ASSIGNMENT

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY- II

SUBMITTED BY:- SUBMITTED TO:-

Vinod Thakur Dr. P. Sudhakar Rao
ROLL NO. 192206 Assistant Professor
M.TECH (MT) NITTTR, Chandigarh
NITTTR, Chandigarh
 PART-I

Q.1 When may it be necessary to exceed the optimum cutting speed?

Sol:- As the softness of the material decreases, the cutting speed increases.
Additionally, as the cutting tool material becomes stronger, the cutting
speed increases. Cutting speed is always expressed in meters per minute
(m/min) or in feet per minute (ft/min.). High cutting speed is required in
following cases, which are given below.
Increased machining accuracy.
As the cutting speed increases, the cutting force decreases due to a
phenomenon called thixotropy – or the property of a material to be “work
softened” due to the shear strain imparted on it by the tool’s cutting edge,
and then to revert back to the original hardness properties once the cutting
process is complete. This property is particularly true for aluminium alloys,
which makes aluminium an ideal candidate for high speed cutting
processes.
Improvements in surface finish.
In a high-speed cutting process, the chip load is evacuated at such a high
rate that the majority (approximately 60%) this friction-based heat does
not have sufficient time to conduct into the surrounding workpiece or to
the tool itself. As a result, the machined surface finish exhibits superior
quality with an appreciable reduction in temperature induced workpiece
degradation
Reduced bur formation.
Based on studies focused on high speed machining best practices, a notable
decrease in bur formation is observed once a sufficiently high cutting speed
has been achieved. This reduction in bur formation is a function of both the
cutting speed itself but also proper geometric design of the cutting edge.
Improved Chip Evacuation.
With a cutting speed in excess of 500 m/min, and a cutting tool optimized
to evacuate a large volume of chips in a short period of time, the resulting
chip load can be ejected from the processing area with a high velocity,
greatly reducing the possibility of re-machining of chips or damage to the
work piece due to an abundance of residual chips.

Q.2 Is there a drawback for machining very slowly?

Sol:- Yes ,there are number of drawbacks if machining is done at slow rate,
all these are listed below:-
 Increase friction and thus increase in temperature of workpiece, thus
work piece subjected to residual stresses.
  Low cutting speed favour BUE (built up edge) formation, which also
affect surface finish as chips will fall on machined surface.
 Slow rate of machining will also affect production quantity.
 Machining depends upon the types of material get machined
generally ductile material require fast machining then brittle one.

Q.3 Define formability. What will be the hardness ratio for formability
at low cutting speeds?

Sol:-Formability is the ability of a given metal workpiece to undergo plastic

deformation without being damaged. The plastic deformation capacity
of metallic materials, however, is limited to a certain extent, at which point,
the material could experience tearing or fracture (breakage).
Formability refers to the ability of sheet metal to be formed into a desired
shape without necking or cracking. Necking is localized thinning of the
metal that is greater than the thinning of the surrounding metal. Necking
precedes cracking. Finally, the formability of a metal also depends on the
state of stress on a metal during forming. Formability refers to the ease
with which a material can be formed while satisfying quality requirements.
In effect, it refers to a material's ability to undergo plastic deformation.
Therefore, as already mentioned, ductile materials tend to be more suited
for forming processes. However, two major factors affect the formability of
a material. As already mentioned, heat is often used in forming processes,
that is, hot rolling. This is because many materials have good formability at
elevated temperatures, but poor formability at room temperatures.
Therefore, the first major influence on formability is the temperature at
which forming is undertaken.
Q.4 Write the relation between tool life and nose radius.
Sol:- In order to avoid catastrophic failure of tool tip, a tiny rounding or
small radius is provided there, which is known as nose radius. The radius
value for conventional single point turning tool (SPTT) usually ranges
between 0.6 – 1.5mm. For precision tools, this nose radius value may be
very small in the range of few microns only. The nose radius improves tool
life and surface finish.
A relationship between cutting speed, tool life and nose radius is
given below:
VT0.09 = 300R0.25
Where, R = Nose radius (for H.S.S. tool cutting SAE-2346 steel)

T= Tool life (min)

V = Cutting speed (m/min)

(i) There is an optimum value of nose radius at which the tool life is
maximum.

(ii) If the radius exceeds optimum value, the tool life decreases.

(iii) Larger radius means larger area of contact between the tool and
workpiece. Due to which more frictional heat is generated, results in
increased cutting force. Due to which the workpiece may starts, vibrating,
hence if rigidity is not very high, brittle tools (carbides and ceramics) will
fail due to chipping of cutting edge.

Q.5 What two important functions does the nose radius serve on a
cutting tool.

