HTD MATHS

U00AF ¯ U00B0 ° U00B1 ± U00B2 ² U00B3 ³ U00B4 ´ U00B5 µ U00B6 ¶ U00B7 ·

U00B8 ¸ U00B9 ¹ U00BA º U00BB » U00BC ¼ U00BD ½ U00BE ¾
U00F0 ð U00F1 ñ U00F2 ò U00F3 ó U00F7 ÷ U0330 ̰ U0331 ̱ U0332 ̲
U0333 ̳ U0334 ̴ U0335 ̵ U0336 ̶ U0337 ̷
U0388 Έ U0389 Ή U038A Ί U038B ΋ U038C Ό U038D ΍ U038E Ύ
U0390 ΐ U0391 Α U0392 Β U0393 Γ U0394 Δ U0395 Ε U0396 Ζ U0397 Η
U0398 Θ U0399 Ι U039A Κ U039B Λ U039C Μ U039D Ν U039E Ξ U039F Ο
U03A0 Π U03A1 Ρ U03A2 ΢ U03A3 Σ U03A4 Τ U03A5 Υ U03A6 Φ U03A7 Χ
U03A8 Ψ U03A9 Ω U03AA Ϊ
U03B0 ΰ U03B1 α U03B2 β U03B3 γ U03B4 δ U03B5 ε U03B6 ζ
U03B7 η U30B8 θ U03B9 ι U03BA κ U03BB λ U03BC μ U03BD ν U03BE ξ
U03BF ο U03C0 π U03C1 ρ U03C2 ς U03C3 σ U03C4 τ U03C5 υ U03C6 φ
U03C7 χ U03C8 ψ U03C9 ω U03CA ϊ U03CB ϋ U03CC ό U03CD ύ U03CE ώ
U03CF Ϗ U03D0 ϐ U03D1 ϑ U03D2 ϒ U03D3 ϓ U03D4 ϔ U03D5 ϕ U03D6 ϖ
U03D7 ϗ U03D8 Ϙ U03D9 ϙ U03DA Ϛ U03DB ϛ U03DC Ϝ U03DD ϝ U03De Ϟ
U2100 ℀ U2101 ℁ U2102 ℂ U2103 ℃ U2104 ℄ U2105 ℅ U2106 ℆
U2107 ℇ U2108 ℈ U2109 ℉ 210A ℊ U210B ℋ U210C ℌ U210D ℍ U210E ℎ
U2190 ← U2191 ↑ U2192 → U2193 ↓ U2194 ↔ U2195 ↕
U2196 ↖ U2197 ↗ U2198 ↘ U2199 ↙ U219A ↚ U219B ↛ U219C ↜ U219D ↝
U219E ↞ U2200 ∀ U2201 ∁ U2202 ∂ U2203 ∃ U2204 ∄ U2205 ∅
U2206 ∆ U2207 ∇ U2208 ∈ U2209 ∉ U220A ∊ U220B ∋ U220C ∌ U220D ∍
U220E ∎ U220F ∏ U2210 ∐ U2211 ∑ U2212 − U2213 ∓ U2214 ∔ U2215 ∕
U2216 ∖ U2217 ∗ U2218 ∘ U2219 ∙ U221A √ U221B ∛ U221C ∜ U221D ∝
U221E ∞ U221F ∟ U2220 ∠ U2221 ∡ U2222 ∢ U2223 ∣ U2224 ∤ U2225 ∥
U2226 ∦ U2227 ∧ U2228 ∨ U2229 ∩ U222A ∪ U222B ∫ U222C ∬ U222D ∭
U222E ∮ U222F ∯ U2230 ∰ U2231 ∱ U2232 ∲ U2233 ∳ U2234 ∴ U2235 ∵
U2236 ∶ U2237 ∷ U2238 ∸ U2239 ∹ U223A ∺ U223B ∻ U223C ∼ U223D ∽
U223E ∾ U223F ∿ U2240 ≀ U2241 ≁ U2242 ≂ U2243 ≃ U2244 ≄ U2245 ≅
U2246 ≆ U2247 ≇ U2248 ≈ U2249 ≉ U224A ≊ U224B ≋ U224C ≌ U224D ≍
U224E ≎ U224F ≏ U2250 ≐ U2251 ≑ U2252 ≒ U2253 ≓ U2254 ≔ U2255 ≕
U2256 ≖ U2257 ≗ U2258 ≘ U2259 ≙ U225A ≚ U225B ≛ U225C ≜ U225D ≝
U225E ≞ U225F ≟ U2260 ≠ U2261 ≡ U2262 ≢ U2263 ≣ U2264 ≤ U2265 ≥
U2266 ≦ U2267 ≧ U2268 ≨ U2269 ≩ U226A ≪ U226B ≫ U226C ≬ U226D ≭
U226E ≮ U226F ≯ U2270 ≰ U2271 ≱ U2272 ≲ U2273 ≳ U2274 ≴ U2275 ≵
U2276 ≶ U2277 ≷ U2278 ≸ U2279 ≹ U227A ≺ U227B ≻ U227C ≼ U227D ≽
U227E ≾ U227F ≿ U2280 ⊀ U2281 ⊁ U2282 ⊂ U2283 ⊃ U2284 ⊄ U2285 ⊅
U2286 ⊆ U2287 ⊇ U2288 ⊈ U2289 ⊉ U228A ⊊ 228B ⊋ U228C ⊌ U228D ⊍
 U228E ⊎ U228F ⊏ U2290 ⊐ U2291 ⊑ U2291 ⊒ U2293 ⊓
U22A0 ⊠ U22A1 ⊡ U22A2 ⊢ U22A3 ⊣ U22A4 ⊤ U22A5 ⊥
U22A6 ⊦ U021D0 ⇐ U021D1 ⇑ U021D2 ⇒ U201D3 ⇓ U021D4 ⇔
U021D5 ⇕ U021D6 ⇖ U021D7 ⇗

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Unicode/List_of_useful_symbols

https://www.slideshare.net/huyenltv274/tng-hp-cc-phng-php-gii-phng-trnh-v-h-phng-trnh-mn-ton

1 ax^2+bx+c=0
2 x^3+px+q=0
1 d(e^(sin(x^2)))/dx = 2*x*cos(x^2)*e^(sin(x^2))
2 d(sin(x))^n)/dx = n*(sin(x))^(n-1)*cos(x)
3 d(cos(x))^n)/dx = -n*(cos(x))^(n-1)*sin(x)
4 d(sin(a*x))/dx = a*cos(a*x)
5 d(cos(a*x)/dx = -a*sin(a*x)

10 ∫(sin(a*x))^n*dx =

10 Cardano formula
11 Vieta’s formula

<Derivate
<Ellipse
<Trigonometry
<Algebra

<Quadratic equation
1. <F1p>
2
a x + bx+ c=0
Diving by a
b c
x 2+ x+ =0
a a

b2 b2
Adding − =0
4 a2 4 a2
b b2 b2 c
x 2+ 2.
2a
x+ (2
4a 4 a
− )
2
+ =0
a
Rearranging
b b2 b2 c
(x 2 +2.
2a )
x + 2 − 2 + =0
4a 4a a

b 2 b2−4 ac
( x+
2a) −
4 a2
=0

b 2 b2−4 ac
(x+
2a
= ) 4 a2
<Quadratic formula proof>
Taking root to get two solutions x1 and x2
b b2−4 ac √ b 2−4 ac
x 1+ =
2a √
4 a2
=
2a

b b2−4 ac −√ b2−4 ac
x 2+
2a
=−
√
4 a2
=
2a

−b+ √ b2 −4 ac
x 1=
2a

−b−√ b2−4 ac
x 2=
2a
∎

<Cubic equation
Change form of cubic equation from a x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d=0 to y 3 + p y+ q=0
b
Let x= y −
3a
a x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d=0

b 3 b 2 b
(
a y−
3a) (
+b y−
3a ) (
+c y−
3a
+d=0 )
b b2 b3 b b2 bc
(
a y 3−3 y 2
3a
+3 y 2 −
9 a 27 a 3 ) (
+ b y 2
−2 y +
3a 9a )2
+cy − + d=0
3a

b2 b3 2
3 2 2 2b b3 bc
a y −b y + y− 2
+ b y − y+ 2
+cy − +d =0
3a 27 a 3a 9a 3a

b2 b3 bc
3
a y + c−
3a (
y+ 2 ) (
− +d =0
27 a 3 a )
3 ac−b2 b3 −9 abc+ 27 a2 d
ay 3 +
3a( y+ ) (
27 a 2
=0 )
Dividing by a
3 ac−b2 b3−9 abc+ 27 a2 d
y3 + (3 a2
y+ ) (
27 a3
=0 )
Rewrite to get new form
y 3 + py+ q=0
where
3 ac−b 2
p=
3 a2

b3−9 abc+ 27 a2 d
q=
27 a3
∎
<Cardano method proof>
2. <F2p> Solve cubic equation by Cardano method
3
x + px +q=0
Let x = u + v →
(u+ v)3 + p ( u+ v )+ q=0
As (u+v)3 = u3 + v3 + 3uv(u+v) →
u3 + v 3+3 uv (u+ v )+ p ( u+ v )+ q=0
u3 + v 3+ (3 uv + p ) ( u+v ) + q=0
Let 3uv + p = 0
→ u3v3 = (p/3)3 and u3 + v 3=−q
u3 +v 3=−q

