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THERMODYNAMICS-1
214303

SEMESTER PROJECT:
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Submitted By: Shahzaib Anwar

180501008
M. Teham Tahir
180501016

Submitted to: Sir Muhammad Shaban

Department: Mechanical (07)
Institute of Space Technology
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Date of Submission: 8th January, 2020

Table of Contents
Zeroth Law.......................................................................................................................................3
First Law .........................................................................................................................................4
Second Law.....................................................................................................................................7
Third Law........................................................................................................................................8
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The three laws of thermodynamics define physical quantities (temperature, energy,

and entropy) that characterize thermodynamic systems at thermodynamic equilibrium. The
laws describe how these quantities behave under various circumstances.

ZEROTH LAW:
The zeroth law of thermodynamics could also be stated within the following form:
“If two systems are both in equilibrium with a 3rd system
then they're in equilibrium with one another.”

The law is intended to allow the existence of an empirical parameter, the temperature,
as a property of a system such that systems in thermal equilibrium with each other have the
same temperature. The law as stated here is compatible with the use of a particular physical
body, for example a mass of gas, to match temperatures of other bodies, but does not justify
regarding temperature as a quantity that can be measured on a scale of real numbers.
Though this version of the law is one of the most commonly stated versions, it is only
one of a diversity of statements that are labeled as "the zeroth law" by competent writers.
Some statements go further so as to supply the important physical fact that temperature is
one-dimensional and that one can conceptually arrange bodies in real number sequence from
colder to hotter. Perhaps there exists no unique "best possible statement" of the "zeroth law",
because there's within the literature a variety of formulations of the principles of
thermodynamics, each of which involve their respectively appropriate versions of the law.
Although these concepts of temperature and of equilibrium are fundamental to
thermodynamics and were clearly stated within the nineteenth century, the will to explicitly
number the above law was not widely felt until Fowler and Guggenheim did so within
the 1930s, long after the first, second, and third law were already widely understood and
recognized. Hence it was numbered the zeroth law. The importance of the law as a
foundation to the sooner laws is that it allows the definition of temperature during a non-
circular way without regard to entropy, its conjugate variable.
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Although these concepts of temperature and of thermal equilibrium are fundamental to

thermodynamics and were clearly stated in the nineteenth century, the desire to explicitly
number the above law was not widely felt until Fowler and Guggenheim did so in the 1930s,
long after the first, second, and third law were already widely understood and recognized.
Hence it was numbered the zeroth law. The importance of the law as a foundation to the
earlier laws is that it allows the definition of temperature in a non-circular way without
reference to entropy, its conjugate variable.

FIRST LAW:
The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy,
adapted for thermodynamic systems.
The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system is
constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but can be neither created nor
destroyed.

For a thermodynamic process without transfer of matter, the first law is often
formulated

where ΔUsystem denotes the change in the internal energy of a closed

system, Q denotes the quantity of energy supplied to the system as heat, and W denotes the
amount of thermodynamic work done by the system on its surroundings.
In the case of a thermodynamic cycle of a closed system, which returns to its original
state, the heat Qin supplied to the system in one stage of the cycle, minus the
heat Qout removed from it in another stage of the cycle, plus the thermodynamic work added
to the system, Win, equals the thermodynamic work that leaves the system, Wout.

Hence, for a full cycle,

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For the particular case of a thermally isolated system (adiabatically isolated), the
change of the internal energy of an adiabatically isolated system can only be the result of the
work added to the system, because the adiabatic assumption is: Q = 0.

For processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: 'With due
account of the respective fiducially reference states of the systems, when two systems, which
may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall,
and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of
removal of the wall, then

Where Usystem denotes the internal energy of the combined system,

and U1 and U2 denote the internal energies of the respective separated systems.'

The First Law encompasses several principles:

The law of conservation of energy:
This states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. However, energy can
change forms, and energy can flow from one place to another. A particular consequence of
the law of conservation of energy is that the total energy of an isolated system does not
change.
The concept of internal energy and its relationship to temperature:
If a system has a definite temperature, then its total energy has three distinguishable
components. If the system is in motion as a whole, it has kinetic energy. If the system as a
whole is in an externally imposed force field (e.g. gravity), it has potential energy relative to
some reference point in space. Finally, it has internal energy, which is a fundamental quantity
of thermodynamics. The establishment of the concept of internal energy distinguishes the
first law of thermodynamics from the more general law of conservation of energy.