Sol: - (i) A larger nose radius is stronger than a tool with a smaller radius.
The larger radius tool will be better able to resist mechanical failure
(chipping or breaking). The larger radius will also provide a better finish
for a given feed rate or allow you to increase feed and still achieve the
desired finish.
(ii) Absorbs and distributes shock during impact loading in machining.
Prevents tool tip from sudden unplanned breakage. Offers a small
amount of rubbing between flank surface and machined surface, which
leads to better finish of the machined surface.

Q.6 What are the three main types of wear that occur on a cutting tool.

Sol: - Tool wear is common phenomenon is metal cutting. Before discussing

about tool wear, we should learn about how a tool fails. The cutting tools
fail due to following three conditions.

The first two wear breakage wear and wear due to plastic deformation are
very harmful for both machine and work piece. So, it should be totally
eliminated by using favourable condition and taking high factor of safety.
Gradual wear can’t be totally eliminated but can be reduce. Today we will
discuss about this wear causes, mechanism, types like flank wear, crater
wear, nose wear, favourable condition etc. Generally, tools are made by
hard and brittle material. It cuts material by plastic deformation.
When sharp edge tool rubs over the work piece, shear off some material
and give desire shape of work piece. Due to this rubbing and many other
mechanism tools also worn out, which is known as tool wear. Every tool
has specified tool life which is depends on its material, work piece material,
cutting conditions etc. Today we will discuss all about these.

Flank wear:
Flank wear is due to abrasive action of discontinuities like debris from built
up edge etc. It wears out side and end flank of the tool. It is occurred at tool
work-piece interface. This wear predominates at low speed.
Crater wear:
Crater wear generally occur in machining ductile material due to abrasion
and diffusion of metal at face of tool. It is occurred at face at a short
distance from cutting edge. This wear predominates at high speed.

Nose wear:
Nose wear are considered as separate part of wear. It wears out the tool
corner. It is the matting part of flank and face which is combination effect of
crater wear and flank wear. It is considered as separate wear because the
tool corners are very important for proper cutting of work-piece.
Tool wear can be reduced by proper cooling and lubricate because the
major cause of tool wear is friction and temperature rise due to friction.
Lubricate reduce friction between chips and tool which reduce tool wear
tool. It can also be reduced by using high hardness and abrasion resistance
tool and high resistance to adhesion and diffusion.

Q.7 How can tool failure due to excessive stress in cutting brittle
materials be minimized.
Sol: -
(i) Brittle material
has smaller amount of
chip flow and are very
strong. As negative
back angle tool is very
strong, hence these
are used for
machining of brittle
and hard material.
(ii) Using coated
cutting tools increase
tool life.
(iii) Must have high
hot hardness also
reduced tool failure.
(iv) Tool material must have low coefficient of friction. So that the heat
generated will be lower, and tool life increases.

Q.8 Why would you expect crater wear to be greater at higher cutting
speeds.
Sol: - Crater wear is usually found while machining brittle materials and
tungsten carbide tools favour this phenomenon. Crater wear occurs on the
rake face of the tool, while flank wear occurs on the relief (flank) face of the
 tool. Flank wear is due to
the abrasive action and
crater wear is due to
diffusion of metals.
Tool wear at low cutting
speeds is predominantly
influenced by rounding-off
of the cutting point and
subsequently loses
sharpness. As the cutting
speed increases, the wear-land pattern alters to accommodate the resulting
change with extremely high values leading to plastic flow at the cutting
point. At slow cutting speeds, adhesion and abrasion are the main wear
mechanisms. Abrasion and chemical wear are essential at high cutting
speeds, especially in continuous chip formation. The rake face affected
by cutting temperatures and high shear stresses results in the crater
wear some distance away from the tool edge, which can be quantified by
depth of cut and cross-sectional area.

Q.9 At what point does the minimum cost for machining occurs.

Sol:- Since machining and tool costs vary with the speed of operation, a minimum
total cost occurs at a definite set of conditions for material, tooling and operating
speed. Purchasing improved tools is one way to move the machining cost, and total
cost per piece curves to the right and down, as is adding coatings, improved
metalworking fluids and their delivery, and so on.
As long as the gain in speed and the drop-in cost for production are larger
than the cost of the improved tooling or other process improvements, you
can improve or further optimize the economics of your production.
An increase in cutting speed generally reduce machining time therefore
reduce machining cost, but it takes place on the account of reduced tool
life. Which increase tool, tool change cost. The total cost per operation is
comprised of four individual costs: machining costs, tool costs, tool-
changing costs, and handling costs.
The machining cost is observed to decrease with increasing cutting speed
because the cutting time decreases. Cutting time is proportional
to the machining costs. Both the tool costs and the tool-changing costs
increase with increases in cutting speeds.
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4
= Machining cost + tooling cost + tool-changing cost + handling cost per
piece.

Note that the cutting-tool cost per piece is three times higher for the low-
force groove tool over the carbide but really of no consequence, since the
major cost per piece comes from two sources: the machining cost per piece
and the non-productive cost per piece.

