COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Prof. Oscar Reyes – Universidad Industrial de Santander

DISCLAIMER
This presentation is meant for educational purposes only. It is based
on the books: “Principles of Electronic Communication Systems”,
3rd Ed. 2007, by Louis E. Frenzel, Jr. McGraw-Hill, and
“Communication Systems”, by Simon Haykin.
4th Ed. 2001, Wiley.
 O. Reyes

LESSON 13

Baseband Transmission: Pulse Modulations

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Pulse spectrum analysis

= 𝐴𝜏 ⋅ sinc 𝜏𝑓
𝐴 𝐴𝜏

𝜏 ℱ
2 1 1 2 3
− − 𝑓
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏

∞
𝐴𝜏
𝑔𝑇𝜏 (𝑡) ℱ 𝑔𝑇𝜏 =
𝑇
𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑘𝑓)sinc 𝜏𝑓
𝑘=−∞
𝐴𝜏
𝐴 𝑇

𝜏
ℱ
1 𝑓
𝑇= 1
𝑓0 𝑓0 =
𝑇
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Pulse spectrum analysis

Ideal pulse

2𝐵

𝑡 𝑓
Filtered pulse

1
𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 =
𝐵

𝑡 𝑓
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Pulse Modulation
There are four basic forms of pulse modulation:

1. Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)

2. Pulse-width modulation (PWM)
3. Pulse-position modulation (PPM)
4. Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
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Pulse Modulation
1
Samples Bits Sampling time 𝑇𝑠 = 2𝑡𝑏 =
1 𝑓𝑠
Sampling time 𝑇𝑠 =
𝑓𝑠
Analog Digital 0010111110010100011011
input 𝑇𝑠 input 𝑡𝑏

𝑡 𝑡
Constant width, varying amplitude pulses Constant width, varying discrete amplitude pulses
𝜏 𝜏
11
10
PAM 𝑇𝑠 D-PAM 𝑇𝑠
01
00
𝑡 𝑡
Constant amplitude, varying width pulses Constant amplitude, varying discrete width pulses

PWM 𝑡 D-PWM 𝑡

PPM 𝑡 D-PPM 𝑡
Constant amplitude, varying position pulses Constant amplitude, varying discrete position pulses
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Pulse Modulation
Comparing Pulse-Modulation Methods
• The PAM signal is a series of constant-width pulses whose amplitudes vary in accordance
with the analog signal.
• The PWM signal is binary in amplitude (has only two levels). The information signal varies
the width or time duration of the pulse.
• In PPM, the pulses change position according to the amplitude of the analog signal.
• Of the four types of pulse modulation, PAM is the simplest and least expensive to
implement.

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Natural sampling
𝑥(𝑡)

𝑐(𝑡)
𝐴−
𝜏
𝑡

𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑐(𝑡)

𝑡
1
𝑇=
𝑓0
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Natural sampling
𝑋 𝑓
1

−𝐵 0 𝐵 𝑓

𝑋𝑠 𝑓
𝜏 𝐴𝜏
Example: 𝑓𝑠 = 4𝐵 𝐴 −− sinc 𝜏𝑓
𝑇 𝑇
𝑻
𝝉=
𝟐

2 1 1 2
− −
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
𝑓
4 3 2 1 −𝐵 0 𝐵 𝟏 2 3 4
− − − − 𝒇𝒔 =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑻 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
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Natural sampling
𝑋 𝑓
1

−𝐵 0 𝐵 𝑓

𝑋𝑠 𝑓
𝐴𝜏
Example: 𝑓𝑠 = 4𝐵 sinc 𝜏𝑓
𝑇
𝑻
𝝉=
𝟒
𝜏
𝐴 −
𝑇

1 1
−
𝜏 𝜏
𝑓
4 3 2 1 −𝐵 0 𝐵 𝟏 2 3 4
− − − − 𝒇𝒔 =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑻 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
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Natural sampling
Switch

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑐(𝑡)

c(𝑡)

Clock
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Flat top sampling: Sample and Hold

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡)
𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) LPF ℎ(𝑡) 𝑥𝑃𝐴𝑀 (𝑡)

𝑝(𝑡) 𝜏

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑡

𝑡
0 𝑥𝑠 (𝑡)

𝑝(𝑡)

𝑡
0
𝜏
𝑥𝑃𝐴𝑀 (𝑡)

𝑡
0
𝑇𝑠
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Flat top sampling: Sample and Hold

𝑋 𝑓
1

−𝐵 0 𝐵 𝑓

𝑋𝑠 𝑓
𝐴𝜏sinc 𝜏𝑓
Example: 𝑓𝑠 = 4𝐵
𝑻
𝝉=
𝟐

2 1 1 2
− −
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
𝑓
4 3 2 1 −𝐵 0 𝐵 𝟏 2 3 4
− − − − 𝒇𝒔 =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑻 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
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Natural sampling
𝑋 𝑓
1

−𝐵 0 𝐵 𝑓

𝑋𝑠 𝑓
𝐴𝜏sinc 𝜏𝑓
Example: 𝑓𝑠 = 4𝐵
𝑻
𝝉=
𝟒

1 1
−
𝜏 𝜏
𝑓
4 3 2 1 −𝐵 0 𝐵 𝟏 2 3 4
− − − − 𝒇𝒔 =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑻 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
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Pulse width modulation - PWM

Source: http://pcbheaven.com/wikipages/images/pwmmodulation_1236720219.jpg
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Pulse Modulation
Pulse-Code Modulation
• The most widely used technique for digitizing information signals for electronic data
transmission is pulse-code modulation (PCM).
• PCM signals are serial digital data.
• There are two ways to generate:
1. Use an S/H circuit and traditional A/D converter to sample and convert the analog signal into a
sequence of binary words, convert the parallel binary words into serial form, and transmit the
data serially.
2. Use a delta modulator.

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Pulse-Code Modulation
S/H circuit samples A/D converter converts samples
analog signal to 8-bit parallel words

Analog
signal S/H A/D converter

Start
conversion Shift register converts
parallel data to serial

Shift register Serial digital signal

Clock

Basic PCM system

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Pulse Modulation
Pulse-Code Modulation: Companding and Codecs and Vocoders
• Companding is a process of signal compression and expansion that is used to overcome
problems of distortion and noise in the transmission of audio signals.
• Companding is the most common means of overcoming the problems of quantizing error
and noise.
• All A/D and D/A conversion and related functions, as well as companding, are taken care of
by a single large-scale IC chip known as a codec or vocoder.

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Data Conversion
Basic Principles of Data Conversion
• Translating an analog signal into a digital signal is called analog-to-digital (A/D)
conversion, digitizing a signal, or encoding.
• The device used to perform this translation is known as an analog-to-digital converter or ADC.
• Translating a digital signal into an analog signal is called digital-to-analog (D/A)
conversion.
• The circuit used to perform this is called a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter or DAC or a
decoder.

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Data Conversion
Basic Principles of Data Conversion: A/D Conversion
• An analog signal is a smooth or continuous voltage or current variation.
• Through A/D conversion these continuously variable signals are changed into a series of
binary numbers.
• A/D conversion is a process of sampling or measuring the analog signal at regular time
intervals.

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Data Conversion
Basic Principles of Data Conversion: A/D Conversion
• To retain the high-frequency information in the analog signal, a sufficient number of samples
must be taken to adequately represent the waveform.
• The minimum sampling frequency is twice the highest analog frequency content of the
signal.
• This minimum sampling frequency is known as the Nyquist frequency.
• In practice the sampling rate is much higher (typically 2.5 to 3 times more) than the Nyquist
minimum.

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Data Conversion

Figure 7-7: Sampling an analog signal

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Data Conversion
Basic Principles of Data Conversion: A/D Conversion
• The analog signal represents an infinite number of actual voltage values.
• The A/D converter can represent only a finite number of voltage values over a specific
range.

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Data Conversion
Basic Principles of Data Conversion: A/D Conversion
• The samples are converted to a binary number whose value is close to the actual sample
value.
• An A/D converter divides a voltage range into discrete increments, each of which is
represented by a binary number.
• The analog voltage measured during the sampling process is assigned to the increment of
voltage closest to it.
• Errors associated with this process are known as quantizing errors.

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Data Conversion

Figure 7-8: The A/D converter divides the input voltage range into discrete voltage
increments.
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Data Conversion

Figure 7-9: A D/A converter produces a stepped approximation of the original signal.
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Data Conversion
Basic Principles of Data Conversion: Aliasing
• If the sampling frequency is not high enough, aliasing occurs.
• Aliasing causes a new signal near the original to be created.
• This signal has a frequency of fs− fm.
• When the sampled signal is converted back to analog by a D/A converter, the output will be
the alias, not the original signal.

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Data Conversion
Basic Principles of Data Conversion: Aliasing
• To eliminate this problem, a low-pass filter called an antialiasing filter is usually placed
between the modulating signal source and the A/D converter input.
• The antialiasing filter ensures that no signal with a frequency greater than one-half the
sampling frequency is passed.
• This filter must have extremely good selectivity.

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Data Conversion
D/A Converters
• There are many ways to convert digital codes to proportional analog voltages.
• The most popular methods are
• R-2R
• string
• weighted current source converters.

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Data Conversion
D/A Converters
• An R-2R converter consists of four major sections:
• Reference Regulator: The reference voltage regulator, a zener diode,
receives the DC supply voltage as an input and translates it into a highly
precise reference voltage.
• Resistor Networks: The voltage from the reference is applied to this resistor
network, which converts it into a current proportional to the binary input.

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Data Conversion
D/A Converters
• Output Amplifiers: The output of the resistive network is connected to the
summing junction of the op amp. The output of the op amp is equal to the
output current of the resistor network multiplied by the feedback resistor
value.
• Electronic Switches: The resistor network is modified by a set of electronic
switches that can be either current or voltage switches. They are usually
implemented with diodes or transistors.

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Data Conversion
Proportional current 𝐼0
DC input
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝐹𝑆

Ref. Resistor
−
𝑉0 = −𝐼0 𝑅𝑓
reg network + Analog voltaje output

255 Current-to-voltaje converter

𝐼0,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐹 Electronic
256
switches

Parallel binary input (8 bits)

Major components of a D/A converter.
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Data Conversion
D/A Converters: String DAC
• The string DAC is made up of a series string of equal-value resistors forming a voltage
divider.
• This voltage divider divides the input reference voltage into equal steps of voltage
proportional to the binary input.
• The output voltage is determined by a set of enhancement mode MOSFET switches
controlled by a standard binary decoder.

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Data Conversion

Figure 7-15: A string DAC.

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Data Conversion
D/A Converters: Weighted Current Source DAC
• A popular configuration for very high-speed DACs is the weighted current
source DAC.
• The current sources supply a fixed current that is determined by the external
reference voltage.
• Each current source supplies a binary weighted value of I, I/2, I/4, I/8, etc.
• The current sources are made up of some combination of resistors, MOSFETs,
or in some cases bipolar transistors.

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Data Conversion
D/A Converters: Weighted Current Source DAC
• The switches are usually fast enhancement mode MOSFETs, but bipolar
transistors are used in some models.
• The parallel binary input is usually stored in an input register, and the register
outputs turn the switches off and on as dictated by the binary value.
• The current source outputs are added at the summing junction of an op amp.
• The output voltage Vo = It X Rf.

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Data Conversion

Figure 7-16: Weighted current source DAC.

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Data Conversion
D/A Converter Specifications
• Three important specifications are associated with D/A converters:
• Resolution is the smallest increment of voltage that the D/A converter
produces over its output voltage range.
• Error is expressed as a percentage of the maximum, or full-scale, output
voltage, which is the reference voltage value.
• Settling time is the amount of time it takes for the output voltage of a D/A
converter to stabilize to within a specific voltage range after a change in
binary input.

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Data Conversion
A/D Converters
• A/D conversion begins with sampling, which is carried out by a sample-and-hold (S/H)
circuit.
• The S/H circuit takes a precise measurement of the analog voltage at specified intervals.
• The A/D converter then converts this instantaneous value of voltage and translates it to a
binary number.
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Data Conversion
A/D Converters: S/H Circuits
• A sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit, also called a track/store circuit, accepts the analog input
signal and passes it through, unchanged, during its sampling mode.
• In the hold mode, the amplifier remembers or memorizes a particular voltage level at the
instant of sampling.
• The output of the S/H amplifier is a fixed DC level whose amplitude is the value at the
sampling time.

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Data Conversion

Figure 7-18: An S/H amplifier

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Data Conversion
A/D Converters: S/H Circuits
• The primary benefit of an S/H amplifier is that it stores the analog voltage during the
sampling interval.
• In some high-frequency signals, the analog voltage may change during the sampling
interval.
• This is undesirable because it introduces aperture error.
• The S/H amplifier stores the voltage on the capacitor. With the voltage constant during the
sampling interval, quantizing is accurate.