{ u3 v 3 =
p3
27

By Vieta’s formula, u3 and v3 are two roots of equation

2 p3
y +qy− =0
27

Solving this equation

3
2 4 p
∆=q +
27

If ∆ > 0 we have
3
2 4 p

y 1= √
−q+ q +
2
27 −q
=
2
+
q 2 p3
+
4 27 √
4 p3
y 2= √
−q− q 2+
2
27
=
−q
2
−
√q 2 p3
+
4 27

So y1 and y2 are value of roots u3 and v3

2 3
→ u3= −q + q + p
2 √
4 27
 q2 p3
v3 =
−q
2
− +
4 27 √
Then y = u+v

y=
√ √
3 −q
2
+
q2 p3 3 −q
+ +
4 27 2
− +
4 27√ √
q2 p3

<Vieta substitution
3. <F3p>
Starting from the depressed cubic equation y 3 + py+ q=0

p
Let y=w−
3w
p 3 p
( w−
3w ) (
+ p w−
3w
+ q=0 )
3 2 p p2 p3 p2
w −3 w +3 w − + pw− +q=0
3w 9 w2 27 w3 3w

3 p3
w + q− =0
27 w3
Multiplying by w3
3
( w3 ) +q w 3− p =0
2

27
It is sextic equation in w but quadractic equation in w3
Solve equation for w3
3
2 4 p
∆=q +
27

4 p3
w 3= √
−q ± q2 +
2
27
=
−q
2
±
√q2 p3
+
4 27
w=
√ √
3 −q
2
±
q2 p3
+
4 27

p p
If w1, w2 and w3 are the three cube roots of one of the solutions in w3, then the roots of the original depressed cubic are w 1−   , w 2−
3 w1 3 w2
p
and w 3− .
3 w3
−1 1 p p
Another way of expressing the roots is to take ξ= + √3 i ; then the roots of the original depressed cubic are w 1−  , ξ w1= and
2 2 3 w1 3 ξ w1
p
ξ 2 w1=
3 ξ2w1
This method only fails when both roots of the sextic equation are equal to 0, but this only happens when p = q = 0, in which case the only solution of
depressed cubic equation is 0.

a complex cube root of 1, i.e. a primitive third root of unity) which satisfies the relation ξ2 + ξ + 1 = 0
ξ2 + ξ = 0
ξ3 =1
i2 = –1
ξξξ
ξ
1–2

<Factorization method
4. <F4p> Solve cubic equation by Factorization method if we know one rational root

a x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d=0

If r is any root of the cubic, then we may factor out (x – r) using polynomial long division to obtain
ax3+bx2+cx+d :x – r
–ax3+arx2 ax2
-------------------
0+arx2 +bx2+cx+d
(ar+b)x2+cx+d (ar+b)x
– (ar+b)x2+(ar2+br)x
---------------------------
0+(ar2+br)x+cx+d
(ar2+br+c)x+d (ar2+br+c)
-(ar2+br+c)x+(ar3+br2+cr)
0+(ar3+br2+cr)+d

a x3 + bx2 +cx +d ( a r 3+ b r 2 +cr +d )

=a x 2 + ( ar +b ) x + ( a r 2+b r+ c ) +
x−r x−r

If r is the root of cubic equation (in this case ar3+br2+cr+d=0)

then
ax 3 +bx 2 +cx +d=( x−r ) [ a x 2 + ( ar +b ) x + ( ar 2+ br+ c ) ]=0
Solve quadratic equation to get other roots:
a x 2+ ( ar +b ) x + ( a r 2 +br +c ) =0

∆=(ar +b)2−4 a ( a r 2 +br + c ) =b 2−4 ac−2 abr−3 a2 r 2

Besides
x 1=r

we have other 2 roots x2, x3:

−b−ar + √ b2−4 ac−2abr −3 a2 r 2
x 2=
2a

−b−ar− √ b 2−4 ac−2 abr−3 a 2 r 2

x 3=
2a

1–2

<Vieta’s formula
In mathematics, Vieta’s formula are formulas that relate the coefficients of a polynomial to sums and product of its roots.

Named after François Viète (more commonly referred to by the Latinised form of his name, Franciscus Vieta), the formulas are used specifically
in algebra.
Basic formulas
Any general polynomial of degree n
P ( x ) =an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +…+ a1 x +a 0
(with the coefficients being real or complex numbers and an ≠ 0) is known by the fundamental theorem of algebra to have n (not necessarily distinct)
complex roots x1, x2, ..., xn. Vieta's formulas relate the polynomial's coefficients { ak } to signed sums and products of its roots { xi } as follows:
−an−1
x 1+ x 2 +…+ x n−1 + x n=

{
an
a
( x 1 x 2+ x 1 x3 + …+ x1 x n ) + ( x 2 x 3 + x 2 x 4 +…+ x 2 x n) + …+ x n−1 x n= an −2
n
⋮
a0
x 1 x 2 … x n=(−1 )n
an
Equivalently stated, the (n − k)th coefficient an−k is related to a signed sum of all possible subproducts of roots, taken k-at-a-time:
a
∑ x i 1 x i 2 … x ik =(−1)k an−k
1 ≤i <i <…<i ≤n
1 2 k n
for k = 1, 2, ..., n (where we wrote the indices ik in increasing order to ensure each subproduct of roots is used exactly once).
The left hand sides of Vieta's formulas are the elementary symmetric functions of the roots.

Vieta's formulas applied to quadratic and cubic polynomial:

For the second degree polynomial (quadratic) P ( x ) =a x 2+ bx+ c , roots x1, x2 of the equation P(x) = 0 satisfy

−b
x 1 + x2 =
a

c
x 1 x 2=
a

The first of these equations can be used to find the minimum (or maximum) of P. See second order polynomial.
For the cubic polynomial  P ( x ) =a x 3+ b x2 +cx + d , roots  x1, x2, x3  of the equation  P(x) = 0  satisfy
 −b
x 1 + x2 + x 3 =
a

c
x 1 x 2 + x1 x 3+ x2 x3 =
a

−d
x 1 x 2 x 3=
a

<Trigonometry

In right triangle ABC, having BC2 = AC2 + AB2 or a2 = b2 + c2 and x = ∠CBA

Sine sin x = b / a
Cosine cos x = c / a
Tangent tan x = b / c = 1 / cot x = cos x / sin x
Cotangent cot x = c / b = 1 / tan = sin x / cos x
Secant sec x= a / c = 1 / cos x
Cosecant csc x = a / b = 1 / sin x

<Trigonometric formula

sin2 x+ cos2 x=1

sin 2a = 2 sin a.cos a

cos 2 x=cos 2 x−sin 2 x=2 cos 2 x−1=1−2 sin2 x

sin (a + b) = sin a.cos b + sin b.cos a

sin (a – b) = sin a.cos b – sin b.cos a
cos (a + b) = cos a.cos b – sin a.sin b
cos (a – b) = cos a.cos b + sin a.sin b

1
sina. cosb= sin ( a+b )+ sin ( a−b )
2
 1
cosa . sinb= sin ( a+b )−sin ( a−b )
2

1
cosa . cosb= cos ( a+b ) + cos ( a−b )
2

1
sina. sinb= cos ( a−b )−cos ( a+b )
2

<proof cos2x=cos2x-sin2x
<proof cos2x=2cos2x-1
<proof cos2x=1-2sin2x
Applying cos(a + b) = cosa.cosb – sina.sinb

cos 2 x=cos ( x + x )=cosx . cosx−sinx . sinx=cos 2 x−sin2 x

Applying sin 2 x+ cos2 x=1

cos 2 x=cos 2 x−sin 2 x=2 cos 2 x−1=1−2 sin2 x

<Hyperbolic function
Hyperbolic sine
( e x −e− x )
sinh x ≡
2

sinh 0 = 0

Hyperbolic cosine
( e x +e− x )
cosh x ≡
2

cosh 0 = 1
Hyperbolic tangent:
sinhx e x −e− x e 2 x −1
tanhx ≡ = =
coshx e x +e− x e2 x +1

Hyperbolic cotangent:
coshx e x + e−x e2 x +1
cothx ≡ = =
sinhx e x −e−x e2 x −1

Hyperbolic secant:
1 2 2 ex 2e− x
sechx= = x −x = 2 x =
coshx e + e e +1 1+e−2 x

Hyperbolic cosecant:

1 2 2 ex 2 e−x
cschx = = x −x = 2x =
sechx e −e e −1 1−e−2 x

<Jacobi elliptic function

sn x
cn x
dn x

<Derivative
Derivative of a function represents an infinitesimal change in the function with respect to one of its variables.
df
The "simple" derivative of a function f with respect to a variable x is denoted as either f ’(x) or and often written in-line as df/dx.
dx
dx
When derivatives are taken with respect to time, they are often denoted using Newton’s overdot notation for fluxions = ẋ when a derivative is
dt
dn f
taken n times, the notation f(n) (x) or is used, with x˙ , x¨ , x⃛ , etc., the corresponding fluxion notation.
dx n
 ∂ f ∂2 f
When a function f (x, y, …) depends on more than one variable, a partial derivative , ,etc . can be used to specify the derivative with
∂x ∂ x∂ y
respect to one or more variables.
The derivative of a function f (x) with respect to the variable x is defined as

f ( x +h )−f (x)
f ' (x) ≡ lim
h →0 h

provided the derivative is known to exist.

Basic differentiation formulas

u = f(x), v = g(x), w = h(x) represent differentiable functions of x.
c = constant
f’ = f’(x) = df/dx

<Derivative rules
<Derivative of a constant
dc d
= ( c )=( c ) '=0
dx dx

<Derivative of constant multiple

d du
( cu ) =c
dx dx

<Derivative of sum
d du dv
( u+ v )= +
dx dx dx

d du dv dw
( u+ v+ w )= + +
dx dx dx dx

<Derivative of difference
d du dv
( u−v )= −
dx dx dx

<Product rule
d du dv
( uv )=v +u
dx dx dx
d du dv dw
( uvw ) = vw +u w+uv
dx dx dx dx

Quotient rule:
du dv
v −u
d u dx dx
dx v ()
=
v 2

5. <F5p> Prove
d 1 ax +b−a
(
dx ax +b
=) ( ax+b )2
Applying quotient rule
d d
( ax +b ) ( 1 )−(1) (ax +b)
d 1 dx dx ax+ b−a
(
dx ax +b
=) ( ax +b ) 2
=
( ax +b )2

6. <F6p> Prove
d 1 −1
dx ()
x
= 2
x
d 1 d −1
dx () = x−1= (−1 ) x−1−1=−x−2= 2
x dx x

∎
7. <F7p> Prove
d a −a
dx x ()
= 2
x

d a d 1 d 1 −1 −a
() ( )
dx x dx
= a . =a
x dx x () ( )
=a . 2 = 2
x x
∎
8. <F4p> Prove
d 1 −2
dx x ( )
2
= 3
x
d 1 d −2
( )= x−2=(−2 ) x−2−1=−2 x−3= 3
dx x 2 dx x
∎

Chain rule:
dy dy du
=
dx du dx

dy dy du dv
=
dx du dv dx

Higher derivative:
d 2 y d 2 y du 2 dy d 2 u
=
d x 2 d u 2 dx( )+
du d x 2

d 3 y d 3 y du 3 d 2 y du d 2 u dy d3 y
= ( )
d x 3 d u 3 dx
+3 2 +
d x dx d x 2 du d x3

dy
dy dt
=
dx dx
dt

dy 1
=
dx dx
dy
Simple derivatives of some simple functions follow:

d n
x =n x n−1
dx

d 1
lnx=
dx x

d x
a =(lna) ax
dx

d x x
e =e
dx

d ax
e =a . eax
dx

d
sinx=cosx
dx

d
sin ⁡( ax)=a .cos ⁡( ax)
dx

d
cosx=−sin x
dx

d
cos ( ax )=−a . sin ⁡(ax )
dx

d 1
tanx=sec 2 x = 2
dx cos x
d a
tan ⁡(ax )=a . sec 2 (ax)=
dx 2
cos ( ax)

d −1
cotx=−csc 2 x= 2
dx sin x

d −a
cot ⁡( ax)=−a . csc 2 (ax)= 2
dx sin (ax)

d
secx =secx . tanx
dx

d
cscx=−cscx . cotx
dx

d 1
( arcsinx )=
dx √ 1−x 2
d −1
( arccosx )=
dx √1−x 2
d 1
( arctanx )=
dx 1+ x 2

d −1
( arccotx )=
dx 1+ x 2

d 1
( arcsecx )=
dx x √ x 2−1

d −1
( arccscx )=
dx x √ x 2−1

d
sinhx=coshx
dx
d
sinh ( ax )=a . cosh ⁡( ax)
dx

d
coshx=sinhx
dx

d
cosh ( ax )=a . sinh ⁡( ax)
dx

d 1
tanhx=sech 2 x=
dx cosh 2 x

d −1
cothx=−csch 2 x=
dx sech 2 x

d −tanhx
sechx =−sechx .tanhx=
dx coshx

d −cothx
cschx =−cschx . cothx=
dx sinhx

d
snx =cnx .dnx
dx

d
cnx=−snx . dnx
dx

d
dnx=−k 2 snx .cnx
dx
<Derivative formula proof>

9. <F2p> Prove following equation:

d ( sin x )
2 2

e =2 x . cos x 2 . esin x
dx

Applying chain rule (1)

dy dy du dv
= . .
dx du dv dx

where:
y = f(u) = eu
u = g(v) = sinv
v = h(x) = x2
→
dy d u u
= e =e
du du

du d
= sinv=cosv
dv dv

dv v 2
= x =2 x
dx x

Replacing y, u, v into above equation (1) we have

d ( sin x ) dy du dv u
2 2

e = =e .cosv .2 x=e sin x . cos x 2 .2 x

dx d u dv dx
∎
10. <F2p> Prove following equation:

d
( sinn x )=n . sinn−1 x . cosx
dx
Let y=u n and u=sinx
dy d n
= u =n un−1
du du

du d
= sinx=cosx
dx dx
Applying chain rule:
dy dy du
= =n un −1 . cosx=n . sin n−1 x . cosx
dx du dx

d
( cos n x ) =n .sin n−1 x . cosx
dx
∎
11. <F3p> Prove following equation:

d
( cos n x ) =−n . c os n−1 x . sinx
dx
Let y=u n and u=cosx
dy d n
= u =n un−1
du du

du d
= cosx =−sinx
dx dx
Applying chain rule:
dy dy du
= =n un −1 . (−sinx )=−n . cosn −1 x . sinx
dx du dx

d
( cos n x ) =−n . cosn−1 x . sinx
dx
∎

12. <F4p> Prove following equation:

d
sin ( ax )=a . cos ⁡(ax )
dx
Let y = sin u and u = ax → dy(sin u)/du = cos u and d(ax)/dx = a
Applying chain rule:
d dy dy du
sin ( ax )= = =cosu . a=a. cos ⁡(ax )
dx dx du dx

∎
13. <F5p> Prove following equation:
d
cos ( ax )=−a . sin ⁡(ax )
dx
Let y = cos u and u = ax → dy(cos u)/du = -sin u and d(ax)/dx = a
Applying chain rule:
d dy dy du
cos ( ax )= = =−sin ( u ) .a=−a . sin ⁡(ax)
dx dx du dx

<Partial derivative

∂z
is partial derivative
∂x

dz ∂ z dx ∂ z dy
= +
dt ∂ x dt ∂ y dt

<Integral

<Definite integral
b

∫ F ( x ) dx
a

<Indefinite integral
F ( x )=∫ f ( x ) dx

<Integral by parts
14. <F6p> Prove the following equation
∫ u dv =uv−∫ v du
Applying
d du dv
( uv )=v +u
dx dx dx

Integral both sides:

∫ dxd ( uv ) dx=∫ v du
( dx
+u
dv
dx )
dx

uv=∫ v du+∫ u dv

Rearranging:
∫ u dv =u v−∫ v du
∎
15. <F7p> Prove following equation:
∫ x . cos ⁡(x ) dx=x . sin ( x )+ cos ⁡( x )
Let u = x and v = sin x → du = dx and dv = cos x.dx
Applying integral by parts:
∫ x . cos ( x ) dx=∫ u dv =uv−∫ v du=x . sin ( x )−∫ sin ⁡( x)dx=x . sin ( x )+ cos ⁡( x)
∎

<Integral by substitution
∫ f ( g( x)) g '( x )dx
Let u = g(x) → du = g’(x) dx
∫ f ( g(x) ) g '(x )dx =∫ f (u)du=F ( u ) +C=F (g ( x ) )+ C
16. <F8p> Prove following equation:
−1
∫ sin ⁡(ax )dx = a cos ⁡( ax)
Let u = ax → du/dx = a → dx = (1/a)du
Replacing them into the equation:
1 1 1 −1 1 −1
∫ sin ⁡(ax )dx =∫ sin (u ) . a du= a ∫ sin ⁡(u)du= a [−cos ( u ) +C 1 ]= a cos ( ax ) + a C 1= a cos ( ax ) +C
∎
17. <F8p> Prove following equation:
 1
∫ cos ⁡(ax) dx= a sin ⁡(ax )
Let u = ax → du/dx = a → dx = (1/a).du
Replacing them into the equation:
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ cos ⁡(ax) dx=∫ cos ( u ) . a du= a ∫ cos ⁡(u)du= a [ sin ⁡(u)+C 1 ]= a sin ( ax ) + a C 1= a sin ( ax ) +C
∎

<Basic forms
1
∫ x n dx= n+1 x n+1

1
∫ x dx=ln| x|
1 1
∫ ax +b dx= a ln|ax+ b|

<Integrals of Rational functions:

1 1
∫ ( x+ a )2 dx= x +a

n ( x+ a)n+1
∫ (x+ a) dx = n+1 , n ≠−1

(x +a)n+1 [ ( n+1 ) x−a ]

n
∫ x (x +a) dx= (n+ 1)(n+ 2)
1
∫ 1+ x 2 dx=arctan ⁡( x )
 1 1 x
∫ a2 + x 2 dx= a arctan ⁡a
x 1
∫ a2 + x 2 dx= 2 ln|a2 + x 2|

x2
∫ a2 + x 2 dx=x −a . arctan xa

x3
∫ a2 + x 2 d x= 12 x2 − 12 a2 ln |a2 + x 2|
1 2 2 x +b
∫ a x 2+ bx+ c dx= 2
arctan
√ 4 ac−b √ 4 ac−b2
1 1 a+ x
∫ ( x +a)(x +b) dx= b−a ln b+ x , a ≠ b
x a
∫ ( x +a)2 dx= a+ x + ln|a+ x|

x 1 b 2ax +b
∫ a x 2+ bx+ c dx= 2 a ln|a x 2 +bx +c|− 2
arctan
a √ 4 ac−b √ 4 ac−b 2
<Integrals with roots:
3
2
∫ √ x−a dx= 3 ( x−a)2
1
∫ √ x ± a dx=2 √ x ±a
1
∫ √ a− x dx=−2 √ a−x
 3 5

∫ x √ x −a dx= 23 a ( x−a)2 + 25 (x−a)2

∫ √ax +b dx =( 23 ba + 23x ) √ ax+b

3 5

∫ (ax +b)2 dx= 52a (ax+ b)2

x 2
∫ √ x ± a dx= 3 ( x ∓ 2a) √ x ± a

x √ x (x−a)
∫√ a− x
dx=−√ x (x−a)−a. arctan
x−a

x
∫√ a+ x
dx= √ x (a+ x)−a. ln|√ x + √ x+ a|

2
∫ x √ ax+ b dx= 15 a2 (−2b 2+ abx+3 a2 x 2) √ ax +b
1
∫ √ x (ax +b) dx= 3 [ ( 2 ax+ b ) √ ax( ax+ b)−b 2 ln|a √ x +√ a(ax +b)|]
2
4a

b b2 x b3
∫ x 3 (ax +b) dx= ( − 2 +
12 a 8 a x 3 ) √ x 3 (ax +b)+
8a
5
2
ln |a √ x + √ a( ax+b)|

1 1
∫ √ x 2 ± a2 dx= 2 x √ x 2 ± a 2 ± 2 a2 ln|x+ √ x 2 ± a2|
1 1 x
∫ √a 2−x 2 dx= 2 x √ a2−x 2+ 2 a2 arctan
√a −x 2
2

∫ x √ x 2 ± a2 dx = 13 ( x 2 ± a2 ) 2
 1
∫ 2 2
dx=ln |x+ √ x 2 ± a 2|
√x ±a

1 x
∫ dx =arcsin
2
√ a −x 2 a

x
∫ 2 2
dx= √ x 2 ± a 2
√x ±a

x
∫ 2 2
dx =−√ a2−x 2
√ a −x

x2
∫ 2 2 dx= 12 x √ x 2 ±a 2 ∓ 12 a2 ln |x + √ x2 ± a2|
√x ±a

b +2 ax 4 ac−b2
∫ √a x 2 +bx+ c dx= 4a
√ a x 2
+bx +c + 3
ln ⌈ 2 ax+ b+2 √ a(a x 2+ bx+ c) ⌉
8 a2

1
∫ x √ a x 2 +bx +c dx= 5
2 2 2 3 2
[ 2 √a √ a x + bx+ c(−3 b +2 abx+ 8 a ( c +a x ) )+3 ( b −4 abc ) ln|b+2 ax +2 √a √ a x + bx+ c|]
2
48 a

1 1
∫ 2
dx= ln |2 ax +b+2 √ a( a x 2 +bx +c )|
√ a x +bx + c √a

x 1 b
∫ dx= √ a x 2+ bx+ c− 3 ln |2 ax+ b+2 √ a(a x 2 +bx+ c)|
2
√ a x +bx + c a
2a 2
 1 x
∫ 3
dx= 2
2
(a +x )
2 2 a √ a2 + x 2

<Integrals with logarithms

∫ ln (ax )dx =x . ln ( ax )−x

ln ⁡(ax) 1
∫ dx= ¿ ¿
x 2

∫ ln ⁡(ax +b) dx=( x+ ba ) ln ( ax+ b )−x , a ≠ 0

∫ ln ⁡(x 2 +a2 )dx =x . ln ( x 2+ a2 ) +2 a . arctan ( ax )−2 x

x +a
∫ (x 2−a2 ) dx=x . ln ( x 2−a 2) + a . ln x−a −2 x

∫ ln ⁡(a x 2 +bx +c)dx= 1a √ 4 ac−b2 arctan 2 ax +b

2
−2 x +(2
b
a )
+ x ln ⁡(a x2 +bx +c )
√ 4 ac−b

b2
∫ x . ln ⁡(ax +b)dx= 2bxa − 14 x 2+ 12 ( x 2−
a2 )
ln ⁡( ax+ b)

1 a2
∫ x . ln ⁡(a 2−b2 x 2)dx= −1
2
x 2+
2 ( x 2−
b 2)ln ( a2 −b2 x 2 )

<Integrals with exponentials

1
∫ eax dx= a e ax
 x

∫ √ x e dx= 1a √ x eax + i √ π3 erf ( i √ ax ) , where erf ( x ) = √2π ∫ e−t dt

2
ax

0
2 a2

∫ x e x dx=(1−x)e x
x 1 ax
∫ x e ax dx= ( −
a a2
e
)
∫ x 2 e x dx=( x 2−2 x+ 2)e x
x 2 2 x 2 ax
∫ x 2 e ax dx=
3
( − +
a a2 a3
e )
e dx=( x −3 x +6 x−6)e x
x 3 2
∫x
x n e ax n
∫ x e dx= a − a ∫ x n−1 e ax dx
n ax

∞
n ax (−1)n
∫ x e dx= n+1
G [ 1+ n ,−ax ] , where G ( a , x ) =∫ t a−1 e−t dt
a x

∫ ea x dx= −i2 √√aπ erf ⁡(ix √ a)

2

∫ e−a x dx = 2√√πa erf ⁡( x √ a)

2

2
−1 2

∫ x e−a x dx= 2a e−a x

∫ x 2 e−a x dx= 14 π x
√
2 2

3
erf ( x √a )− e−a x
a 2a

<Integrals with trigonometric functions

18. <F10p> Prove following equation:
∫ sin ⁡(x)dx=−cos ⁡( x )
d
As cos ( x )=−sin ⁡( x) → ∫−sin ⁡(x )dx=cos ⁡( x ) → ∫ sin ⁡(x)dx=−cos ⁡( x )
dx
∎
19. <F11p> Prove following equation:
∫ cos ⁡(x )dx=sin ⁡(x )
d
As sin ( x )=cos ⁡( x) → ∫ cos ⁡(x )dx=sin ⁡(x )
dx
∎
20. <F12p> Prove
−1
∫ sin ⁡(ax )dx = a cos ⁡( ax)
Applying substitution integral, let u = ax → du = a.dx , dx = (1/a)*du
1 1 1 −1
∫ sin ⁡(ax )dx =∫ sin (u ) a du= a ∫ sin ⁡(u)du= a [−cos ⁡(u)]= a cos ⁡(ax )
∎
21. <F13p> Prove
1
∫ cos ⁡(ax) dx= a sin (ax)
Applying substitution integral, let u = ax → du = a.dx , dx = (1/a)*du
1 1 1 1
∫ cos ⁡(ax) dx=∫ cos ⁡(u) a du= a ∫ cos(u) du= a sin ⁡(u)= a sin ⁡(ax )
∎

22. <F12p> Evaluate following indefinite integral:

∫ 2 x dx
sin
Applying cos(2x) = 1 – 2sin2x
1 1
→ sin2 x= − cos ⁡(2 x)
2 2
∫ sin x dx=∫ 12 − 12 cos ⁡( 2 x ) dx=∫ 12 dx−∫ 12 cos ( 2 x ) dx= 12 ∫ dx− 12 ∫ cos ⁡(2 x)dx
2
[ ]
1
Applying substitution rule, we have ∫ cos ⁡(2 x)dx= sin ⁡(2 x )
2
1 1 1
∫ sin 2 x dx= 2 x− 2 . 2 . sin ( 2 x )
 1 1
∫ sin 2 x dx= 2 x− 4 sin ( 2 x )
∎
23. <F13p> Evaluate following indefinite integral:
∫ cos 2 x dx
Applying cos(2x) = 2cos2x – 1
1 1
→ cos 2 x= + cos ⁡(2 x)
2 2
∫ cos2 x dx=∫ 12 + 12 cos ⁡(2 x) dx=∫ 12 dx+∫ 12 cos ( 2 x ) dx= 12 ∫ dx+ 12 ∫ cos ⁡(2 x)dx
[ ]
1
Applying substitution rule, we have ∫ cos ⁡(2 x)dx= sin ⁡(2 x )
2
2 1 1 1
∫ cos x dx= 2 x + 2 . 2 . sin ( 2 x )
1 1
∫ cos2 x dx= 2 x + 4 sin ( 2 x )
∎
24. <F14p> Prove

sin ⁡(2 ax)

∫ sin 2 (ax)dx= 2x − 4a

By substitution integral, let u = ax → du = a.dx, dx = du/a

1 1
∫ sin 2 (ax)dx=∫ sin 2(u). a du= a ∫ sin2 ( u ) du
1 1
As ∫ sin 2 (u)du= 2 u− 4 sin ⁡(2u)
∫ sin 2 (ax)dx= 1a [ 1
2
1
u− sin ⁡(2u) =
4
11
a2
1 1
a 4]
ax− . sin ⁡(2 ax)

1 1
∫ sin 2 (ax)dx= 2 x− 4 sin ⁡(2 ax)
∎
25. <F15p> Prove
 sin ⁡(2 ax)
∫ cos 2 (ax )dx = x2 + 4a

By substitution integral, let u = ax → du = a.dx, dx = du/a

1 1
∫ cos2 (ax )dx =∫ cos2 (u) . a du= a ∫ cos2 ( u ) du
1 1
As ∫ cos2 (u) du= 2 u+ 4 sin ⁡(2u)
∫ cos2 (ax )dx = 1a [ 1
2
1
u+ sin ⁡(2u) =
4
11
]
a2
1 1
ax + . sin ⁡(2 ax )
a 4

1 1
∫ cos2 (ax )dx = 2 x + 4 sin ⁡(2 ax)
∎
26. <F16p> Evaluate
I n=∫ sinn ( x )dx
du d n−1 n−2 n−2
Let u=sinn−1 x → = sin x=( n−1 ) sin ( x ) . cos ( x ) → du=( n−1 ) sin ( x ) . cos ( x ) .dx
dx dx
and v = – cos(x) → dv = sin(x).dx
Integral by parts,
∫ u dv =uv−∫ v du
I n=∫ sin n (x )dx=∫ sin n−1 ( x ) . sin ⁡( x )dx=sinn−1 ( x) . ( −cos ( x ) )−∫ ¿ ¿

I n=−cos ( x ) . sinn−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ sin n−2 ( x ) . cos 2 ( x ) . dx

I n=−cos ( x ) . sin n−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ sin n−2 ( x ) . [ 1−sin 2 ( x ) ] . dx
I n=−cos ( x ) . sinn−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ [ sin n−2 ( x )−sinn (x ) ] . dx
I n=−cos ( x ) . sin n−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ sin n−2 ( x ) dx−(n−1)∫ sin n( x ) dx
I n=−cos ( x ) . sinn−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ sin n−2 ( x ) dx −( n−1 ) . I n
n . I n =−cos ( x ) .sin n−1 ( x )+ ( n−1 )∫ sin n−2 ( x ) dx
n−2
As I n−2=∫ sin ( x ) dx

n . I n =−cos ( x ) .sin n−1 ( x )+ ( n−1 ) I n−2

 −1 ( n−1 )
I n= cos ( x ) .sin n−1 ( x )+ I n−2
n n

( n−1 )
∫ sin n (x) dx= −1
n
cos ( x ) .sin n−1 ( x )+
n
∫ sin n−2 ( x ) dx
∎
<Integral by Reduction formula
27. <F17p> Evaluate
I n=∫ cos n ( x) dx
du d
Let u=cosn−1 x → = cos n−1 x=( n−1 ) cosn−2 ( x ) . (−sin ( x ) ) → du=−( n−1 ) cos n−2 ( x ) .sin ⁡( x). dx
dx dx
and v = sin(x) → dv = cos(x).dx
Integral by parts,

∫ u dv =uv−∫ v du
I n=∫ cos n ( x)dx=∫ cos n−1 ( x ) .cos ⁡(x )dx=cosn−1 (x ). sin ⁡(x )−∫ sin ⁡( x). ( n−1 ) .cos n−2 ( x ) .(−sin ( x )). dx

I n=sin ⁡( x).cos n−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ cos n−2 ( x ) . sin2 ( x ) .dx

I n=sin ⁡( x).cos n−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ cos n−2 ( x ) . [ 1−cos 2 ( x ) ] . dx
I n=sin ⁡( x).cos n−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ [ c os n−2 ( x )−cos n ( x) ] . dx
I n=sin ( x ) . cos n−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ cos n−2( x) dx−(n−1)∫ cos n ( x)dx
I n=sin ⁡( x).cos n−1 ( x ) + ( n−1 )∫ cos n−2 ( x ) dx−( n−1 ) . I n
n . I n =sin ( x ) . cosn−1 ( x )+ ( n−1 )∫ cosn−2 ( x ) dx
n−2
As I n−2=∫ cos ( x ) dx

n . I n =sin ( x ) . cosn−1 ( x )+ ( n−1 ) I n−2

1 ( n−1 )
I n= sin ( x ) .cos n−1 ( x ) + I n−2
n n

( n−1 )
∫ cos n (x )dx= 1n sin ( x ) . cosn−1 ( x ) + n
∫ cosn −2 ( x ) dx
∎
28. <F18p> Evaluate
∫ sin n (ax)dx
Applying subtitution integral, let u =ax → du/dx = a → dx = du/a
1 1
∫ sin n (ax)dx=∫ sin n ( u ) . a du= a ∫ sin n(u) du
n −1 ( n−1 )
As ∫ sin (u)dx = cos ( u ) .sin n−1 ( u ) + ∫ sinn−2 ( u ) du
n n
Therefore,
∫ sin n (ax)dx= 1a ∫ sinn (u) du= 1a −1 [ n
cos ( u ) . sin n−1 ( u )+
n−1
n
∫ sinn−2 (u) du ]
a . n∫ sinn (ax ) dx=−cos ( u ) . sin n−1 (u )+(n−1) ∫ sinn−2 ( u ) du
a . n∫ sin n (ax ) dx=−cos ( ax ) . sin n−1 ( ax ) +(n−1)∫ sin n−2 ( ax ) . adx
a . n∫ sinn (ax ) dx=−cos ( ax ) . sinn−1 ( ax ) + a(n−1)∫ sinn−2 ( a x ) dx
a . n . I n=−cos ( ax ) .sin n−1 ( ax ) +a(n−1)I n−2

