UNIT 4: BECOMING A MEMBER OF THE
SOCIETY
Lesson 1: Socialization and Enculturation
Socialization
• It is the lifelong process of by which an
individual is oriented and taught by his/her
society’s norms.
• This starts from the moment a human
being is born and continues until he dies.
• Through the process of socialization, man
forms his principles in life as well as his
personal outlook of his social environment.
• This takes place when man interacts with
another man and through this man learns
culture.
Enculturation
• It is the process whereby individuals learn
their group’s culture, through experience,
observation and instruction.
• It is the process of being socialized into a
particular culture.
• You were enculturated to your specific
culture by your parents and other people
who raised you.
Note:
• Early childhood is the period of the most
intense socialization.
• It is then when we acquire language and
learn the fundamentals of our culture.
• And we become influenced by society
through social interactions
• It is necessary process so that man can
fulfill his full potential as a social creature.
In instances when a person does not get
socialized or enculturated, it is possible that his
or her behavior would resemble to that of the
other animals.
FERAL CHILD (wild children)  Animalistic
attitudes upon their discovery; Victor of
Aveyron in France is the first feral child.
Agents of Socialization
The significant people, groups and
institutions that shape our sense of self and social
identity, help us realize our human capacities,
and teach us to negotiate the world in which we
live. - Joan Ferrante (2014)
A. Family
 The basic unit of the society which is
primarily composed of the mother, the
father and the children.
 Basic social concepts such as religion,
morality, norms and customs are
introduced first in the family.
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 This is the most important agent of
socialization because it is the family
where all individuals started their
social lives.
B. Religion
 It encompasses all moral standards
contained within the entirety of ethical
beliefs.
 It affects our judgements on what is
moral or immoral, good or evil.
 Most of the time directed to an
omnipotent being.
 This makes religion very influential in
the process of socialization.
C. School
 A community of academician students
and teachers alike united in the pursuit
of intellectual endeavors.
 The school is composed of
heterogenous mixture of different
people having different personalities
and cultural orientation.
D. Peer group
 Man is inclined to be in the company of
others in order to fulfill social needs.
 This is a group of people more or less
of the same age and status in life who
are together in a particular activity and
such activity creates a social bond
among them.
E. Government
 It is the instrumentality by which the
will of the sovereign state is realized
and formalized
 It influences the conduct of the people
through the enactment and the
enforcement of the law.
F. Mass media
 It helps connect people even in the far-
flung places.
 Information are disseminated through
the use of different medias where it
reaches all kinds of people.
Identity Formation
• The set of values, attitudes, and beliefs
that individuals receive from their family,
peers and community, enables them to
create a personal identity that
simultaneously separates them from the
other members of the group and
incorporates them in its system.
Individuation (Personal Identity) – this is the
differentiation from the general social template
Social Identity – the person’s notion of who he
or she is in society performing the roles and
statuses in accord to what the society expects of
him or her.
*Primary Identity – this consists of the
roles and statuses that an individual
learns as a child. (sex, age, and ethnicity)
*Secondary Identity – roles and statuses
that are achieved such as occupation,
educational background, economic status
and gender
MODEL OF CONSCIOUSNESS (WILBER, 1997)
Your cultural background plays an
important role in enabling you to identify which
part of your identity is for display to your peers
and which is for display to your parents. This is
the reason that you play different roles for
different groups of people.
Cultural Competence
• It is the ability to understand,
communicate with and effectively interact
with people across cultures.
• This encompasses:
*being aware of one’s own world
view
*developing positive attitudes
towards cultural differences
*gaining knowledge of different
cultural practices and world views
*developing skills for
communication and interaction across cultures.
• Therefore, cultural competence is about
our will and actions to build understanding
between people, to be respectful and open
to different cultural perspectives,
strengthen cultural security and work
towards equality in opportunity.
To become culturally competent, you
must…
1. Learn About Yourself
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 self-assessment makes participants
realize the pervasive role of culture
plays in their lives
 It also makes people aware of their
own biases while sparking open-
minded curiosity about other cultures.
2. Learn About Different Cultures
 “One of the most minds-expanding
experiences is to learn a word or
concept that doesn’t exist in your own
language, plus, learning a language
means you’re more able to reach out
and connect with people who speak
that language” - Pamela Hays
3. Interact with Diverse Groups
 Instead of solely interacting with
members of diverse groups who are
seeking for help, get a fuller picture by
interacting with them as peers at
parties, religious services and cultural
events.
 “Put yourself in social situations where
you’re the only one of your cultural
groups.” -Pamela Hays
4. Attend Diversity-Focused
Conferences
5. Lobby Your Department
 If your program isn’t giving you the
training, push the faculty to do better.
In that way, the program gets the
message that it is something
important to students.
 “You have to keep finding ways to
expand your learning.” -Helms
Lesson 2: Norms and Values, Status and
Roles, Conformity
Values
• This concept of cultural values refers to all
those ideas held in the society that are
considered good, acceptable, and right.
• These values inform the types of
aspirations that members of society aspire
for which is referred to as social goals.
Norms
• It is a cultural product which represents
individual basic knowledge of what others
do and think that they should do.
(values, customs, and traditions)
• Collective group conduct as well as
individual perceptions of particular group
conduct.
How do we learn norms?
 • We learn norms in a variety of settings
and from various actors, including our
families, from teachers and peers in
school, through the media, and simply by
interacting with others as we go about our
daily business.
Although societies may have similar
values and goals, the norms that are created in
reference to these values may vary.
