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doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.14099
CASE REPORT Available online at: onlinelibrary.wiley.com
Sophie Raymond,1 M.D. Anne-Sophie Leger,2 M.D.; and Ivan Gasman,1 M.D.
ABSTRACT: In today’s society, human cannibalism is extremely rare and represents an unthinkable act of violence. Scientific literature on
the topic is sparse due to significant methodological problems, such as collecting enough data and generating unbiased analyses. The purpose
of this article is to illustrate some psychodynamic aspects of cannibalism. After a review of the literature, we will present and compare five
cannibalistic patients hospitalized in the Henri Colin secure unit (Villejuif, France). The patients described fall into two subgroups, suffering
either from severe schizophrenia or from a mixed personality disorder with sadistic and psychopathic features associated with paraphilia. For
the schizophrenia group, cannibalism is a self-defense reaction to a perceived threat of destruction: survival depends on the annihilation or
assimilation of the other. For the mixed personality disorder group, ego and narcissism are the central issue with a desire to overcome deep-
rooted frustrations by means of an extraordinary act.
Cannibalism is defined as “the act of one individual of a spe- Cannibalism is strangely absent from French law, as the con-
cies consuming all or part of another individual of the same spe- cept does not even appear in the Penal Code (13). In instances
cies” (1). The word derives from “canib” or “carib,” terms used of cannibalism after the murder of an individual, the cannibalis-
during the fifteenth century by natives of the West Indies—dis- tic act is considered a degradation of the victim’s body. Where
covered by Christopher Columbus—in stories referring to their there is cannibalism without murder or intent to kill, it is consid-
belligerent neighbors, famous for having canine faces and for eat- ered an act of torture or barbarism and is punishable by a 15-
ing their captives (2–4). Thus, from the beginning, the word “can- year prison sentence.
nibalism” carried associations with a cultural “other” and was The purpose of this article is to illustrate some aspects of the
passed down as a symbol of barbarism in western civilization, the psychodynamic understanding of human cannibalism by further
“savage other” being the presumed cannibal native of the New developing a previous preliminary study (14).
World, in contrast to the “civilized self” of western countries (5). After a review of the literature, we will present and compare
There are many examples of cannibalism not only in mythol- five patients and their cannibalistic acts and discuss the psy-
ogy (6,7), fairy tales (8), and literature (9–11) but also in lan- chopathological profile of cannibalism.
guages, including English, often with a sexual connotation:
maneater, good enough to eat, to eat someone with one's eyes,
he or she is scrumptious, delicious. . . These verbal metaphors Review of the Literature
sound unthinkable in their literal meaning, as the consumption
An Ethological Reality vs a Controversy in Humans
of another human being is one of the few remaining taboos
within modern societies, described by Freud as a powerful prohi- Cannibalism occurs in every major animal group as a normal
bition. In Totem and Taboo (12), Freud develops the theory of a response to a variety of factors. Fox states that cannibalism is
primitive horde, whose “father” is omnipotent and rules over a not a “does occur” or “ does not occur” proposition but rather
harem of females. One day, immature males (the “brothers”) kill often depends on variables such as population density and
and eat the “father”: this act marks the beginning of social orga- changes in local environmental conditions (15). According to
nization, moral restrictions, and fundamental taboos. Polis (1,16), certain behavioral features can be observed in inver-
tebrate cannibalism: Immature animals are eaten more often than
adults; many animals do not recognize each other as being mem-
1
UMD Henri Colin, GH Paul Guiraud, 54 avenue de la Republique, BP bers of the same “family” (this is especially true when consider-
20065, 94806, Villejuif Cedex, France. ing eggs, regarded not as future members of the species but as a
2
HDJ, Maison de Sante de Nogent, 3bis rue de l'Ardilliere, 94130, Nogent food source); females are cannibalistic more often than males;
sur Marne, France. cannibalism increases during famine; and cannibalism is often
Corresponding author: Sophie Raymond, M.D. E-mail: sophie.raymond@
gh-paulguiraud.fr directly related to overcrowding within the natural habitat of a
*Presented at the 71st Annual Scientific Meeting of the American Acad- species. Schutt also summarizes the environmental conditions
emy of Forensic Sciences, February 18-23, 2019, in Baltimore, MD. leading to cannibalism as “too many kids, not enough space, too
Received 13 April 2019; and in revised form 15 May 2019; accepted 16 many males, not enough food.” ((1), page 287).
May 2019.
and elliptical manner: He rationalized his behavior with various omnipresent and intrusive. He felt threatened by her, fearing
hostile environmental experiences and instances of persecution total psychological annihilation: “I feared her gaze. She suffo-
by a father he described as being cynical, rigid, and brutal. Mr. cated me. I felt consumed by her . . . It was her or me. . . Other-
A. recounted what he called his “relegation to a pathetic studio” wise, I would be dead.” Mr. B. admitted to having ingested part
for several months (bought for him by his sister, in an attempt of his mother’s nose, her eyes, and two phalanges: “I ate her
to distance Mr. A. from his parents), “a dirty, small place where eyes to make sure the Devil was really dead.”
the floor constantly creaks, not to mention the neighborhood’s We found no premeditation. As Mr. B. said, “It was a spark,
noise pollution” (auditory hallucinations?). He compared this stu- a flash . . . a sudden energy that nothing could stop.” There was,
dio to the six-room apartment owned and occupied by his par- however, a precipitating factor: the anodyne dispute with his
ents, an apartment in whose ownership he intended to assert a mother over the volume of his stereo.
legitimate share: “we are five children, and I won’t let the others After further investigation, Mr. B., diagnosed with paranoid
take what is mine. . . My father wants to rob me!” schizophrenia, was found not criminally responsible and, as
For him, his was a defensive act: “I had no choice. It’s been such, could not be subject to legal sanctions.
going on for 30 years. I had to do something.” Of his father, he
claimed, “He was eating me up.”—in the original French, “Il me
Mr. C
bouffait la vie.” Mr. A. said he was “exhausted after this
unequal fight” and explained, “I wanted to hurt him as much as Mr. C. was 22 years old when he attacked his mother. He
possible, to really crush him.” grew up in Korea, and his mother moved to France when he
We found no premeditation, but there was a precipitating fac- was 8 years old. He remained in Korea with his father, who sex-
tor: a discussion he had had with his father the previous night. ually abused him, until he was 14. Mr. C. then moved to France
The father had shown Mr. A. their family tree and a certified and was reunited with his mother, with whom he had a very
will according to which the patient was to receive one-fifth of dependent and tyrannical relationship. She had remarried, and
the parents’ possessions. Mr. C. lived in permanent conflict with his stepfather.
After the investigation, Mr. A. was diagnosed with paranoid At the time of his first hospitalization in a psychiatric ward,
schizophrenia and found not criminally responsible by reason of when he was 20 years old, Mr. C. was attending university,
insanity (according to French law, he received no prison sen- where he had already begun showing odd behaviors and often
tence). soliloquized. He was rehospitalized a year later after experienc-
ing clinically significant bouts of delirium. He was subsequently
diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Mr. B
At the time of the offense, he was single and living at his
Mr. B. was 26 years old at the time of the assault. He did not mother’s residence. He had no history of violent behavior and
know his father and lived with his mother and two sisters. As a no criminal record. He did not have a history of substance
child, he suffered from emotional neglect and dropped out of abuse, but he had stopped taking his medication.
high school; he was unemployed, smoked cannabis regularly, On that day, suddenly and for no apparent reason, Mr. C.
and was declared unfit for military service for psychiatric rea- tried to kill his mother with a meat cleaver, after which he
sons. He had no previous history of violent behavior and no bit off and ate a chunk of her forearm. The neighbors called
criminal record. the police, who immediately arrested him, but he repeatedly
A year prior to the offense, Mr. B. was diagnosed with brief attempted to escape from their custody, endlessly repeating, “I
psychotic disorder while hospitalized after a suicide attempt. He need to go kill my mother, I need to kill her.” He was
was described as suffering from feelings of persecution and quickly transferred to our secure unit, where he appeared
interpretative thoughts. extremely agitated and overwhelmed by major fits of delirium,
Three months before his act, Mr. B. stopped taking his medi- with hallucinations and emotionally charged statements of a
cation and consumed more cannabis than usual. One day, after a mystical nature nurtured by megalomania. He told the staff
dispute with his mother, who had asked him to lower the vol- that he was forced to kill his mother in order to “defeat the
ume on his stereo, he beat her to death and fled the crime scene. Devil in her.”
The body was later discovered by one of his sisters (who had Again, we found no premeditation, but his mother’s expressed
actually been in the house, listening to music in her room, at the wish to go away on vacation was a precipitating factor. Because
time of the attack). According to the autopsy, part of the of his dependent relationship with his mother, Mr. C. could not
mother’s face was lacerated, the eyeballs were missing, and two stand the idea of being abandoned. He said, “My mother is
phalanges were severed. influenced by her partner; I want her all to myself; I’m depen-
Mr. B. had a car accident shortly after leaving home and was dent on my mother; it allows me to enjoy life . . . I mean, to get
taken to the hospital, where he confessed to the murder. He was what I want . . . It’s important she knows I exist.”
first incarcerated in the local jail but was quickly transferred to As with Mr. B., after further investigation, Mr. C., already
our secure unit. He was described as being in a state of deep diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, was found not criminally
distress with suicidal thoughts. His speech was disorganized and responsible and therefore could not be subjected to legal sanc-
contained elements of delusion (persecution and mysticism). He tions.
also suffered from auditory hallucinations.
Mr. B. initially denied having eaten some parts of his
Mr. D
mother’s body. He did not discuss the course of events until sev-
eral months later, when he explained that he had killed his Mr. D. was 18 years old and living at his parents’ home when
mother following hallucinatory injunctions (which had begun a he assaulted his family. He had a younger brother and was from
few days earlier): “It was Jesus who ordered me to do so, to kill a well-to-do family whose history was full of carefully shielded
the Devil inside her.” He described his mother as being taboos and secrets spanning many generations (incest, adultery,
4 JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
psychopathic features associated with paraphilia (Mr. D. and Although no prison sentences will be served, all patients are
Mr. E.). under psychiatric care.
For the mixed personality disorder group, cannibalism allowed
narcissistic restoration and occured in situations of intense frus-
Dynamics of the Act
tration, humiliation, and conflict between internal and external
Let us first examine the different sequences of events. In the realities. It relieved tensions related to anger and increased self-
schizophrenia group, the attack started with a sudden outburst of esteem: it was a way to eliminate one’s feelings of inferiority or
action/emotion without premeditation. A contributing factor was vulnerability in a megalomaniac atmosphere; as Mr. D. said, “I
substance use (cannabis) or the cessation of medicine intake, felt like a hero.” Victims became inferior individuals to be used
while the precipitating factor was often trivial. For Mr. A., the in any way for instant gratification. Here, the issue was not the
act occurred after a discussion about the family tree and the “him or me” injunction, but rather “he is me,” or, as Leonoff
inheritance; for Mr. B., it was a trivial dispute with his mother, says about the perverse form of self-definition (43) “I destroy,
whom he saw as intrusive and persecuting; for Mr. C., the act therefore I am.” Ego and narcissism were the central issue, with
was triggered by a threat of separation, namely the mother’s a desire to overcome deep-rooted frustrations and inadequate
intention to go away on vacation. These three patients were all social-emotional behaviors by means of an extraordinary act.
delusional, with underlying feelings of persecution and injury Both patients faced long and complex trials. One was pro-
(Mr. A.) or mystical hallucinations (Mr. B. and Mr. C.). nounced insane, and the other was sentenced to 30 years.
In contrast, patients in the mixed personality disorder group
had a total lack of taboos and admitted hidden cannibalistic
plans or fantasies going back many years. We found no con- Limits of the Case Reports
tributing but precipitating factors far different from those found
First, we have studied only five cases of cannibalism; this
in the first group: feelings of humiliation seem to be the trigger,
small sample size limits the generalization of the findings.
and both patients assaulted their victims at a time when they suf-
Nonetheless, this reduced scale is inherent to the subject because
fered a loss of self-esteem. There were no signs of delusion.
it takes into account the rarity of cannibalism in modern society.
If we examine the details of the acts, we notice that in the
The retrospective nature of the exploration impacts the rigor of
schizophrenia group, all victims belonged to the parental couple:
data collection.
cannibalism is an aspect of parricide. In all three cases, we
Second, the choice to study patients hospitalized in the Henri
uncovered a history of disturbed patient–parent relationships
Colin secure unit creates a bias. Indeed, individuals are trans-
with added feelings of hostile dependence, which could explain
ferred to this unit only when mental illness is suspected. We did
the choice of ingested body parts—relational organs such as the
not consider cases of cannibalism by incarcerated individuals
ears, eyes, hands, and forearm. There was no savoring of the
who had not been hospitalized. The data at our disposal are thus
flesh, which was eaten raw and unprepared, and there was no
restricted to a forensic cohort. Additionally, this study does not
evidence of sexual satisfaction.
account for women and young patients, as female admissions to
Regarding the mixed personality disorder group, both perpe-
our secure unit are infrequent and juvenile patients are very rare.
trators were close acquaintances of their victims and were
In conclusion, we can say that the rare occurrence of cannibal-
engaged in a relationship marked by objectification. In both
ism makes its study complex, with a limited number of articles
cases, the victim was part of the situational impasse experienced
available in the scientific literature and real difficulties encoun-
by the two patients, with strong feelings of humiliation. Here,
tered in accessing data in general. Through our case reports, we
we found evidence of savoring, as body parts were carefully
strove to meet the challenge of understanding cases of human
chosen, prepared, and cooked. There was also an element of sex-
cannibalism. We identified two patient subgroups according to
ual pleasure: Mr. D. had planned cannibalism with necrophilia,
differences in their diagnosis and psychopathology.
while Mr. E. experienced sexual arousal and ejaculated during
As this article is a case report, we do not claim to generalize
his act. There was no subsequent remorse, and the acts were
these findings. The extreme clinical complexity of these cases
treated casually by both patients without any consideration for
requires careful further analysis. While the biography, the diag-
moral implications.
nosis or the relational mode of these patients may highlight the
To summarize our findings, we can say that in the schizophre-
reasons behind their assault, the nature of the act remains a
nia group, cannibalism was a self-defense reaction to a perceived
mystery.
threat of physical or psychological destruction. Mr. A. said that
“he was eating me up,” and Mr. B. explained that “I felt con-
sumed by her . . . Otherwise, I would be dead,” while Mr. C. References
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