Q.10 How is the energy in a machining process typically consumed.

Sol: - The energy in a machining process is typically consumed with 30-

40% going into friction, and 60-70% going into the shear process.
i. Fc: Primary cutting force acting in the direction of the cutting velocity
vector. This force is generally the largest force and accounts for 99%
of the power required by the process.
ii. Ff: Feed force acting in the direction of the tool feed. This force is
usually about 50% of Fc but accounts for only a small percentage of
the power required because feed rates are usually small compared to
cutting speeds.
iii. Fr : radial or thrust force acting perpendicular to the machined
surface. This force is typically about 50% of Fr and contributes very
little to power requirements because velocity in the radial direction
is negligible.
Q.11 Which of the three forces in oblique cutting consumes most of
the power.
Sol:- The cutting force (R) in oblique cutting can be resolved into three
mutually perpendicular directions, as given below:-

(a) In the direction of feed of the tool (Fd):

It is the horizontal components of the cutting force. It is also called Feed
Force (Fd).
(b) In the direction perpendicular to feed direction (Fr):
It is in the radial direction, i.e., in the direction perpendicular to the
generated surface. It may be considered due to the reaction between the
tool and the workpiece. It is also called thrust force and is represented by
(Fr).
(c) In vertical direction (FC):
It is vertical component of the cutting force. It is the main cutting force. It is
represented by (FC).

Q.12 What is meant by the statement “tool life is a random variable”.

Sol:- Tool life varies from tool to tool even when the tools are being used
under identical conditions. Lifetime is a random variable, whether we are
talking about tools, people, tires, or light bulbs. The random variable nature
of tool life means that predicting tool death will be very difficult.
Q.13 Name the techniques used for measuring tool wear.

Sol:-Machine vision system (MVS) used for the direct measurement of

flank wear of carbide cutting tool inserts. This system consists of a digital
camera to capture the tool wear image, a good light source to illuminate the
tool, and a computer for image processing. The vision system extracts tool
wear parameters such as average tool wear width, tool wear area, and tool
wear perimeter.
 Ferrography is a technique that is based upon the systematic
collection of oil samples from an oil-lubricated machine. The method
identifies, isolates, and classifies wear particles from machine parts.
A magnetic field is used to sort the wear particles in flowing oil.

 White light interferometry.

 stereo vision technique.

Q.14 Identify the cutting forces involved in a cutting operation. which

force contributes to the power required.
Sol: -

 Tangential or main component, Pz

 P = ts τ (ζ – tanγ + 1)
Z o s o
 Axial force, P and transverse force, P
X Y
P = ts τ (ζ - tanγ – 1)sinφ
X o s o
P = ts τ (ζ - tanγ – 1) cosφ
Y o s o
 Friction force, F, normal force, N and apparent coefficient of friction μ
a
 Shear force P and P
s n
 The power required in a cutting operation is equal to the cutting force
multiplied by the cutting speed.
= hp
Q.15 What is the draw back to a large wear land.

Sol:- Wear on the flank (relief) face is called flank wear and results in the
formation of a wear land. Wear land formation is not always uniform along
the major and minor cutting edges of the tool. Flank wear characterised by
wear land (or Height) h of wear band.

The major drawbacks would be:

(a) As the wear land increases, the wear flat will rub against the machined
surface and thus
temperature will increase due to friction.
(b) Dimensional control will become difficult and surface damage may
result.
(c) Some burnishing may also take place on the machined surface, leading
to residual stresses.
and temperature rise.
(d) Cutting forces will increase.
 PART-II
Q1. How the shaping of cutting forces can be ANALYSED. Explain them
with neat sketches.
Sol:- In metal cutting, a cutting tool is used to remove excess material from
a work piece in order to convert the remaining material into the desired
part shape. Proper selection of tool materials, cutting parameters, and tool
geometry and machine tools is essential to produce high-quality products
at low cost.

Therefore, many attempts have been made to reduce cost and improve
quality through the understanding of the cutting process. A
considerable amount of these investigations has been directed towards the
measurement and prediction of the cutting forces during machining. That is
because, knowledge of the cutting forces is important as they have a direct
influence on the generation of heat, and thus on tool wear, quality of
machined surface and accuracy of work piece.They are also used in the
design of machine tools, cutting tools and fixtures.
Due to the complex tool configurations/cutting conditions of metal cutting
operations and some Unknown factors/stresses, theoretical cutting force
calculations failed to produce accurate results and therefore experimental
measurement of the cutting forces became unavoidable. In the literature,
there are many studies concerning the cutting force measurement.
Many dynamometers have been developed for this purpose. However,
these are mainly for turning and milling operations.
No work dealing with the measurement of the cutting forces during
machining with linear motion as in shaping has been reported in the
literature. Although shaping is one of the oldest single point machining
processes and it has largely been replaced by milling and broaching.

Q2. Which are the suitable tool failure criteria that are generally
practiced in industries? Explain your answers with examples.
Sol:- The following points highlight the three main factors responsible for
failure of tools in the industries. The factors are:
1. Temperature Failure.
2. Rupture of Tool Point.
3. Gradual Wear at the Tool Point.

Temperature Failure:
During machining at high speeds, very high temperature exists at tool chip
interface. When temperature exceeds the critical limit, the tool point gets
softened. Due to this high temperature, localised phase transformation
occurs. This gives rise to high residual stresses due to which cracks appear
in the tool point and in such a state, it is more prone to failure.
In some cases tool point might even melt. This type of failure occurs quite
rapidly, and is frequently accompanied by sparking and is easily
recognised. Large nose radii result in smaller stresses at the tool point and
less failure.

Rupture of Tool Point:

 At slow speeds, built up edge is formed on the tool. When it grows too
much, it is unstable and breaks away with the underside of the chip, taking
away a small portion of tool with it. This is so with brittle tool materials,
like carbides. This problem can be overcome by increasing the cutting
speed.

Gradual Wear at the Tool Point:

Wear means any process by which material is removed from the tool
surface in the form of very small particles. Depending on the environmental
conditions, wear could occur due to abrasion, adhesion with material
transfer at asperities, corrosion with removal of product by chemical
action.
Cutting speed is measured by the maximum speed at which a tool can
provide satisfactory performance for a specified time under specified
conditions. See ASTM standard E 618-81: “Evaluating machining
performance of ferrous metals using an automatic screw bar machine.”

Machinability is defined by the relative cutting speed for a given tool life
while cutting some material, compared to a standard material cut with the
same tool material. As shown in Figure, tool life curves are used to develop
machinability ratings. In steels, the material chosen for the standard
material was B1112 steel, which has a tool life of 60 min at a cutting speed
of 100 sfpm. Material X has a 70% rating, which implies that steel X has a
cutting speed of 70% of B1112 for equal tool life. Note that this definition
assumes that the tool fails when machining X by whatever mechanism
dominated the tool failure when machining the B1112. There is no
guarantee that this will be the case. ISO standard 3685 has machinability
index numbers based on 30 min of tool life with flank wear of 0.33 mm.

Q3. Show the shear plane angle φ is expressed as tanφ = r cosα / 1-

rsinα.
Sol:-
Q4. From Merchants circle diagram prove that for max shear stress
φ=π/4-(β-α)/2.
Sol:-
Q5. From Merchants circle diagram prove that minimum energy.
Fc min =2τAoCos (β-α)/1+Sin (β-α).
Sol:-
 Using geometric relations, we, get following equation.
Fc min =2τAoCos (β-α)/1+Sin (β-α).

Q6. Derive the relationship for the minimum cost cutting speed in
single point turning of a cylindrical work piece.
Sol:- Now-a-days the primary goal of industries is to manufacture the product at
a faster rate but at minimal cost and that too without sacrificing product quality.
As long as conventional machining is utilized, in order to fulfill first requirement
(faster production rate), the cutting speed and feed rate should have to be
increased. However, this may lead to reduced cutting tool life due to faster wear
rate and higher heat generation. Hence, cutting tool is required to change
frequently, which will ultimately impose a loss for the industry as a result of idle
time for changing tools. Cost of tool is also not negligible. Therefore abrupt
increase of cutting speed and feed rate is not a feasible solution; rather, an
optimization is necessary.
Basically overall or total machining time (Tm) is the summation of three different
time elements closely associated with the machining or metal cutting process.
These three elements include—actual cutting time (Tc), total tool changing time
(Tct) and other handling or idle time (Ti). Mathematically, total time for
machining (Tm) can be expressed as follows. You can learn more about these time
elements: Economics of machining – cutting time, tool changing time & idle time.

Tm = T c + Tct + Ti

Q7. Derive the relationship for the max production cutting speed in
single point turning of a cylindrical work piece.
Sol:- Machining or metal cutting is one important aspect of the production
system. Ultimate objecting of machining is to give intended shape, size and finish
by gradually removing material from workpiece. Relevant steps such as removal
of material, setting the job and cutting tool, and dispatching the machined job
consume substantial amount of time, which are at least not negligible. For
effective planning of the entire production, overall machining or cutting time
must be incorporated.
Basically overall or total machining time (Tm) is the summation of three different
time elements closely associated with the machining or metal cutting process.
These three elements include—actual cutting time (Tc), total tool changing time
(Tct) and other handling or idle time (Ti). Mathematically, total time for
machining (Tm) can be expressed as follows. You can learn more about these time
elements: Economics of machining – cutting time, tool changing time & idle time.
Tm = Tc + Tct + Ti