The values place on family are displayed
differently across cultures. The act of placing an
aging family member in a nursing home may be a
norm for Western societies, but Is almost
unacceptable, or even unthinkable, in most Asian
societies.
Categories of Norms
American sociologist William Graham Sumner
1. Folkways
 socially approved behaviors that have
no moral underpinning
 Folkways are the customs or
conventions of daily life
 Folkways emerged out of repetition
and routines
 We engage in them to satisfy our daily
needs, and they are most often
unconscious in operation, though quite
useful to the ordered functioning of
society
 folkways are norms that stem from
and organize casual interaction
 For example some
societies(Americans) consider it rude
for a visitor to make slurping sounds
when consuming soup, whereas others
(Chinese,Korean) encourage it.
 The practice of waiting in (or on) line in
many societies is an example of a
folkway.
 This practice creates order in the
process of buying things or receiving
services, which smooths and expedites
the tasks of our daily lives
2. Mores
 norms related to moral conventions.
These includes behaviors that are
acceptable related to religious
practices.
 Mores are stricter than folkways, as
they determine what is considered
moral and ethical behavior
Folkways vs. Mores
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• Folkways are mildly enforced social
expectations, while mores are strictly held
beliefs about behaviors
• Mores dictate right and wrong, while
folkways distinguish between proper and
rude behavior
• Mores are met with severe punishments
from society
• The reactions to violation of social norms,
including folkways and mores, are called
sanctions
3. Taboos
 behaviors that are absolutely
forbidden in a specific culture
4. Laws
 rules and regulations that are
implemented by the state, making
them the prime source of social
control.
Social Norms Regarding Public Behavior
• Do not curse in polite conversation
• Be kind to elderly, like opening a door or
giving up your seat
• Do not stand close enough to someone to
touch arms or hips 
• In the Philippines, drive on the right side of
the road.
• Don’t invade someone’s personal space
Social Norms on Using the Phone
• Say hello when answering the phone and
goodbye when you hang up
• Do not refuse to take messages
• Do not lie if someone has the wrong
number
• Do not pretend you are an answering
machine
Social Norms When Dining
• Chew food with your mouth closed
• Men usually pay for dinner, unless invited
by the woman
• Do not order something that is not on the
menu
• Do not eat soup with a fork
• Leave a tip for the waiter, if you can afford
Social Norms on Elevators
• Nod or say hello to others on the elevator
• Never push extra buttons, only the one for
your floor
• Face the front
• Do not say “I’ll wait for the next one” if
only one person is on board
• Do not go elevator surfing
Social Norms in the Classroom
 • NEVER USE CELL PHONE
• Come to class prepared with paper, book
and pen
• Never read other materials during class
• Do not stare at the teacher
Social Norms Regarding Personal Behavior
• Pay groceries after you shop
• Shower or bathe
• Brush your teeth
• Apply sun screen at the beach
Consequences of Ignoring Social Norms
• It can make people very uncomfortable
being around them and can mark them as
“weird” or different.
• Normative behavior is what is required to
maintain the cohesion of society
• If you are somehow inclined into breaking
social norms, be prepared for criticism and
opposition.
• By breaking social norms, you will isolate
yourself from the society, and it shall
invariably hit back at a rebel
• You will encounter the true arrogance of
mankind
• You will end up alone because the society
is not comfortable of you
Status and Roles
Status
• This is an individual’s position in his or her
society, which carries with it a set of
defined rights and obligations.
• This is to say that we speak and behave
differently toward different sets of people.
• Two Types of Status:
• Ascribed Status
• It is assigned to a person by
society without regard for a
person’s unique talent or
characteristics
• It takes place at birth thus;
a person’s racial
background, gender, and
age are all ascribed
statuses
• Achieved Status
• It comes to us largely
through our own efforts
• We must do something to
acquire an achieved status
Roles
• These are the sets of expectation from
people who occupy a particular status
• It is a cluster of norms which tells us how
to carry out the status
• It serves important functions for society:
o Roles regulate behavior
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o Roles allow me to predict
other’s behavior
o Roles facilitate social control
Conformity
• Every person in the group eventually
conforms to some decisions, or the group
remains to standoff/stalemated
• Normative systems prescribe the behavior
required of members to maintain order
and stability and to coordinate the
people’s activities in the pursuit of group
goals and objectives.
• It is an act of following the roles and goals
of one’s society
• This is often met with rewards and
acceptance from the other members of
the society.
• This occurs when members choose the
course of action that the majority favors
• Since members of a social group are
bound together by their adherence to a
common culture, it is easy to understand
why some degree of conformity to group
norms is necessary.
• Socialization effectively develops
conforming citizens
Lesson 3: Deviance
Deviance
• The act of violating the prescribed social
norms and this act is often associated with
stigma
• STIGMA is a strong sense of disapproval of
nonconforming behavior from members of
society
• For the most part, human behavior does
follow the social norm, but there are
occasional individuals whose behavior
does not agree with the practices of
society.
• Deviance is a behavior that some people
in society find offensive
• Deviance is not simply behavior, it
involves a moral judgment
• When deviance is within the context of
legal structures, it may even be
considered a crime or a violation of law.
The actions that are considered deviant
vary per society and per social status.
Traditional Society
*Individuals are often shunned and/or isolated by
group members.
Democratic Society
*Individuals are tolerated and have some chance
to influence the values of the group.

Authoritarian Society
*Individuals become frustrated or persecuted
victims of strict adherence to traditional norms
and standards.
Deviance, furthermore, is relative to time
and place.