The internal energy of a substance can be explained as the sum of the diverse kinetic
energies of the erratic microscopic motions of its constituent atoms, and of the potential
energy of interactions between them. Those microscopic energy terms are collectively called
the substance's internal energy, U, and are accounted for by macroscopic thermodynamic
property. The total of the kinetic energies of microscopic motions of the constituent atoms
increases as the system's temperature increases; this assumes no other interactions at the
microscopic level of the system such as chemical reactions, potential energy of constituent
atoms with respect to each other.
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Work is a process of transferring energy to or from a system in ways that can be

described by macroscopic mechanical forces exerted by factors in the surroundings, outside
the system. Examples are an externally driven shaft agitating a stirrer within the system, or an
externally imposed electric field that polarizes the material of the system, or a piston that
compresses the system. Unless otherwise stated, it is customary to treat work as occurring
without its dissipation to the surroundings. Practically speaking, in all natural process, some
of the work is dissipated by internal friction or viscosity. The work done by the system can
come from its overall kinetic energy, from its overall potential energy, or from its internal
energy.
For example, when a machine (not a part of the system) lifts a system upwards, some
energy is transferred from the machine to the system. The system's energy increases as
work is completed on the system and during this particular case, the energy increase of the
system is manifested as a rise within the system's gravitational potential energy. Work added
to the system increases the Potential Energy of the system:

Or in general, the energy added to the system in the form of work can be partitioned to
kinetic, potential or internal energy forms:

When matter is transferred into a system, that masses' associated internal energy and
potential energy are transferred with it.

Where u denotes the internal energy per unit mass of the transferred matter, as
measured while in the surroundings; and ΔM denotes the amount of transferred mass.
The flow of heat is a form of energy transfer.
Heating may be a natural phenomena of moving energy to or from a system aside
from by work or the transfer of matter. Direct passage of heat is only from a hotter to a colder
system.
If the system has rigid walls that are impermeable to matter, and consequently energy
cannot be transferred as work into or out from the system, and no external long-range force
field affects it that could change its internal energy, then the internal energy can only be
changed by the transfer of energy as heat:

Where Q denotes the amount of energy transferred into the system as heat.

Combining these principles leads to one traditional statement of the first law of
thermodynamics: it is not possible to construct a machine which will perpetually output work
without an equal amount of energy input to that machine. Or more briefly, a perpetual motion
machine of the first kind is impossible.
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An example of first law of thermodynamics being applied:

Question Statement:

Solution:

SECOND LAW:
The second law of thermodynamics indicates the irreversibility of natural processes,
and, in many cases, the tendency of natural processes to lead towards spatial homogeneity of
matter and energy, and especially of temperature. It can be formulated in a variety of
interesting and important ways.

It implies the existence of a quantity called the entropy of a thermodynamic system. In

terms of this quantity it implies that when two initially isolated systems in separate but
nearby regions of space, each in thermodynamic equilibrium with itself but not necessarily
with one another, are then allowed to interact, they will eventually reach a mutual
thermodynamic equilibrium. The sum of the entropies of the initially isolated systems is less
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than or equal to the entropy of the final combination. Equality occurs just when the 2 original
systems have all their respective intensive variables (temperature, pressure) equal; then the
final system also has an equivalent value.

The second law is applicable to a variety of processes, reversible and irreversible. All
natural processes are irreversible. Reversible processes are a useful and convenient
theoretical fiction, but don't occur in nature. A prime example of irreversibility is in the
transfer of heat by conduction or radiation. It was known long before the formulation of the
notion of entropy that when two bodies initially of various temperatures are placed in thermal
connection, then heat always flows from the hotter body to the colder one. The second law
tells also about sorts of irreversibility aside from heat transfer, for instance those of friction
and viscosity, and that of chemical reactions. The notion of entropy is needed to provide that
wider scope of the law.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, during a theoretical and fictive reversible
heat transfer, a component of heat transferred, δQ, is the product of the temperature (T), both
of the system and of the sources or destination of the heat , with the increment (dS) of the
system's conjugate variable, its entropy (S). Entropy can also be viewed as a physical
measure of the shortage of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion
and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of
data is usually described as disorder on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts
that for 2 given macroscopically specified states of a system, there's a quantity called the
difference of information entropy between them. This information entropy difference
defines what proportion additional microscopic physical information is required to
specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification
of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which can be made to exist instead
of explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically
specifiable effects which aren't fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic
specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural
processes – the rise tells what proportion extra microscopic information is required to
differentiate the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically
specified state.

An example of second law of thermodynamics being applied:

Question Statement:

Heat is transferred to a heat engine from a furnace at a rate of 80 MW. If the rate of waste
heat rejection to a nearby river is 50 MW, determine the net power output and the thermal
efficiency for this heat engine.

Solution:

Q˙ H =80 MW Q̇ L=50 MW

Wnet = Q˙ H −Q̇ L =30 MW

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W net 30
Efficiency= = =0.375
QH 80

THIRD LAW:
The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows:
“The entropy of a perfect crystal of any pure substance approaches zero as the temperature
approaches absolute zero.”

At zero temperature the system must be in a state with the minimum thermal energy.
This statement holds true if the perfect crystal just one state with minimum energy. Entropy is
related to the number of possible microstates according to:

Where S is that the entropy of the system, kB Boltzmann's constant, and Ω the amount of
microstates.
A more general form of the third law that applies to a system such as a glass that may
have more than one minimum microscopically distinct energy state, or may have a
microscopically distinct state that is "frozen in" though not a strictly minimum energy state
and not strictly speaking a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, at absolute zero temperature:
The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches
zero. The constant value (not necessarily zero) is called the residual entropy of the system.