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Data Conversion
• Common ways to translate an analog voltage to a binary number include:
• Successive-Approximations Converters:
• This converter contains an 8-bit successive-approximations register
(SAR).
• Special logic in the register causes each bit to be turned on one at a time
from MSB to LSB until the closest binary value is stored in the register.
• The clock input signal sets the rate of turning the bits off and on.
• Successive-approximations converters are fast and consistent.

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Data Conversion
• Flash Converter:
• A flash converter uses a large resistive voltage divider and multiple analog
comparators.
• The number of comparators is equal to 2N – 1, where N is the number of
desired output bits.
• The flash converter produces an output as fast as the comparators can switch
and the signals can be translated to binary levels by the logic circuits.
• Flash converters are the fastest type of A/D converter.
• Flash A/D converters are complicated and expensive but are the best choice
for high-speed conversions.

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Data Conversion
• Pipelined Converters:
• A pipelined converter is one that uses two or more low-resolution flash
converters to achieve higher speed and higher resolution than successive-
approximations converters but less than a full flash converter.

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Data Conversion
ADC Specifications
• The key ADC specifications are
• Resolution
• Dynamic range
• Signal-to-noise ratio
• Effective number of bits
• Spurious free dynamic range.

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Data Conversion
ADC Specifications
• Resolution is related to the number of bits. Resolution indicates the smallest input voltage
recognized by the converter. It is the reference voltage VREF divided by 2N, where N is the
number of output bits.
• Dynamic range is a measure of the range of input voltages that can be converted.
• The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the actual input signal voltage to the
total noise in the system.

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Data Conversion
ADC Specifications
• Spurious free dynamic range (SFDR) is the ratio of the rms signal voltage to the voltage
value of the highest “spur” expressed in decibels.
• A spur is any spurious or unwanted signal that may result from intermodulation distortion.
• Noise, harmonics, or spurious signals all add together and reduce the resolution of an ADC.
This effect is expressed by a measure called the effective number of bits (ENOB).

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Data Conversion
Analog Comparator
input
S/H + Serial data out
−

D/A Converter

Up/down
Clock
counter
Up = 1
Down = 0

Figure 7-26: Delta modulator

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Data Conversion
• The analog signal is sampled by an S/H circuit.
• The sample is also applied to a comparator.
• The other input to the comparator comes from a D/A converter driven by an
up-down counter.
• The counter counts up (increments) or down (decrements) depending on the
output state of the comparator.
• The comparator output is also the serial data signal representing the analog
value.

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Data Conversion
Sigma-Delta Converter
• A variation of the delta converter is the sigma-delta (Σ Δ) converter.
• It is also known as a delta-sigma or charge balance converter.
• This circuit provides extreme precision, wide dynamic range, and low noise.
• It is available with word output lengths of 18, 20, 22, and 24 bits.
• These converters are widely used in digital audio applications (e.g. CD and MP3 players).

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Data Conversion
Sigma-Delta Converter
• The converter is what is known as an oversampling converter.
• It uses a clock or sampling frequency that is many times the minimum Nyquist rate required
for other types of converters.
• The oversampling techniques used in the sigma-delta converter translate the noise to a
higher frequency that can be easily filtered out by a low-pass filter.
• This technique also eliminates the problem of aliasing.

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Data Conversion
Integrator
Diffrential
amplifier
Comparator
𝑣𝑖 −
−
Serial bit
− stream
+
+
+

Clock

1-bit
± 1𝑉 D/A converter

Digital filter
or
decimator

Serial output Parallel binary output

(18-24 bits)

A sigma-delta (ΣΔ) converter.

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Data Conversion
Delta Modulation
• Delta modulation is a special form of A/D conversion that results in a continuous serial
data signal being transmitted.

• The delta modulator looks at a sample of the analog input signal, compares it to a previous
sample, and then transmits a 0 or a 1 if the sample is less than or more than the previous
sample.

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References
[Wikipedia] Wikipedia in English, the free Encyclopedia. Visited on Jan. 2014.
[Frenzel, 2007] Frenzel, Louis E. Principles of Electronic Communication
Systems”, 3rd Ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
[Haykin, 2001] Haykin, Simon. Communication Systems. 4th Ed. Wiley, 2001.
[FCC]. www.fcc.gov. Propagation characterization