Deviance in Different Context:
Class Context
• If a poor woman shoplifts, people call her
a common criminal
• On the other hand, if a rich woman steals;
her deviant status is kleptomaniac -- a
form of mental illness
Sexual Context
• If a woman is promiscuous, she might find
herself labeled as a nymphomaniac
• While a man is a stud, macho, swinger, etc
Time Context
• People used to be burned at stake for
engaging in such behavior that most
twentieth-century people see as normal
Sociological –Cultural Context
• Describes actions or behavior that violate
social norms
• Deviance is an alleged breach of social
order (Rubington 1981)
• It is any act that violates social
expectations
• Deviance is universal(Goode,1994) every
society establishes rules and regulations
to punish offenders
• In Eskimo societies, the practice of “sexual
hospitality” – offering one’s wife to a guest
is normal, but in our society it is an
abnormal act
• In the sociological context, the social
definition of deviance is highly variable
• In Thailand, transgender and prostitution
are allowed but in our society it is
considered perverse (awkward)
Horton and Hunt (1984) classify them as
individual or group deviants, cultural or
psychological deviants, primary or secondary
deviants. From these definitions, all lead to one
thing – it is a violation of the norms. Sociologist
classify people who violate these norms into
different types such as: prostitutes, criminals,
delinquents, hippies, mentally insane and
the genius.
Theories of Deviance:
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Biological Theories
• Biological abnormalities provided valid
explanations for deviance
• Genetic predispositions create inborn
tendencies to commit deviant acts
• Deviant behavior is dictated by forces
beyond the control, or even the
awareness, of individuals
• Deviance is assumed not just as social
pathology (disease) or mental illness but
an unhealthy biological organism as well
• This assumption may be attributed to
certain defects or weaknesses of an
individual’s physical condition
Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)
• Italian physician-psychiatrist who became
interested in the scientific study of crime
and believed that the physical
characteristics of the criminal should be
thoroughly analyzed
• His findings were that the prisoners
displayed physical abnormalities such as
deviations in:
• Head size and shape
• Eye defects
• Receding chins
• Excessively long arms
• Lombroso called these criminal types
Atavists.
William Sheldon
• attempted to link body type to behavior by
classifying people into three categories
• endomorphs- who are soft,round,
and usually fat
• mesomorphs- who are mascular,
stocky and athletic
• ectomorphs who are skinny and
fragile
• The general argument here is that it
requires stamina to be a criminal so those
people with the most stamina will be more
likely to commit crimes (This would
include the young and men)
• According to him, a disproportionate
percentage of criminals were found to be
mesomorphs
Psychological Theories
• Focus on factors such as personality,
learning, goals, interests, motivations, will
power, frustrations and other psychic
conditions
• The psychological theories of deviance are
often rooted in a person’s mind rather
than in his body
• It associates deviance with a sickness
which is the result of a psychological
abnormality or a mental illness
 • Not all deviant acts account to people who • People also have inner containments such
are mentally ill but also to people who are as self-control and a sense of
not fulfilled that results to frustration responsibility that reduce deviance
which leads to anti-social deviant behavior
Other sociological theories of deviance:
Sigmund Freud • The Neutralization Theory
• linked deviances to defects of the super • The Labelling Theory
ego (conscience) • Conflict Theory
• People with weak egos are unable to • Functionalist Theory
control their impulses
• These psychological theories, however, Forms of Deviance
are not very useful, because theories A. According to Violation of a Societal
involving instincts (reflexes) and Norm
unconscious needs are difficult to test 1. Primary and Secondary
empirically Deviance – the individual
disagrees with the prescribed
Sociological Theories norms but is tolerated by others or
• Sociological theories of deviance look at his behavior is concealed by
the socio-cultural processes and others.
organizational structures of society Example/s: throwing pieces
• Proponents: Durkheim and Merton of papers on the floor;
• In sociological theories, the argument is urinating in a non-urinating
that the differences in social status and zone; cheating during exam
cultural belief in the society create deviant In Secondary deviance, the
behaviors among individuals individual is labeled as a
criminal or deviant because
The Anomie Theory of his previous behavior –
• “a” (without) “nomos” (law) that forces him to commit
• The cause of deviance is found in delinquent acts.
disturbances in the social norms, structure 2. Individual and Group Deviation
and goals – the person commits a deviant
• There are many sociological theories of behavior of his own group or sub-
deviance but we will discuss two among culture.
the many Example/s:
• Defined and discussed by Durkheim and A member of the group who
Merton does not have a police record is not
• Disturbances in the sense that the social a real man;
structure puts stress (social problems) on An individual belonging to a
individuals in the society, conservative family has
• Individuals tend to violate the accepted illicit relation with someone
social goals (norms) because they do not that is tabooed by his own
want the means to achieve the goals group.
In group deviance, the
The Control Theory individual may conform to
• An assumption of Control Theory is that the group’s norm which is in
people have a strong desire to be deviant disagreement or in
• Significant others reinforce the idea that contradiction to the
deviance is wrong expectation of the larger
• Control theory assumes that people are society.
hedonists (pleasure-seeker) and when B. According to Acceptance of the
they cannot get the pleasure, they can Cultural Goals and the Means to
make actions to get the pleasure (even if Achieve Them
the means to achieve it is bad) which 1. Conformity - both goals and
make them deviant means are considered as
• But sociologists suggest that people often acceptable to the individual
do not engage in deviance because they Merton identified five ways
have outer containments emanating from that individuals adapt to the
a supportive family and friends goals of a culture.
*Cultural Goals – it
consists of the values that

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 are important for the
society.
*Institutional Means –
processes that have been
established through social
structures such as the
government, school, church,
and even family.
2. Innovation- accept social goals
and reject the prescribed means of
achieving them
3. Ritualism- rejects society’s goals,
but accept society’s
institutionalized means
4. Retreatism- considered by
sociologist as more drastic
behavior; they reject both the goals
and the means to achieve them
5. Rebellion- somehow similar to
retreatism, because rebellion also
rejects both the cultural goals and
means, but they go one step
further
Lesson 4: Social Groups, Social Control
Social groups
• This consists of two or more people who
regularly interact on the basis of mutual
expectations and who share a common
identity.
Characteristics of a Group:
1. Members of a group share interests,
values and norms.
2. Members of a group interact.
3. People identify with a group.
4. Groups have structure.
Social category
• A social category is a collection of
individuals who have at least one attribute
in common but otherwise do not
necessarily interact.  - It is not permanent group.
Social aggregate
• It is a collection of people who are in the
same place at the same time but do not
necessarily interact, except in the most
superficial of ways, or have anything else
in common.
• These collections of people are not a
social category, because the people are
together physically, and they are also not
a group, because they do not really
interact and do not have a common
identity unrelated to being in the crowd or
audience at that moment.
Primary groups
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•  A primary group is usually small, is
characterized by extensive interaction and
strong emotional ties, and endures over
time.
• Charles Horton Cooley, whose looking-
glass-self-concept called these
groups primary, because they are the first
groups we belong to and because they are
so important for social life.
Characteristics:
- It is a relatively small.
- It is held together by strong ties of
affection
- It is where we are emotionally invested.
- It gives us emotional and social support
- We feel strong personal identification with
our primary group.
- It is characterized by multidimensional
relationship.
- It depends on continuous face-to-face
interaction
- It is very durable group that can even be
called a permanent group.
- It is based on trust.
- Social control is based on informal means.
Secondary groups
• Groups that are larger and more
impersonal and exist, often for a relatively
short time, to achieve a specific purpose.
• Secondary group members feel less
emotionally attached to each other and do
not identify as much with their group nor
feel as loyal to it.
Characteristics:
- It is relatively large collection of people.
- It is held together by weak ties of
affection.
- It involves little or no personal
identification.
- It is one-dimensional relationship.
- It is characterized by limited face-to-face
contact.
- We do not put the same trust in the
people in our secondary group that we do
in our primary group.
- It uses formal sanctions to ensure
conformity.
Reference groups
• Primary and secondary groups can act
both as our reference groups or as groups
that set a standard for guiding our own
behavior and attitudes.
• Some of our reference groups are groups
to which we do not belong but to which we
nonetheless want to belong. A small child,
for example, may dream of becoming an
 astronaut and dress like one and play like
one.
In-Group
• It refers to any group or category to which
people feel they belong that comprises
them being regarded as “we or “us”.
• It may be as narrow as teenage clique or
as broad as the entire society.
• Its very existence implies that there is an
out - group viewed as “they” or “them”.
Out-Group
• It refers to a group or category to which
people feel they belong.
Types of Social Organization:
Ferdinand Tonnies  A German
sociologist who introduced gemeinschaft and
gesselschaft.
Gemeinschaft
• It is a community - oriented society in
which the relations are personal and
informal.
• Tradition is very important in holding the
society together.
• Family life is very strong, and everyone
knows, or knows of, everyone else.
• It is commonly found in village and town
life.
Gesellschaft
• A community of which relationships are
impersonal and based on contract.
• It shares the characteristics of secondary
group.
Social control
• Social control is the process by which
conformity and adherence to socialization
and approved values are ensured.
• To maintain social order and stability,
social control is needed.
• Social order can be maintained only if
social life is organized and regulated
through folkways, customs, mores, rules
and laws.
• In the course of socialization, the
individual learns to be sensitive to the
judgement, opinions, and expectations of
others. These serve as effective
instruments of social control.
• Since society and socialization of an
individual is not perfect at all, there would
always be social ills and chaos.
Types of Social control:
1. Formal Social Control
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 This is a restraint in a form of arrest,
by law enforcement agencies
investigation, to potential deviants.
2. Informal Social Control
 Rewards such as shaking hands,
smiles, clapping of hands, word of
approval, and kiss are involved to
conforming individuals.
Forms of informal social control:
Gossip
• an idle talk or rumor especially about the
personal or private affairs of other.Its act
is known as dishing.
• Gossip lets people monitor cooperative
reputations and maintain widespread
indirect reciprocity.
• Robin Dumber have said that gossip also
aids bonding in a large group.
Ostracism
• This includes shame, ridicule, criticism,
and disapproval which can cause an
individual to stray towards the social
norms that can lead to discrimination and
exclusion.
Social Rejection
• occurs when an individual is deliberately
excluded from a social relationship
• Rejection by an entire group can have
negative effects such as social isolation,
loneliness, low self-esteem, aggression
and depression.
• This also heightens sensitivity to future
rejection
Punishment
• the authoritative imposition of an
undesirable outcome to a group or
individual on a particular action that is
deemed unacceptable.
• The study and practice of the punishment
of crimes especially as it applies to
imprisonment is penology or corrections.
• The punishment process is called as the
correctional process
Mind Control
• Social control developed together with
civilization, as a rational measure against
the uncontrollable forces of nature.
Law
• These are the formalized social norms
enacted by people who have been vested
through the machinery of the state
UNIT 5: CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
INSTITUTIONS
Lesson 1: Kinship as Social Institution
The Institutions
• Particular segments of society where
social, cultural and political roles exist
• Units of society where behavior patterns
are shared and played by members
• The goal of these institutions is the
satisfaction of basic group needs
• The social institutions are the family,
school, church and business organizations
• The political institutions are
government and its instrumentalities
Routine Functions of Institutions:
1. Provide ready-made form of social roles
and social relations to an individual
2. Tend to control behavior by social
pressures
3. Provide the means of security
4. Largely regularized and pre-arranged the
child’s thinking and actions
Negative Functions of Institutions:
1. Obstruct social progress since they are
rigid and stabilizing social behavior
2. Frustrate the social personality of the
individual
3. Diffuse social responsibility
Kinship
• Refers to the “web of social relationships”
that humans form as part of a family
• Ferraro and Andreatta defined family as a
social and economic unit that consists of
one or more parents and their children
Characteristics of a Family:
1. A family is a socioeconomic unit. What
makes a group of individuals a family is
their dependency on one another with
regard to their social and economic
activities.
2. A family can have one or more parents.
The norm for other societies permits to
have multiple parents due to multiple
marriages
3. A family can have parents who are not
married. Marriage of parents is not a
prerequisite in other societies. As long as
individuals are socially and economically
interdependent, they can be considered a
family. This puts into perspective the
concept of common law marriage
4. A family can have parents with same
gender. Although same sex marriage is
illegal in most countries, some societies
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allow for the marriage of individuals with
the same sex
5. A family should have at least one child.
One of the most crucial elements of a
family is the existence of children.
Kinship as Social Institution
• It establishes on the family ties to the
surrounding community
• It is an integral part of its social structure
and it is found in all known societies in the
Philippines
the Kinship by Blood
• Connections between people that are
traced by blood are known as
consanguineal relationships, also known
as blood relatives
• This type of kinship links individuals based
on their genetic relations (bloodline)
• All human beings are connected to others
by blood or marriage
• This is one factor that allows an individual
to identify another individual as a family
member
• This is also referred to descent or the
socially accepted connection between an
ancestor and its succeeding generation
Descent Rules:
1. Unilineal Descent (Unilineality)
 This allows an individual to be
affiliated to the descent of one se
group only – either the male or female
 One’s descent is traced either
exclusively thru male ancestors
(patriline) or female ancestors
(matriline)
 Main types of Unilineal descent groups
are lineages and clans
2. Matrilineal Descent
 The tracing of descent thru the female
line
 also referred to as enatic descent
and/or uterine descent
 It is a line of descent from a female
ancestor to a descendant (of either
sex) in which the individuals in all
intervening generations are mothers
 In Asia, the Minangkabau ethnic group
of West Sumatra (Indonesia), practices
matrilinealage
 In this society, land and property
ownership is passed from mother to
daughter, leaving the men to deal with
political and religious affairs
3. Patrilineal Descent
  In patrilineal descent, individual traces
his or her kinship through male’s line
only
 This promotes a passing down of name
and inheritance to the male offspring
only, while allowing the female
offspring to be part of another family
through marriage
 Patrilineal descent is also known as
agnastic descent
4. Bilateral Descent
 Allows an individual to trace kinship
ties on both sides of the family
 Relatives on the mother’s or father’s
side are equally important for
emotional ties or for transfer of
property and wealth
 Under bilateral descent, every tribe
member belongs to two clans
 Bilateral descent, unlike unilineal, can
only trace immediate family
 In some cases, ties with the nuclear
family can be extended to family
members of the spouses (this kinship
grouping is known as kindred)
Kinship by Marriage
A. Monogamy
 A form of relationship in which an
individual has only one partner during
his or her lifetime
 Scientists use the term monogamy for
different relationships
 Marital monogamy refers to
marriage of only two people
 Social monogamy refers to two
partners living together, having sex
with each other, and cooperating in
acquiring basic resources such as
shelter, food and money
 Sexual monogamy refers to two
partners remaining sexually
exclusive with each other and
having no outside sex partners
 Genetic monogamy refers to
sexually monogamous relationships
with genetic evidence of paternity
 When cultural or social anthropologists
use the term monogamy, the meaning
is social or marital monogamy which
can be distinguished between:
 Marriage once in a lifetime
 Marriage with only one person at a
time (serial monogamy) in contrast
to bigamy or polygamy
Endogamy the practice of marrying
within one’s own group
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Exogamy the practice of marrying
outside one’s own group
Homogamy is the practice of marrying
someone similar to you in terms of background,
social status, aspirations, and interests.
B. Bigamy
 the act of entering into a marriage with
one person while still legally married to
another
C. Polygamy
 From the Greek word “polygamia” w/c
means marriage to many spouses
 Involves marriage with more than one
spouse
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which
men have more than one wife.
Polyandry is a form of marriage in which
woman have more than one husband.
Polyamory is the practice, desire, or
acceptance of having more than one
intimate relationship at a time with the
knowledge and consent of everyone
involved.
Cenogamy (Group Marriage) All of the
men and women in a group are
simultaneously married to each other.
Polygamy is widely accepted among
different societies worldwide. According to the
Ethnographic Atlas, 1, 231 societies are noted to
be polygamous.
Cross-Cultural Relationships
• Both parties come together from different
families to build a new unit together
• For many couples this will be a natural set
of compromises to which both partners
will adjust naturally over time, but for
others the differences can be fundamental
(finding it difficult to understand the
others way of looking at the world
• Cross-cultural issues faced by couples
includes loss of identity, conflicts over
differences in fundamental beliefs, clashes
in parenting tactics, and struggles with
unsupportive families
Tips for Protecting Your Cross-Cultural
Marriage:
1. Prioritize your spiritual identity as a Christ
follower over your cultural identity.
2. Prioritize understanding over judging.
3. Everything important to you should be
explained to your spouse rather than
assumed.
4. Honor and value your spouse’s parents
and extended family.
 5. Negotiate boundaries with your extended
families that are acceptable to each of
you. (In a healthy marriage, parental
loyalty should never exceed spousal
loyalty)
6. Give your spouse the benefit of the doubt.
(Assume the best of your spouse rather
than the worst)
7. Pray daily for wisdom, grace and patience
necessary to treat your spouse with trust
and respect.
Lesson 2: Family as the Household
Household
• refers to those who dwell under the same
roof and may or may not compose a
family
• A household is composed of one or more
people who occupy a housing unit
• Not all households contain families
Family household consists of 2 or more
individuals who are related by birth, marriage or
adoption, although they also may include other
unrelated people.
Nonfamily household consists of people
who live alone or who share their
residence with unrelated individuals.
Family Structures:
A. Nuclear Family
 The nuclear family is the traditional
type of family structure.
 Also called elementary family
 Nuclear families typically center on a
married couple; they may have any
number of children
 May refer to married couples with
biological children or stepparent and
adopted children
 Alternative definition of nuclear family
has evolved to include family units
headed by same-sex parents
B. Single Parent Family
 A single parent family is a mother with
her children, although there are single
fathers as well
 The single parent family is the biggest
change society has seen in terms of
the changes in family structures.
C. Childless Family
 Childless families consist of a husband
and wife living and working together
 The childless family is sometimes the
"forgotten family“ because they don’t
have children.
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D. Stepfamily
 Over half of all marriages end in
divorce, and many of these individuals
choose to get remarried
 This creates the stepfamily, it consists
of a new husband and wife and their
children from previous marriages or
relationships.
E. Grandparent Family
 Many grandparents today are raising
their grandchildren for a variety of
reasons and the parents are not
present in the child's life.
F. Extended Family
 The extended family structure consists
of two or more adults who are related,
either by blood or marriage, living in
the same home.
 In extended family, the family changes
from immediate household to
extended household
 Types of Extended Family:
o Stem Family – parents will live with
one child (married or not) and his
or her spouse (if married)
o Joint Family – Parents and their
children’s families live under a
single roof
G. Reconstituted Family
 Also known as blended family
 Joining of two adults via marriage,
cohabitation or civil partnership, who
have children from previous
relationships
 In this type of family, the current
spouses were previously married and
had children
 Upon the dissolution of their previous
marriages, these individuals remarried
and created a new family by bringing
in their children from their past
marriages and often birthing their own
H. Transnational Family
 Members reside separately across
territories
 The OFW phenomenon contributes to
the growing number of transnational
families as Filipino parents reside
outside the country to work while their
children remain in the home country to
study
Post-marital Residency Rules
• The rules within the society that  New conjugal
determine where a child of a group resides residences (whether
after they get married room or houses) are
• 3 Main Forms of Post-marital Residency constructed for the
(PMR): new families
o Neolocal Residence • Matrilocal Residence – when
• Neolocal is the pioneer the girls of the family stay in
stage of nuclear family the family compound when
• They will have isolated they marry, bringing in
conjugal house not spouses from elsewhere
aggregated or formally  Uxolirical
situated with other residence is a less
dwellings complex rule that
• This is an arrangement that merely requires the
requires both spouses to husband to move in
leave their households and to his wife’s mother’s
create their own at times household without
even in a different locality consideration for the
• This supports the creation of creation of a
nuclear households matrilineal descent
• A group consisting of  Upon marriage, the
parent(s) and child(ren) man is expected to
move away from existing take residence with
family compounds his wife’s mother
o Unilocal Residence area, where they are
• Patrilocal Residence – when expected to raise
the boys of the family stay their children and
in the family compound integrate them to the
when they marry, bringing maternal line,
in spouses from elsewhere creating a matrilineal
 * Virilocal descent
residence is a less  Resources are owned
complex rule that by the women of the
merely requires the family and, although
wife to move in to the spouses can
her husband’s reside with the
residence without family, they are still
consideration for the part of the clans
creation of patrilineal where they were
descent born
 Upon marriage, the  Typically, sisters or
woman is expected related women and
to transfer to the their families live
residence of her together and no new
husband’s father; her house is built for the
children will be new families
raised by her o Multi-local Residence
husband’s family and • Multifamily dwellings
be integrated in their • Other PMR Rules
lineage, allowing for o Avuncolocal Residence
the creation of • Upon marriage, the couple
patrilineal descent practices a form of
 Resources are owned virilocality and raises their
by men in the family, children in the household of
and although the husband’s father
spouses reside with • However, upon reaching
the family, they are adulthood, these children
still part of the clans will have to be relocated
where they were with their mother’s brother
born and live with him and his
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 household which may
consist of his wife and
children and the other adult
male offspring of his sisters
• A complex residency
pattern as it requires two
residence transfers
• This practice allows for the
creation of a patrilineage
o Natalocal Residence
• This arrangement allows
both spouses to remain with
their own households after
marriage
• The couples will have to
arrange for meetings as the
2 are not living under one
household
• Their children are allowed to
choose which household
they would join; should they
choose to join their father’s
household, they will be
integrated in a patrilineal
descent and vice versa
o Matrifocal Residence
• Arises when the father is
economically and physically
unable to provide support
for the family, thereby
ascribing the role of sole
provider and caregiver to
the woman
• - In this situation, all of the
children reside with their
mother who is part of her
mother’s household
o Ambilocal Residence
• Allows the couple to choose
to live either with the wife’s
mother’s area or the
husband’s father’s area
• This often creates an
extended family
Referred Marriage Partners
• Refers to the partnership relationship of
gay or lesbian marriages and those living
together (heterosexual) and not married
Kinship by Ritual
• This refers to the relationship between
and among godparents and godchildren
• Compadrazgo is a Spanish term meaning
“kumpare” or “kumare”
• In some cases, rituals allow for the
inclusion into a family like the
Compadrazgo system
• In this situation, individuals not originally
part of the family are made extended
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family members by being godparents of a
child of one of the actual family members
Politics of Kinship
• Refers to the political relationship among
the politicians who have one common
agenda
• Aspects of Politics of Kinship
o Political Dynasty
o Political Alliance
• The relationship may either be by blood,
affinity, compadrazgo or simply allies
Lesson 3: Political and Leadership
Structures, Authority and Legitimacy
Political Organization
• Any entity that is involved in the political
process
• It includes political institutions, political
parties & political groups
• Engaged in political activities aimed at
achieving clearly defined political goals
Band Society
• Least complex form of political
organization, as it has neither rigid form of
governance nor a structured form of
leadership
• Typically consists of 20-50 individuals who
are usually related to one another by
virtue of kinship
• 1st: The simplest form of human society
• Due to the close ties between members of
this group, coercion as a form of receiving
compliance is not an option; individuals
are made to follow group decision through
social mechanisms such as gossiping,
ostracizing, and being ridiculed
• Decision-making is often made by the
entire group with the eldest member
acting as the facilitator
• This band is chiefly based on foraging,
which is also known as hunting and
gathering
• This type of economic subsistence allows
for greater mobility of the group as they
follow animals and other food resources
• The eldest in the band takes responsibility
as facilitator in which this form of
leadership is informal
• The extent of leader’s power lies only
upon his capacity to influence the course
of dialog in the group
• Bands are egalitarian in social composition
• Individuals in the group have equal access
to resources and values
• Reciprocity is a primary form of exchange
among the members
 • Individuals who have lesser capacity to
hunt or gather have equal access to the
food that other members are able to
produce
• The drawback of this setting is the
emergence of free riders or those who
would partake of their share of the
community’s resources without any
attempt to contribute
• In such cases, bands would usually employ
noncoercive tactics such as ridiculing and
gossiping
Tribes
• A political organization that consist of
segmentary lineages
• This type of kinship is marked by loyalty
per family cluster or segment
• Segmentary lineages are composed of
immediate families then cousins, and then
distant relatives and cousins
• This type of kinship grouping allows for
the creation of interdependent
generations
• Tribes are less mobile than bands, as their
form of economic subsistence requires a
degree of settlement
• Most tribes are either horticultural
(shifting agriculture) or pastoral (tending
animals)
• These types of economic systems require
individuals to settle in one are for a
specific period either to let their animals
graze or to harvest their crops
• The leaders that are chosen in tribes are
individuals who are believed to possess
special skills and aptitudes that relate to
the economic activity
• Hence, should a younger and an older
hunter be in a debate about a decision,
the decision-making power shall be
accorded by the members to the person
with greater skills in hunting without
considering age
• The segmented nature of tribe’s social
dynamics allows for an economic system
that uses redistribution of commodities
among social segments through the
process of tribute
• A tribute is a form of gift that may consist
of wealth, food, or other materials given to
a central figure who in turn redistributes
the accumulated goods to the other
members of the society
• Through this process, the products of one
group is shared and consumed by the
other groups
Chiefdoms
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• More complex than tribes, as these
political organizations consist of a few
local communities who subscribe to the
power and rule of a leader who has
absolute power on them
• The ancient Mayans where known for their
complex and elaborate political system
that incorporated religion, kinship and
politics
• It embodied characteristics that include a
political leader with an advisory council, a
leader who exercises power that is based
on legacy, and the existence of social
stratification
• The absolute power is derived from the
perceived relation of the leader to
supernatural forces and powers, which is a
form of legitimizing factor
• As long as the members of the
communities believe that their leader is a
direct descendant of their gods, this
leader maintains his sovereignty over the
land
• Once the belief of people shifts, this leader
almost instantaneously loses power
• Similar to tribes, chiefdoms are tied with
horticulture and pastoralism
• What distinguishes a chiefdom from a
tribe is the existence of social
stratification that segregates society into
the elite and commoner
• The same economic process of
redistribution through tribute collection is
practiced in chiefdom, just like in a tribe
• The elites are often the relatives of the
ruler and are also believed to have divinity
or connections to the supernatural
States
• Consists of four inherent elements
• Uses absolute power in directing the path
of a society
• the elements of state:
o People
• Refers to the number of
people living within a state
• It must be small enough to
be governed and large
enough to be self-sufficing
• There is no law requiring the
number of people a state
must have but it should
neither be too small nor too
large
• This involves all the citizens
of a state, but at certain
point, it even includes the
foreigners staying in the
state since they are also
 covered by the sovereignty
and protection of the state
• It is said to be the most
essential and indispensable
element of the state
o Territory
• This is where the people of
a state live
• It refers to the jurisdiction of
the state and basically it
has 3 domains (aerial,
marital and land)
• The determination of
territory can be seen in
UNCLOS
o Government
• Refers to the aggregates of
persons or institutions
which rule the society
• agency of the state wherein
the will of the state is
manifested
• It refers to the organization
in charge of the
management,
administration, and
governance of the people
within the jurisdiction of the
state and the resources
within it
• An institution over which
the will of the state is
formulated, expressed, and
carried out
o Sovereignty
• Refers to the supreme
power of the state
• Two Aspects/Dimensions of
Sovereignty:
 Internal Sovereignty
 The absolute
power of the state to
rule its people,
supreme power of
the state to
command obedience
within its territory
 External Sovereignty
 The freedom or
independence of the
state from foreign
and external control
To attain societal goals and objectives, a
state uses complete political coerciveness, which
may come in the form of armed personnel, strict
laws, and rigid governmental policies.
The primary form of economic subsistence
in this political organization is market exchange.
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Standardized currencies are used to
exchange commodities.
Authority
• Is the state of possessing power
• It is noncoercive because it is based on
legitimacy
• This is the situation wherein you are given
the power over someone to do something
that that someone would otherwise not do
Legitimacy
• Legitimacy is an important concept
related to authority
• It is a situation wherein the authority of
someone is legitimized by some way
• Meaning, Authority is being recognized by
the people or by the ruled because the
authority is legitimized by some way like
election (in a democratic country) or by
succession (in monarchy)
• To understand it better, let us see the idea
of Max Weber with regards to authority
and legitimacy
Max Weber
• outlined three types of authority
throughout history:
1. Traditional Authority
 This refers to the kind of authority
wherein you are legitimized by
traditions and customs
 On the other side, ordinary people
believe that the monarch has been
chosen by God to lead
 Monarchies often hold this form of
authority
 Deriving their legitimacy from the
masses’ belief that a particular family
deserves the throne or even that the
monarch has a “divine right to rule”
 You become a leader because it is part
of a tradition and not because people
want you to become the leader
 In this kind of setting, one can
certainly understand why the masses
follow the political system’s rule
 To disobey them would mean to
disobey God
2. Legal Authority
 Here, legitimacy is based on an
established constitution – a political
system’s set of rules for making new
rules – to which the political leaders
adhere
 It can also involve selecting leaders
through elections
  In this kind of authority, one becomes
a leader because there is a process
that was followed for him to be
recognized as the leader
 The process of selecting leaders
through election adds to the legitimacy
of the policies that the government
produces
3. Charismatic Authority
 In this case, a leader and the system
as a whole becomes legitimate
because of the leader’s ability to
inspire or because the people like or
feel attached to the leader
 To Weber, this is the most difficult kind
of authority because there is no clear
reason why your authority is
legitimized, the only explanation is
that you become a leader because of
your inner charisma which is God’s
given grace
 Thus, you become a leader not
because of any tradition or legal
process, you become a leader because
of who you are
 The danger of relying on this form of
legitimacy is it is closely tied to an
individual leader If the leader dies, or
somehow falls out of favor with the
masses, the system as a whole is in
trouble
 This kind of authority allows the state
to impose its will on the people
because they believe that you are the
legitimate authority
 Among the 3 kinds of authority, this is
the ideal authority according to Weber
Lesson 4: Social Inequality and
Stratification
Social stratification
• Hierarchy of positions with regard to
economic production which rewards to
those in positions
• Social rewards and expectation to class
Characteristics of Social Stratification:
1. IT IS UNIVERSAL. There is no society on
this world which is free from stratification.
2. IT IS SOCIAL. Factors like age, sex,
intelligence are the bases on which status
are distinguished.
3. IT IS ANCIENT. It was present across
civilizations.
4. IT IS IN DIVERSE FORMS. Cultural and
religious norms are considered. Romans
were composed of plebeians and
patricians while the Indians practice the
caste.
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5. IT IS CONSEQUENTIAL. Each social class
have similar social chances but the chance
varies across society. It includes chances
of survival, good health, opportunities for
education and obtaining of justice.
Functionalist View
• Societies are complex systems of
interrelated and interdependent parts
• Each part of the society has a vital
function
• Society is self-regulating system and
everyone must contribute to maintain
harmony
Davis and Moore Thesis
• Developed by Kinsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore
• Societies are stratified because inequality
fulfills an important part of the social
system
• Society must distribute its members
across positions in society
• People must be motivated to fill certain
positions and perform their duties
• Filling of position within a social structure
is a basic need
• Not all positions are equally pleasant
• Rewards must be given
• Most important positions are rewarded
most
Weberian Stratification
• Developed by max weber
• Explains the interplay among the
following:
o Wealth- includes all the property
(economic situation)
o Prestige- respect with which a
person or status is regarded by
others (status situation)
o Power- ability to achieve goals
despite opposition
Types of Social Stratification:
1. Caste  Accompanying rights and
obligations are ascribed on the basis of
birth
2. CLASS-STRATIFICATION  In the basis
of class dominance. Person`s position
greatly depends upon his wealth,
achievement and ability.
3. ESTATE SYSTEM  Medieval type of
stratification with the existence of a estate
within a state.
4. SLAVERY AND ECONOMIC BASIS 
Every slave had his master to whom he
was subjected. The master`s power over
the slave is unlimited.
Social Inequality
• It is the existence of unequal opportunities
and rewards for different social positions
or statuses within a group or society.

Causes of Social Inequality:

1. Access to Social Capital.
 Refers to the resources individuals
have access to as a result of their
social, relationship
 It generates differential economic
opportunities, deep problem of justice.
Rich overpowers the poor, blacks are
segregated in white community
2. Access to Political Capital.
 Political equality has inscribed the
ideas of democracy and the
constitution. Everyone should
participate in governance and benefit
from the government services
3. Access to Symbolic Capital.
 Referred to the honor, prestige or
recognition as one serves the value
that holds a society

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