2 CHAPTER TWO FOUNDATIONS

2 – FOUNDATIONS

The function of a footing or a foundation is to transmit the load

form the structure to the underlying soil. The choice of suitable type
of footing depends on the depth at which the bearing strata lies, the
soil condition and the type of superstructure.

2-1 SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished

ground surface; generally where the founding depth (Df) is less than
the width of the footing and less than 3m. These are not strict rules,
but merely guidelines: basically, if surface loading or other surface
conditions will affect the bearing capacity of a foundation it is
'shallow'. Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings')
include pads ('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts.
Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently
strong and stiff to support the imposed loads; they are generally
unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly-
compacted fill, peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc.

2-1-1 Strip Foundations

Strip foundations are used to support a line of loads, either due

to a load-bearing wall, or if a line of columns need supporting where
column positions are so close that individual pad foundations would
be inappropriate.

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Pic. ( ) shallow foundation – Strip foundations

A) Strip foundation - Wall footing typical details

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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B) Strip foundation – Footing to columns details

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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C) Rectangular combined footing

 combined footing without tie beam

Longitudinally, the footing acts as an upward loaded beam

spanning between columns and cantilevering beyond. Using
statics, the shear force and bending moment diagrams in the
longitudinal direction are drawn. Moment is checked at the faces
of the column. Shear force is critical at distance ‘d’ from the faces
of columns or at the point of contra flexure. Two-way shear is
checked under the heavier column. The footing is also subjected to
transverse bending and this bending is spread over a transverse
strip near the column.

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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 Combined footing with tie beam

Buildings footings are usually susceptible to soil settlement; uniform

or differential. The latter settlement is the one that causes higher
stresses in building elements, and is classified as a main reason for
structural failures. Some codes suggest using tie beams to increase
structural integrity and reduce differential settlement.

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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D) Isolated footing

Isolated footing is used to support an individual point load

such as that due to a structural column. They may be circular,
square or rectangular. They usually consist of a block or slab of
uniform thickness, but they may be stepped or hunched if they are
required to spread the load from a heavy column. Pad foundations
are usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used.

 Isolated footing without tie beam

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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 Isolated footing with tie beam

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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E) Raft foundation
Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a
structure over a large area, normally the entire area of the
structure. They are used when column loads or other structural
loads are close together and individual pad foundations would
interact .
A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which
extends over the entire loaded area. It may be stiffened by ribs or
beams incorporated into the foundation . Raft foundations have
the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete
slab resists differential movements between loading positions.
They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing
capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

2 CHAPTER TWO FOUNDATIONS

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

2 CHAPTER TWO FOUNDATIONS

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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2-2 DEEP FOUNDATION

Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the

finished ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected
by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished
ground level. They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated
foundations using deep basements and also deep pad or strip
foundations. Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to
deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are
present near the surface.

A) Piles Foundation

Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation

loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or
rock strata having a high bearing capacity. They are used when for
economic, constructional or soil condition considerations it is
desirable to transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of
shallow foundations. In addition to supporting structures, piles are
also used to anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist
structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces.

 Rectangular precast piles

Where the bearing capacity of the soil is poor or the imposed
loads are very heavy, piles, which may be square, circular or
other shapes are used for foundations. If no soil layer is
available, the pile is driven to a depth such that load is
supported through the surface friction of the pile. Figures below
give the general layout of piles and piles – cap reinforcement
details.

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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 Deep Foundation with CIDH Pile

Also called caissons, drilled shafts, drilled piers, Cast-in-drilled-

hole piles (CIDH piles) or Cast-in-Situ piles. Rotary boring techniques
are larger diameter piles than any other piling method and permit
pile construction through particularly dense or hard strata.
Construction methods depend on the geology of the site. In
particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground
conditions or through water-logged but stable strata.

For end-bearing piles, drilling continues until the borehole has

extended a sufficient depth (socketing) into a sufficiently strong
layer. Depending on site geology, this can be a rock layer, or hardpan,
or other dense, strong layers. Both the diameter of the pile and the
depth of the pile are highly specific to the ground conditions, loading
conditions, and nature of the project. Drilled piles can be tested using
a variety of methods to verify the pile integrity during installation.

CIDH piles—also known in the industry as drilled shafts or

caissons—are a possible solution when driven piles are not suitable,
large vertical or lateral resistance is required, or to alleviate
constructability issues. A CIDH pile is more forgiving than a driven
pile in terms of noise and vibration, but disposal of hazardous drill
spoils may be costly. CIDH piles must be constructible by auger
drilling, or pier columns should be used. When battered piles are
required, CIDH piles should not be used because of the increased risk
of caving and the difficulty of placing concrete in a sloping hole.

CIDH piles rely on friction for most of their capacity. Friction and end
bearing are seldom additive because they mobilize peak resistance at
different displacements.

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

2 CHAPTER TWO FOUNDATIONS

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

2 CHAPTER TWO FOUNDATIONS

Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

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Guidelines for Detailing of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures