. High income
2. Time to spend with my spouse
3. Near mountains
4. Job opportunities for Linda
5. Opportunity for advancement
6. Nonracist environment
7. Company with other Boholanos in leadership roles
8. Socially responsible company
9. Lots of open land nearby
10. Challenging work
11. Minimal travel as part of job
12. Good college or pro sports teams in town
13. Cost of living not too high
14. Good schools
15. Town with large Boholano community
16. Town with parks, civic services
17. Lots of interaction with other people
18. Company that will encourage me to get a master’s degree and
even pay for it
19. Company with good fringe benefits
20. Not have to work on weekends
UP Open University
1
/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 1/12 1
/13 1
/14 1
/15 1
/16 1
/17 1/18 1/19 1/20
2
/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7 2/8 2/9 2/10 2/11 2/12 2/13 2
/14 2
/15 2
/16 2
/17 2
/18 2/19 2/20
3
/4 3/5 3/6 3/7 3/8 3/9 3/10 3/11 3/12 3/13 3/14 3
/15 3
/16 3
/17 3
/18 3
/19 3/20
4
/5 4/6 4/7 4/8 4/9 4/10 4/11 4/12 4/13 4/14 4/15 4
/16 4
/17 4
/18 4
/19 4
/20
5
/6 5/7 5/8 5/9 5/10 5/11 5/12 5/13 5/14 5/15 5/16 5
/17 5
/18 5
/19 5
/20
6
/7 6/8 6/9 6/10 6/11 6/12 6/13 6/14 6/15 6/16 6/17 6
/18 6
/19 6
/20
7
/8 7/9 7/10 7/11 7/12 7/13 7/14 7/15 7/16 7/17 7/18 7
/19 7
/20
8
/9 8/10 8/11 8/12 8/13 8/14 8/15 8/16 8/17 8/18 8/19 8
/20
9
/10 9/11 9/12 9/13 9/14 9/15 9/16 9/17 9/18 9/19 9/20
10
/11 10/1210/1310/14 10/1510/1610/1710/1810/1910/20
11
/12 11/13 11/14 11/15 11/1611/17 11/18 11/19 11/20
12
/1312/1412/1512/16 12/1712/1812/1912/20
13
/1413/1513/16 13/1713/1813/1913/20
14
/1514/1614/1714/1814/1914/20
15
/1615/1715/1815/1915/20
16
/1716/1816/1916/20
17
/1817/1917/20
18
/1918/20
19
/20
Number of times I’ve chosen
1 5 9 13 17
2 6 10 14 18
3 7 11 15 19
4 8 12 16 20
Figure 8-1. A forced choice chart
UP Open University
Activity 8-2
List down the features of your preferred job situation. And then
using the forced choice chart, find out which features you value
the most.
UP Open University

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English for the Professions

University of the Philippines

Copyright © 2003, 2009 by Patricia B. Arinto

Published in the Philippines by the UP Open University

Layout by Helen Mercado Creer

Printed in the Philippines

Module 1 English in the Global Context: Intercultural Communication, 3

Module 2 Process and Style in Business Communication, 15

Unit II Writing for Business and the Professions, 43

Module 3 Letters and Memos, 45

Module 4 Technical Reports, 85

Module 5 Proposals and Feasibility Studies, 129

Module 6 Job Applications and Résumés, 167

Unit III Oral Communication in Business and the Professions, 183

Module 7 Oral Presentations, 185

T he globalization of world trade. English

A cursory glance at management textbooks, as well as interviews with

But what of the average employee, the currently unemployed or under-

In my experience, the best accountants and bankers and doctors and

Table 1-1 lists the kinds of writing routinely produced by organizations

Table 1-1. Documents Produced in One Organization

Table 1-1 continued

Quotation Letter giving price for a Inform; build goodwill

Claims Letter granting or denying Inform; build goodwill

Job description Description of qualifications Inform; persuade good

10-K report Report filed with the Secu- Inform

Annual report Report to stockholders Inform; persuade stock-

Thank-you letter Letter to suppliers, Build goodwill

Source: Locker (1995)

From the point of view of companies, their staff’s communication skills

It takes time to try and comprehend a badly written document. And

Moreover, the intended outcome or objective of a poorly written document

Our company sent out past-due bills with the following

Per our conversation, enclosed are two copies of the above-mentioned

All these underscore the significance of effective communication in business

English as the Language of Business

Whatever defects there are in the process, some of the

…In Asia, the language skills of Filipinos for office work in

Tupas is critical of this pragmatic attitude. He writes:

Indeed, the culture of pragmatism is what governs our

languages. Certainly not. The issue rather is that, with such

The last sentence of Tupas’ statement reminds me of a rally of graduates

Learning a language therefore really means learning how to think in that

In short, when we learn a language like English, you’re really learning a

Intercultural Issues in Business

The section entitled “Language” in Pascasio’s article highlights an

2. Is it appropriate to use Filipinisms, as such expressions are

It is worth noting that in its development as an international lingua franca,

Santos’s article, on the other hand, highlights the importance of cultural

Table 1-2. Views of Communication in High- and Low-Context Cultures

Preferred communication Indirectness, politeness, Directness, confron-

Reliance on words to Low High

Reliance on nonverbal High Low

Importance of written Low High

Agreements made Not binding Binding

Agreements made orally Binding Not binding

Attention to detail Low High

Source: Locker (1995)

“A discourse community is a group of people who share assumptions

The business community is an example of a discourse community. Each

Most people belong several discourse communities. For example, as a

Locker says: “Succeeding in a job…requires becoming part of a discourse

An organization’s culture, consisting of its values, attitudes and