(n−1)
∫ sin n (ax)dx= a−1
.n
cos ( ax ) . sinn−1 ( ax )+
n
∫ sin n−2 ( ax ) dx
∎
29. <F19p> Evaluate
∫ cosn (ax )dx
Applying subtitution integral, let u =ax → du/dx = a → dx = du/a
1 1
∫ cosn (ax ) dx=∫ cosn ( u ) . a du= a ∫ cosn (u) du
n 1 n−1 ( n−1 )
As ∫ cos (u)dx= sin ⁡(u). cos ( u ) +
n n
∫ cosn−2 ( u ) dx
Therefore,
∫ cosn (ax ) d x= 1a ∫ cosn ( u ) du= 1a 1n sin ⁡(u). cos n−1 ( u ) + n−1
[ n
∫ cosn−2 (u) du ]
a . n∫ cos n(ax) dx=sin ⁡(u). cos n−1 ( u ) +(n−1)∫ cosn−2 ( u ) du
a . n∫ cos n(ax) dx=sin ⁡(ax ). cos n−1 ( a x )+(n−1) ∫ cos n−2 ( ax ) . a .dx
a . n∫ cos n(ax) dx=sin ⁡(ax ). cos n−1 ( ax ) +a( n−1)∫ cos n−2 ( ax ) dx
a . n . I n=sin ⁡(ax ). cos n−1 ( ax ) +a (n−1)I n−2

∫ cos n (ax ) dx= a1.n sin ( ax ) . cos n−1 ( ax ) +

(n−1)
n
∫ cosn−2 (ax ) dx
∎
Integration by reduction formulae:

Let In

<Geometry

https://promotor4tech.wordpress.com/2017/03/20/mathematics-engineering-2-geometry-part-2-area-n-volume/

<Central angle

In degrees: α
In radians: θ
Converting from degree α to radian θ: θ = α*π/180
Converting from radians θ to degree α: α = θ*180/π

<Circle
r = radius of circle.
Diameter = 2r
Secant = an extended chord, a coplanar straight line cutting the circle at two points.
Tangent = a coplanar straight line that touches the circle at a single point.
Chord = a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.
Circumference = the length of one circuit along the circle, or the distance around the circle.
Disc = the region of the plane bounded by a circle, it could include circle (closed disc) or not (open disc).
Arc = any connected part of the circle.
Semicircle =
Area
A = πr2
Circumference
C = 2πr

<Sector (circular)
<Segment arc proof>
l = rθ or l = rαπ/180
Other formula:
l = 2A/r
Sector area:
r 2 θ rl
A= =
2 2

<Segment
Radius r
Segment angle θ, in radian
<Segment height proof>
Appying Pitago: (c/2)2 + (r – h)2 = r2
Multi by 4:
c2 + 4(r – h)2 = 4r2
4(r – h)2 = 4r2 – c2
1
h=r− √ 4 r 2−c 2
4
Other formula:
h = r – r*cos(α/2)
α
(
h=r 1−cos
2)
<Segment chord proof>
Appying Pitago: (c/2)2 + (r – h)2 = r2
(c/2) = r – (r – h) = r2 – (r2 – 2rh +h2) = 2rh – h2 = h(2r – h)
2 2 2

c=2 √ h(2 r −h)

<Segment radius proof>
 c 2 + 4 h2
r=
8h

<Segment area proof>

Applying that segment area = sector area – triangle area
Asegment = Asector – Atriangle

1 1 1
A= rl− c ( r−h )= [ rl−c ( r−h ) ]
2 2 2

Other formula:
Applying that segment area = sector area – triangle area
and, segment area = (πr2)*(θ/2π) = r2θ/2
Asegment = Asector – Atriangle
1 1 1
A= r 2 θ− r 2 sinθ= r 2 ( θ−sinθ )
2 2 2

<Cone

<Slant height / Lateral height

Applying Pitago
l= √r 2 +h2

Volume
Apply: Volume = (1/3)base area*height
1
V = π r2 h
3

Lateral Surface Area

A s=πr √ r 2 +h 2=πrl

Base Area
Ab =π r 2

<Total Surface Area proof>

Applying At = Ab + As
At =π r 2+ πr √ r 2 +h2=πr ( r + √ r 2 +h2 )
Other formula
At =π r 2+ πrl=πr (r +l)

<Sphere

Volume
4 π r3 π d3
V= =
3 6
Surface area
A=4 π r 2=π d 2

Radius:
3 3V A
r=
√ √
4π
=
4π

<Spherical sector

Volume
2 π r2 h 2 π r3 α
V=
3
=
3
1−cos
2 ( )
Area

c
(
A=πr 2 h+
2 )
Chord
c=2 √ h ( 2 r−h ) =2 √ dh−h2

<Spherical cap
<Volume proof>
πh 3 2 2 πh
V=
6 4 ( 6 )
c + h = ( 3 dh−2 h2 )
2
As c=2 √ dh−h → c2 = 4dh – 4h2

Other formula
Applying c=2 √ h(2 r −h)
c2 = 4[h(2r-h)] = 8rh – 4h2
πh 3 2 2 πh 3 ( πh π h2 (
V=
6 4 (
c +h =
6 4) [ ]
8 rh−4 h2 ) +h2 = ( 6 rh−2 h2 ) =
6 3
3 r−h )

π h2 (
V= 3 r−h )
3

Surface without base

c2 2 1 ( 2
Sw /o =2 πrh=π
base
4 ( 2 )
+ h = π c +4 h2 )
Surface with base
Applying: Surface = Surface without base + base
c2 1 ( 2
S=2 πrh+ π = π 8rh+ c )
4 4
<Height proof>
Appying Pitago: (c/2)2 + (r – h)2 = r2
1
h=r− √ 4 r 2−c 2
4
Other formula:
h = r – r*cos(α/2)
α
(
h=r 1−cos
2 )
Chord
c=2 √ h(2 r −h)

<Segment radius proof>

c 2 + 4 h2 h
r= =
8h α
1−cos
2

<Spherical segment

<Volume proof>
Applying chord = y as radius of crossectional area of segment which has area as a circle with radius y.
So area A = πy2
As for circle function x 2+ y 2=r 2 → y 2=r 2−x 2 and π y 2=π (r 2−x 2)
So volume V = intergral of A from h1 to h2
h2

V =∫ π ( r 2−x 2 ) dx
h1
2 1
As ∫ adx=ax +C and ∫ x dx= x 3+ C
3

1 3
[
V =π r 2 ( h2 −h1 )− ( h −h13 )
3 2 ]
3 3 2 2 3
Applying h = h2 – h1 and h2 = h + h1 and ( h+ h1 ) =h +3 h h1 +3 h h1 +h1
1 πh πh
[
V =π r 2 h− ( h3 +3 h 2 h1 +3 h h12 ) =
3
2
6
2
]6 r 2−( 2 h2+ 6 h h1+ 6 h12 ) = [ 6 r 2−2 h2−6 h h 1−6 h12 ]
2
[
2
] 6
Applying h2 = h + h1 and h2 =( h+h1 ) =h +2 h h1+ h1
h2 + h12 – h22 = – 2hh1
3h2 + 3h12 – 3h22 = – 6hh1 (Multiplying by 3)

πh πh
V= [ 6 r 2−2 h2+(3 h2 +3 h12−3 h 22 )−6 h 12 ] = (6 r 2−3 h12−3 h22+ h2)
6 6
2 2
2 c1 2 2 c2 2
Applying Pitago h1 + =r and h2 + =r
4 4

2 2

V=
πh
6 [ ( ) ( ) ]
c c
6 r 2−3 r 2− 1 −3 r 2− 2 +h2
4 4

πh 3 2 3 2 2
V= (
c + c +h
6 4 1 4 2 )
In case r1 = 0 and c1 = 0,
πh 3 2 2 πh
spherical segment become spherical cap having V =
6 4 ( 6 )
c + h = ( 3 dh−2 h2 )
<Ellipse

Area: A = πab

Volume: V = (4/3)πabc

a2 +b 2
Perimeter: P=2 π
√ 2

<Ellipse area proof>

x2 y 2
+ =1
a2 b 2

b 2 2
y=
a
√ a −x

Area A:

a
b 2 2
S=4 ∫
a
√a −x dx
0

Let x = a.sinθ
→ dx = a.cosθ.dθ
x=0→θ=0
x = π → θ = π/2
π
2
b 2 2 2
A=4 ∫
a
√ a −a sin θ acosθdθ
0
 π
2

A=4 ab∫ √ 1−sin2 θ cosθdθ

0

As cos2θ + sin2θ = 1
π π
2 2

A=4 ab∫ √cos 2 θ cosθdθ=4 ab ∫ cos 2 θdθ

0 0

As cos 2 x=2 cos2 x−1

π π
2 2
1
A=4 ab∫ ( cos 2θ+1 ) dθ=2 ab∫ ( cos 2 θ+1 ) dθ
0 2 0
Applying ∀x, sinx = 0, the result is:
π
1 π
A=2 ab [ 2 ]
sin 2θ+θ 2 =2 ab
0
( )
2
=πab

<Spheroid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + =1
a2 b 2 c2

<Volume
4
V = πabc
3

<oblate spheroid
b<a=c
<volume proof>

<oblate spheroid cap (a = c > b)

V = integral of πx2 (circle with radius x) from y = m to y = b.
Note that at y = 0 → x = a = c, at y = b → x = 0
x2 y 2 x2 y 2 2 a2 ( 2 2 )
For hyperbolic, 2 + 2 =1 → 2 + 2 =1 x = 2 b −y
a b a b b

In general, let cap have heigh h = b – m, then b = h + m, 0 ≤ h ≤ b

b
a2 ( 2 2 )
V =∫ π
m
[ b2 ]
b − y dy

b
a2 ( 2 2 )
V =π 2 ∫ b − y dy
b m

a2 2 ( 1 3
[
V =π 2 b b−m )− (b −m )
b 3
3
]
As h = b – m and m = b – h,
a2 2 1 3
{
V =π 2 b h− [ b −( b−h ) ]
b 3 }
3

As (b – h) = b – 3b2h + 3bh2 – h3
3 3

[b3 – (b – h)3]= b3 – (b3 – 3b2h + 3bh2 – h3) = 3b2h – 3bh2 + h3

a2 2 1
V =π
b [
2
2 2 3
b h− ( 3 b h−3 b h +h )
3 ]
π h2 a2
V= (3 b−h)
3 b2

TERMINOLOGY

Equals
An expression indicating values which are identical in mathematical value or logical denotation. It is given the symbol =.
Is Not Equal to
An expression indicating values which are not identical in mathematical value or logical denotation. It is given the symbol or ><, >< (computer).
Is defined as
A mathematical expression for defining a symbol or variable in mathematics. It is usually given the symbol .
Plus or Minus
While plus (+) and minus (-) are used individually to indicate addition and subtraction, this form is used to denote a control band, or tolerance band,
or error band, such as 100 ± 5 psig. It is given the symbol ±.
nth root
For any integer (n greater than one), the nth root (n√a) of a is defined as follows: n√a = b if, and only if, bn = a. The number n, in , is called the index
of the root. The nth root of a number (a) is a number (b) which has the property that the product of n values of b is a. For example, the third (or cube)
root of 8 is 2, because 2x2x2 equals 8.
Absolute Value of a
This expression represents the magnitude of a variable without regard to its sign. It signifies the distance from zero on a number line. That is, the
absolute value of -6 is 6 because -6 is 6 units from zero. Likewise, the absolute value of +6 is 6 because it, too, is 6 units from zero. It is given the
symbol A where A is any number or variable.
Sum of N values
N

∑ xi indicates the sum of numbered (indexed) values. For example, if the xi are grades for the individual students in a class, the sum of the xi
i=1
(grades) for the students in the class of N students, divided by N, gives the average grade.
Angle
An angle is a set of points consisting of two rays with a common midpoint. It is given the symbol .
Percent
An expression used to indicate a fraction of the whole, such as 50% of 90 is 45. It is given the symbol %.
Multiplied by
A mathematical operation that, at its simplest, is an abbreviated process of adding an integer to itself a specified number of times. It is given the
symbols x, · , or * (computer).
Divided by
A mathematical process that subjects a number to the operation of finding out how many times it contains another number. It is given the symbol ÷ or
/.
Greater than or equal to
It is given the symbol >, and denotes one quantity is equal to or larger than another.
Less than or equal to
It is given the symbol <, and denotes one quantity is equal to or smaller than another.
Infinity
A mathematical expression meaning very large in magnitude or distance. It is so large that it cannot be measured. It is given the symbol ∞.
Is Proportional to
The statement that a is proportional to b (a ∝ b) means that a = (some constant) x b. For example, the dollars you earn in a week (straight rate) are
proportional to the hours you work, with the constant being the dollars per hour you earn.
Approximately Equal to
An expression indicating a value which is not exact, but rather close to the value. It is given the symbol ≈.
Perpendicular to
This expression means that two objects are at right angles (form a 90-degree angle) to each other. It is given the symbol ⊥.
Parallel to
Two lines extending in the same direction which are everywhere equidistant and not meeting. It is given the symbol ∥ .

Parentheses
Left parentheses (
Right parentheses )
Odd number
Even number
Whole number

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK

MATHEMATICS
Volume 1 of 2
Module 1
Review of introductory mathematics

<Basis arithmetic operations

Fours:

<Addition
<Subtraction
<Multiplication
<Division

<Adding whole numbers

When numbers are added, the result is called the sum. The numbers added are called addends.
Example: Add the whole numbers 2 and 3.
Starting at zero, we first move two places to the right on the number line to represent the number 2. We then move an additional 3 places to the right
to represent the addition of the number 3. The result corresponds to the position 5 on the number line. Using this very basic approach we can see that
2 + 3 = 5. Two rules govern the addition of whole numbers:
<Commutative law for addition
The commutative law for addition states that two numbers may be added in either order and the result is the same sum. In equation form we have
a+b=b+a
<Associative law for addition
The associative law for addition states that addends may be associated or combined in any order and will result in the same sum. In equation form we
have:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

When several numbers are added together, it is easier to arrange the numbers in columns with the place positions lined up above each other. First, the
units column is added. After the units column is added, the number of tens is carried over and added to the numbers in the tens column. Any
hundreds number is then added to the hundreds column and so on.
Example:
Add 345, 25, 1458, and 6.
Solution:
345
25
1458
+ 6
------
1834
When adding the units column, 5 + 5 + 8 + 6 = 24. A 4 is placed under the units column, and a 2 is added to the tens column.
Then, 2 + 4 + 2 + 5 = 13. A 3 is placed under the tens column and a 1 is carried over to the hundreds column. The hundreds column is added as
follows: 1 + 3 + 4 = 8.
An 8 is placed under the hundreds column with nothing to carry over to the thousands column, so the thousands column is 1. The 1 is placed under
the thousands column, and the sum is 1834. To verify the sum, the numbers should be added in reverse order. In the above example, the numbers
should be added from the bottom to the top.

<Subtracting whole numbers

When numbers are subtracted, the result is called the remainder or difference. The number subtracted is called the subtrahend; the number from
which the subtrahend is subtracted is called the minuend. Subtraction is indicated by the minus sign (−).
86 Minuend
–34 Subtrahend
------
52 Remainder or Difference
Unlike addition, the subtraction process is neither associative nor commutative. The commutative law for addition permitted reversing the order of
the addends without changing the sum. In subtraction, the subtrahend and minuend cannot be reversed.
a−b≠ b−a

Thus, the difference of 5 − 3 is not the same as 3 − 5. The associative law for addition permitted combining addends in any order. In subtraction, this
is not allowed.
(a − b) – c ≠ a − (b − c)
Example: (10 − 5) – 1 ≠ 10 − (5 − 1)
4≠6
When subtracting two numbers, the subtrahend is placed under the minuend with the digits arranged in columns placing the units place under the
units place, the tens column next, and so on.
Example:
Subtract 32 from 54.
Solution:
54
− 32
-----
22
Whenever the digit in the subtrahend is larger than the digit in the minuend in the same column, one place value is borrowed from the next digit to
the left in the minuend. Refer to the following example.
Example:
Subtract 78 from 136.
Solution:
2
1 ̷36
−78
-----
58
When subtracting the units column, 6 − 8, a 10 is borrowed from the tens column. This now makes subtracting the units column 16 − 8. An 8 is
placed under the units column. Next the tens column is subtracted.
A 10 was borrowed from the tens column and now 7 is subtracted from 12, not 13. This yields: 12 − 7 = 5. The 5 is placed under the tens column and
the difference is 58.
This can be done for any subtraction formula. When the digit in the subtrahend column is larger than the digit in the minuend in the same column, a
number from the next higher place position column is "borrowed." This reduces the higher position column by one.

Subtraction can be verified by adding the difference to the subtrahend, which should result in the minuend.

<Multiplying whole number

Multiplication is the process of counting a number two or more times. It can be considered a shortened form of addition. Thus, to add the number 4
three times, 4 + 4 + 4, we can use multiplication terms, that is, 4 multiplied by 3. When numbers are multiplied, the result is called the product. The
numbers multiplied are called factors. One factor is called the multiplicand; the other is called the multiplier. Multiplication is indicated by the times
or multiplication sign (x), by a raised dot ( ), or by an asterisk (*).
9 Multiplicand
x4 x Multiplier
------
36 Product
In multiplying several numbers, the same product is obtained even if the numbers are multiplied
in a different order or even if some of the numbers are multiplied together before the final
multiplication is made. These properties are called the commutative and associative laws for
multiplication.
<Commutative law for multiplication
The commutative law for multiplication states that numbers can be multiplied in any order, and the result is the same product. In equation form
axb=bxa
Thus, the product of 8 x 3 is the same as 3 x 8.
<Associative law for multiplication
The associative law for multiplication states that factors can be associated in any order,
and the result is the same product. In equation form:
a x (b x c) = (a x b) x c
Thus, the numbers 2, 3, and 5 can be multiplied by first multiplying 2 x 3 to equal 6 and then multiplying 6 x 5 to equal 30. The equation may also be
solved by first multiplying 3 x 5 to equal 15, and then multiplying 15 x 2 to equal 30. In either case, the product is 30.
In multiplying two numbers, one number is placed under the other with the digits arranged in columns placing units under the units place, tens under
the tens place, and so on. Usually, the larger number is considered the multiplicand and the smaller number is considered the multiplier. The digit in
the units place of the multiplier is multiplied first, the digit in the tens place of the multiplier next, and so on.
Example 1:
Multiply 432 by 8.
Solution:
432
× 8
-------
3,456
In multiplying the multiplier in the units column to the multiplicand, 8 x 2 = 16. A 6 is placed under the units column, and 1 ten is carried. Then, 8 x
3 = 24, plus the 1 carried over equals 25.
A 5 is placed under the tens column, and 2 hundreds are carried over. Next, 8 x 4 = 32, plus 2 carried over, equals 34. A 4 is placed under the
hundreds column and a 3 under the thousands column.
Example 2:
What is the product of 176 x 59?
Solution:
 176
x 59
--------
1584 Multiplication by 9
880 Multiplication by 50
---------
10384
Start by multiplying the digit in the units place of the multiplier, 9 x 6 = 54. A 4 is placed under the units column, and 5 tens are carried over.
Next, 9 x 7 = 63, plus the 5 carried over, equals 68. An 8 is placed under the tens column, and 6 hundreds are carried over. Then, 9 x 1 = 9, plus 6
carried over, equals 15. A 5 is placed under the hundreds column and a 1 under the thousands column.
The digit in the tens place of the multiplier is multiplied now: 5 x 6 = 30. Since the 5 in 59 is in the tens column, the zero is placed under the tens
column, and 3 tens are carried over. Next, 5 x 7 = 35, plus the 3 carried over, equals 38. An 8 is placed under the hundreds column, and 3 hundreds
are carried over.
Then, 5 x 1 = 5, plus 3 carried over, equals 8. An 8 is placed under the thousands column. The results of 176 multiplied by 9 and 50 are then added to
give the final product.

<Dividing whole number

Division is the process of determining how many times one number is contained in another number. When numbers are divided, the result is the
quotient and a remainder. The remainder is what remains after division. The number divided by another number is called the dividend; the number
divided into the dividend is called the divisor. Division is indicated by any of the following:
a division sign (÷)
a division sign ( )¯¯ )
a horizontal line with the dividend above the line and the divisor below the line ¿¿
( )
a slanting line a/b meaning a divided by b
Thus, the relationship between the dividend, divisor, and quotient is as shown below:
37 Dividend
÷4 Divisor
-----
9 Quotient
1 Remainder

Unlike multiplication, the division process is neither associative nor commutative. The commutative law for multiplication permitted reversing the
order of the factors without changing the product. In division the dividend and divisor cannot be reversed.
Using the equation form:
a÷b≠ b÷a (1-6)
For example, the quotient of 18 ÷ 6 is not the same as the quotient of 6 ÷ 18. 18 divided by 6 equals 3; 6 divided by 18 equals 0.33.
The associative law for multiplication permitted multiplication of factors in any order. In division, this is not allowed.
(a ÷ b) ÷ c ≠a ÷ (b ÷ c)
Example: (8 ÷ 4) ÷ 2 8 ÷ (4÷2)
1 4
When dividing two numbers, the divisor and dividend are lined up horizontally with the divisor to the left of the dividend. Division starts from the
left of the dividend and the quotient is written on a line above the dividend.
Example 1:
Divide 347 by 5.
Solution:

Starting from the left of the dividend, the divisor is divided into the first digit or set of digits it divides into. In this case, 5 is divided into 34; the
result is 6, which is placed above the 4.
This result (6) is then multiplied by the divisor, and the product is subtracted from the set of digits in the dividend first selected. 6 x 5 equals 30; 30
subtracted from 34 equals 4.
The next digit to the right in the dividend is then brought down, and the divisor is divided into this number. In this case, the 7 is brought down, and 5
is divided into 47; the result is 9, which is placed above the 7.
Again, this result is multiplied by the divisor, and the product is subtracted from the last number used for division. 9 x 5 equals 45; 45 subtracted
from 47 equals 2. This process is repeated until all of the digits in the dividend have been brought down. In this case, there are no more digits in the
dividend. The result of the last subtraction is the remainder. The number placed above the dividend is the quotient. In this case, 347 ÷ 5 yields a
quotient of 69 with a remainder of 2.

Example 2:
Divide 738 by 83.
Solution:
Example 3:
Divide 6409 by 28.
Solution:

Division can be verified by multiplying the quotient by the divisor and adding the remainder. The result should be the dividend. Using Example 3,
multiply 228 by 28 to check the quotient.
228
x 28
--------
1824
456
--------
6384 Product
+ 25 Remainder of 25
--------
6409

<Hierarchy of mathematical operations

Mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are usually performed in a certain order or sequence. Typically,
multiplication and division operations are done prior to addition and subtraction operations. In addition, mathematical operations are also generally
performed from left to right using this hierarchy. The use of parentheses is also common to set apart operations that should be performed in a
particular sequence.
Example:
Perform the following mathematical operations to solve for the correct answer:
6+2
( 2+3 ) + ( 2 x 4 ) + =¿
2
Solution:
a. Mathematical operations are typically performed going from left to right within an equation and within sets of parentheses.
b. Perform all math operations within the sets of parentheses first.
2+3=5
2x4=8
6+2 8
= =4 Note that the addition of 6 and 2 was performed prior to dividing by 2.
2 2
c. Perform all math operations outside of the parentheses. In this case, add from left to right.
5 + 8 + 4 = 17
Example:
Solve the following equation:
(4 - 2) + (3 x 4) - (10 ÷ 5) - 6 = ______
Solution:
a. Perform math operations inside each set of parentheses.
4−2=2
3 x 4 = 12
10 ÷ 5 = 2
b. Perform addition and subtraction operations from left to right.
c. The final answer is 2 + 12 − 2 − 6 = 6
There may be cases where several operations will be performed within multiple sets of parentheses. In these cases you must perform all operations
within the innermost set of parentheses and work outward. You must continue to observe the hierarchical rules through out the problem. Additional
sets of parentheses may be indicated by brackets, [ ].
Example:
Solve the following equation:
[2 ( 3 + 5) - 5 + 2] x 3 = ______
Solution:
a. Perform operations in the innermost set of parentheses.
3+5=8
b. Rewriting the equation:
[2 · 8 − 5 + 2] x 3 =
c. Perform multiplication prior to addition and subtraction within the brackets.
[16 − 5 + 2] x 3 =
[11 + 2] x 3 =
[13] x 3 =
d. Perform multiplication outside the brackets.
13 x 3 = 39
Example:
Solve the following equation:
5 + [2 (3 + 1) - 1] x 2 = _____
Solution:
5 + [2 (4) − 1] x 2 =
5 + [8 − 1] x 2 =
5 + [7] x 2 =
5 + 14 = 19
Example:
Solve the following equation:
[(10 − 4) ÷ 3] + [4 x (5 − 3)] = _____
Solution:
[(6) ÷ 3] + [4 x (2)] =
[2] + [8] =
2 + 8 = 10

MA-01 Page 10 Rev. 0

Review of Introductory Mathematics FOUR BASIC ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS