Viking Women’s Cl ot hing, c.

1000 AD

A Summar y of t he Avail abl e Lit er at ur e

Wit h An Emphasis Towar ds
Making Mor e Aut hent ic Viking Gar b

Compil ed By
Count ess Dul cia MacPher son, OL OR
Note: There is a lot of information available about Viking Costuming and Viking Culture, but unfortunately much of it is not easily
available to the average SCAer. Much of what IS available is extremely vague about their sources of information and tends to pass
along misunderstandings and old interpretations without attempting to verify the accuracy of the information. Much of the remaining
information that is available tends to be published as individual works and articles in extreme specialty areas or exists of nuggets of
information hidden within much larger, general topic works. There is also a lot of information that is outdated, proven to be
inaccurate (or just plain wrong!), or at best, misleading. The goal of this project is to bring together the findings of established experts
and recognized amateurs to develop a more accurate picture of Viking women’s clothing c.1000 AD. In keeping with this goal, all of
the information provided in this pamphlet is identified as to the source of the information. You will notice that each source (book,
journal article or internet site) listed in the Sources Cited section is numbered. The numbers in ( ) located throughout the text refer to
these numbers and identify the primary source or sources of the information discussed. This is a continuing project that will be
expanded on a regular basis as I gain access to more sources, especially those that are more difficult to locate. I will also be
expanding the scope to include more information about accessories such as mittens, hats and shoes, and the techniques used to
produce them.

The Development of the Viking Tunic/Gown and Apron Dress:

The Tunic/Gown: The Mediterranean style “cross” or “T” tunics, familiar to us from
the Greeks, Romans and Byzantines that were woven or cut in a single piece were more
suited to the sunny climate of southern Europe than to the colder northern regions. As far
back as the Bronze Age the northern Europeans were fashioning garments cut and sewn
in several pieces for a closer, and therefore, warmer fit. (17)

The Thorsbjerg tunic is a well-preserved

Migration Era (pre-5th century) tunic that was
found in a bog in Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany. This area had been a part of “Cross” or “T” Tunic
Denmark during the Viking Age and is
considered to be an example of Pre-Viking Age clothing. It was made in four
pieces: separate rectangular front and back panels sewn together at the
shoulders plus two sleeves. The neckline was created by simply not sewing the
middle portion of the two panels together, creating a boat neckline. The
sleeves were sewn onto the flat edges of the body panels, with a small pucker
at the back of each sleeve, about 2 ¾” below the shoulder seam. Each sleeve
Thorsbjerg Tunic was tapered toward the wrist, not by cutting the pieces with a taper, but by
folding and seaming the lower half of the sleeve more narrowly than the upper.
The sleeves are overly long with narrow wrist openings. According to the measurements given by Margrethe Hald, the
tunic would come to about mid-thigh on someone 5’7” tall, with the neckline extending to about the collarbones on each
side of the neck. The wrists and hem of the tunic were trimmed with tablet-weaving and there may have been tablet-
weaving around the neckline. (17)

The clothing of the 5th century jarl buried at Evebǿ, Norway is too fragmentary to determine how they were made. The
remains do reveal some useful information about tunic length, decoration and the layering of garments. The two wool
garments were worn one over the other. The red undertunic had elaborate tablet-woven wool trim at the neck, wrists and
hem; it reached to the knee and had bronze clasps at the wrists. The overgarment had a different type of tablet-woven
wool trim at the neck and silver clasps, though the original location of the clasps is unknown. It is thought that the
overgarment may have been some sort of coat that augmented the undertunic without covering it and the silver clasps may
have held it together on the chest. (17)

The excavations at Birka, Sweden which include clothing examples

from the 9th and 10th centuries did not yield any complete garments, but
they do provide a wealth of information about the various types of
garments worn, fabrics and embellishments used and how the garments
were constructed. Construction details common to all of the Tunic
Type garments (including: men’s tunics, women’s gowns and smocks,
and both men’s and women’s coats/kaftans) except the women’s
pleated smock include: front and back panels cut in one piece (no
shoulder seams), small round or keyhole necklines, sewn on sleeves
cut to taper towards the wrist, square underarm gussets, and triangular
gores used to add additional width to the skirt. Additional gores were
inset into the front and back panels for women’s clothing and long
coats, but were optional for men’s tunics. (17)

Excavations at Hedeby in Denmark dating from the 10th century and

offer a sharp contrast to the Birka style. Theses garments are cut with
separate front and back panels with more fitted shoulder seams, Birka Style Tunic/Gown and Coat/Caftan
rounded armholes for more fitted sleeves, and scoop necklines. Like
the Birka garments, the sleeves are tapered towards the wrists. Two
styles of skirts exist on the men’s tunics, a narrow style with no gores but with the skirt slit (or rather, left open) at both
sides that was worn as an undergarment, and the wider style with side gores and inserted front and back gores. (17)

The Apron Dress: Archeological evidence suggests that the Viking Apron Dress is a
descendent of the Greek Peplos. The two-beam vertical loom was imported to
Scandinavia by way of the Roman Empire in the very early centuries of the Common
Era (AD). Given the fact that one can weave a tube on such a loom, it is not surprising
that tubular garments, i.e. the Peplos, were commonly worn. A number of surrounding
cultures also wore Peplos style dresses during this period – the Saxons, the Franks, the
Frisian, and quite probably the Finns and the Balts. Only a few Peplos style gowns
exist in their entirety, however their existence is signaled by the presence of a pair of
brooches that fastened the tube of fabric together at the shoulders to form a gown.
Since metal survives centuries of burial better than fabric does, when archaeologists
excavate a female grave site the pair of brooches, one on each clavicle, it is generally
assumed that the body was dressed in a Peplos style dress. The size, type and style of
ornamentation of the brooches was a characteristic of each culture, but the presence
and location of the brooches indicates the common style of dress. (18)

The introduction of the warp-weighted loom into Denmark changed both the method of
weaving and the manufacture of clothing. Tubular fabric cannot be woven on a warp Hedeby Style Tunic/Gown
weighted loom, so Peplos style dresses would have had to be made by sewing together
the open side. Inga Hägg appears to be describing this development when she suggests that the earliest stage of the Apron
Dress, appearing in pre-Viking times, was untailored and sewn together along the open side like a peplos. At about this
time the straps began to appear as well, replacing the earlier method of pinning the brooches through the fabric. Inga
Hägg cites two probably factors that may have influenced the development of the straps. The first is that the apron dress
appears to have been a status symbol reserved to married women, and quite probably to married women of rank and
wealth. This is evidenced by the fact that the apron dress does not appear in all women’s graves of this period, and those
that do appear are generally made of fine luxury textiles such as imported linen or finely woven broken lozenge twill
wool. The owners of these luxury goods may have been reluctant to damage their textiles by repeatedly sticking the
coarse brooch pins through them. The second factor is the pervasive Oriental influence in Eastern Scandinavia which
introduced the use of buttons or brooches and loops as fastenings for clothing during the Migration Era. (18)

At some later point the side seam began to be left open. This development has a parallel in the open sided Peplos Style
overdress worn at Eura, Finland which is worn wrapped around one side of the body and open at the other side. The open
sided apron dresses found at Birka appear to have been worn in pairs, wrapped in opposite directions to totally enclose the
body. Either method has drawbacks – leaving one side open does little to add warmth to the costume, but wearing a pair
of wrapped aprons is bulky. A further development may have been using a longer (or, perhaps, wider?) piece of cloth and
wrapping it around the body so that the two ends overlap at the back. The overlapped section extends approximately
between the shoulder blades, and each end has a set of loops for going over the shoulder and fastening with a brooch. The
addition of a second pair of loops over the shoulder would not affect the fastening in any way, and the overlapped area
would allow a greater freedom of movement. (18)

This development may well have been

influenced by Oriental models as well.
Women’s clothing in China and much
of the Orient used skirts that wrapped
around the body under the arms with a
similar type of overlap at the back and Tube Dress Open Sided Wrap Around Tailored Apron
w/ straps Dress Dress Dress
shoulder straps to keep the skirt in (back view)
place. This arrangement can still be
found in the traditional costume of
Korea and several regions of China. *

As sewing technology increased, and

tunics and gowns achieved a better fit
through piecing and sewing, so did the apron dress. Early attempts to tailor the apron dress to the body involved sewing
down tucks and folds. By the 10th century the Viking women at Hedeby were wearing apron dresses that were cut in
several panels and sewn together to fit the body, with the skirt widened by the use of gores. (18)

Viking Women’s Clothing c.1000 AD:

As a general rule, Viking women wore linen undergarments and wool overgarments. Very wealthy Viking women might
sometimes have sometimes worn linen overgarments, or on special occasions linen/silk blend or silk overgarments. Poor
Viking women probably wore wool undergarments as well as wool overgarments. (14) This is due to the relative costs of
the fabrics used. Fabric, whether imported or produced locally, was very expensive in terms of labor or trade goods. (1)
Although both linen and wool could be produced locally, according to Agnes Geiger the local products appear to have
been coarse and crude compared with the textiles that were imported. Generally only the poorest citizens appear to have
worn locally produced textiles. This information is somewhat skewed by the fact that pagan burial practices meant
burying the dead in their best (or at least, formal) clothing, and as such should not be used as an indicator of what was
worn for work clothes or daily wear. Textiles for better grades of clothing were almost certainly imported from
specialized manufacturing centers – worsted wools from Syria, linens from Kiev and silks from Iran and the eastern
Mediterranean. (7)
In general, Norse families appear to have had as much clothing as they could afford. All but the poorest people had at
least a few changes of undergarments which doubled as sleepwear and several sets of work clothes in addition to at least
one set of formal clothing. The very wealthy could afford enough clothing to wear a different outfit each day of the week
plus several sets of formal clothing. Laundering on a large farm was a daily chore for the wife and/or any servants or
slaves that she could afford to keep. Nobles and the very wealthy delegated such responsibilities entirely to the servants.
It is likely that, as with nobles in other cultures, they wore “formal” clothing on a daily basis and their special occasion
clothing would have been very fancy indeed. In addition, noble families were also obligated to clothe their servants,
slaves and provide some clothing for their retainers. How well you could afford to clothe your servants was one of the
signs of your household’s prosperity. (1)

The manufacture of clothing was done with economy in mind – patterns were based on rectangles, triangles and geometric
shapes so that there was very little, if any, wasted fabric once the garments were pieced together. Sewing clothing by
hand is also a time intensive activity, so clothing would be constructed to last. A variety of techniques were used by the
Vikings to not only construct strong, hard wearing seams, but also to finish the cut edges of the cloth and prevent them
from raveling, thereby prolonging the life of the garments. French seams, flat felled seams and rolled hems were all
commonly employed methods of garment construction. (1)

As we move from general observations about clothing production in the Viking Age to specific discussion of the dress of
Viking/Norse women c.1000 AD, it is important that we clarify the strata of individuals that we will be primarily
discussing.

There were three distinct social classes in Viking Society as described in the eddaic poem Rígsþula, which is thought to
date from the 10th century. In the poem, Ríg, actually the god Heimdall in disguise, undertakes a journey. He comes first
to a married couple living in a poor hut. The son, born nine months after this visit, was named Þræl (thrall/slave). He
married a girl named Þír (another word for slave) and had many children with ugly names who lived lives of hard physical
labor. Þræl is described as being ugly with “on his hand was wrinkled skin, gnarled knuckles, thick fingers, foul the face,
stooping the back and long the heels”. His wife is little better, “dirt was on her sole (barefoot), her arm sunburnt
(inadequately clothed), and crooked her nose”. Next Ríg visited a well-dressed, well-groomed couple who lived in a hall.
Nine months later their son was named Karl (free man, farmer) – “His cheek glowed, his eye twinkled. Ox he learnt to
tame, plough to make, house to build and barn to raise, carts to make and turn the plough.” His bride was Snør (son’s
wife/daughter-in-law) carried keys (the symbol of wifely dignity and also a symbol of some financial prosperity) and they
had many children with good names. Finally Ríg came to a beautifully dressed couple who lived in a great hall. Their
son was given the name Iarl (earl), a handsome man “fair was his hair, bright was his cheek, fierce were his eyes like
young snakes”. Iarl became a great warrior who rode, hunted, and swam. He owned much land and was a great giver of
gifts and protector of the people under his care. His wife, Erna, was “slender-fingered, white-skinned and wise”. They
had many children with beautiful names, the last of which was named Konr ungr (konungr – king). (Roesdahl, Else.
Trans. By Susan M. Margeson and Kirsten Williams. Vikingernes Verden. [English Title - The Vikings.] Copenhagen:
Gyldendal, 1987. Translation published – London: Allan Lane, the Penguin Press, 1991. Pp. 30-31.)

Material evidence unearthed by archaeological digs supports the literary picture provided by the Rígsþula. We know from
examining the skeletons of Viking Age people, that the average height for a man was 5’7 ¾” tall, and 5’2 ½” for a
woman. We also know that the skeletons found in richly furnished graves – those that belonged to the high-ranking
people – are on average considerably taller than those found in the ordinary graves. Skeletons of high ranking men have
been found that are up to 6’½” tall. We know a lot of other things about these high ranking individuals as well - much
more than we do about the people buried in the more ordinary graves. High ranking individuals owned and wore much
more jewelry than their lower ranking counterparts. It is thanks to the presence of the metal jewelry that we know as
much as we do about the clothing of the people of the Viking Age, as the metal protected bits of the textiles from
decomposition. Therefore, we must acknowledge that most of what we know pertains primarily to the upper half or so of
Viking society. (19)

With this in mind we now recognize that the idea that all Scandinavian women wore a kind of uniform folk costume – the
same style of dress with the same style of jewelry – is false. The stereotyped Viking women’s costume involving the
ubiquitous apron-dress and paired brooches appears to have actually been a status garment worn only by the nobility and
wealthy middle class. Presumably the wealthy middle class did not wear these garments on a daily basis but reserved
them as formal attire for festivals and important occasions. This theory is supported by the fact that paired brooches have
been found in graves all over Scandinavia and Viking settlements outside Scandinavia, but only in the graves of women
whose other accoutrements established them as at least moderately wealthy. (19) Not all the paired brooches are oval – the
women of Gotland appear to have preferred smaller, stylized animal heads to support their apron-dresses, and on very rare
occasions, women of great wealth and importance were found with unique brooches; such as a pair of German enameled
brooches found in a grave at Birka. (8) The paired oval brooches are, however, the most common variety found. These
brooches were, for the most part, mass produced in bronze or pewter. The ornamentation on them was stereotyped and
the mass produced brooches can be traced to a few designs. Only the very wealthy could afford to have unique jewelry
specially made for them by a great craftsman. Though a few such examples of clearly unique brooches made of gold or
silver exist, most people contented themselves with mass-produced gilt bronze imitations. (19)

This then, the attire of the upper class Viking/Norse women typified by the appearance of the apron-dress supported by
paired brooches, is the costume under discussion here. Inga Hägg in her article “Viking Women’s Dress at Birka: A
Reconstruction by Archaeological Methods” established that the costume consisted of: a linen smock, a wool or linen
gown, a wool or linen apron-dress, and a wool or silk caftan lined with linen or silk which was slowly replaced toward the
end of the 10th century with a cape or shawl. (9) This has come to be the accepted theory regarding Viking women’s
costume of this era, and provides a good jumping off point for discussion of the individual layers.

The Smock
Agnes Geijer’s investigation of the fabrics found at Birka lead to the confirmation of an article of Viking women’s
clothing that had, up to then, only been assumed to exist based on images found in Viking art – the closely pleated linen
smock. Although the grave finds revealed two types of linen worn as the layer in direct contact with the body, pleated and
unpleated, Ms. Geijer assumed that the unpleated examples were simply pleated smocks that had somehow lost their
pleating - “All the linen remains – not only the pleated ones - were probably imported in the same condition, pleated and
ready to wear, and that in the cases where the fabric is smooth, the garment may simply have been washed or exposed to
rain, thereby losing its pleating.” (Geijer, Agnes. “The Textile Finds from Birka”, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval
Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson. Edited by N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting. London:
Heinemann Educational Books, The Pasold Research Fund Ltd., 1983. Pp. 88-89.)

Inga Hägg disagrees with this assessment. She uses the presence of small round brooches measuring approximately 1”
across to indicate the presence of the pleated smock. Previously these brooches have been thought to belong to a
headdress of some type, however analysis of the textile remains on the reverse of the brooches indicates that they served
as fasteners for the pleated smock. She explains that the unpleated smock appears to be a 9th century style and the pleated
smock a 10th century innovation. “At Birka, small round brooches appear in tenth-century graves only. It is noticeable
that they are more frequently found in connection with the pleated than with the plain shirt. This has obviously a
chronological reason, as the pleated shirts rarely appear in tombs dating from the ninth century, whereas they are usual in
the tenth-century tombs.” (Hägg, Inga. “Viking Women’s Dress at Birka: A Reconstruction by Archaeological
Methods”, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson. Edited by
N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting. London: Heinemann Educational Books, The Pasold Research Fund Ltd., 1983. P. 344.)

In using the presence of the small round brooch to date the pleated smock to the 10th century, Inga Hägg has also
established a basis for reconstructing the necklines of the two types of smock. The pleated smock must have a small
round neck with a hemmed vertical slit which is held closed by the brooch at the base of the neck – what we now call a
key-hole neckline. The absence of the small brooches prior to the introduction of the pleated smock suggests, though not
positively, that the 9th century, unpleated, smocks had simple round, or perhaps even boat shaped necklines. (9) This
theory is supported by archaeological evidence found at other excavations. The smock layers found at Oseburg suggest
that this layer was cut much more simplistically than in other places, and used a boat shaped neckline. The smocks at
Hedeby are thought to be made similarly to the 9th century smocks at Birka – that is, with a rounded neckline and the body
constructed with sewn on sleeves and a skirt widened by the use of gores. The pleating of the 10th century Birka smocks
would probably preclude the need to widen the skirt, so it is conjectured that they might have been constructed as large
rectangles with sewn on pleated sleeves. (18)
The actual construction of the smock is purely conjecture, as not enough textile fragments remain to give any real
indication of how they were made. Necklines can be established by the presence, or lack there or, of linen fibers as the
bottommost layer preserved underneath metal brooches or other metal items, such as metal brocaded tablet weaving used
to trim the neckline of a gown layer. Our only other sources of information about the smock layer come from pictorial
evidence, and even that is scant and difficult to make out. Viking art work is rarely naturalistic and most depictions of
people show men, rather then women. Those that do depict women tend to be stylized and difficult to make out.
Illuminations of a French queen, English abbess and a Danish queen painted c.1000 do not help much either – they show a
white undergarment with long, wrinkled sleeves peeking out from under a long, loose-sleeved robe that completely covers
the rest of the undergarment. The basic cut of the overgarment, however, appears to be fairly consistent with what is
known of Viking era gowns and tunics. (1)

Gather

Oseberg Smock Hedeby Smock Birka Smock - Constuction Birka Smock - Pleated

Our remaining archaeological clue to the appearance and construction of the smocks comes from the fact that no evidence
has been found of the use of trim at the neck and/or wrist of the smock layer. This may indicate that the smock layer
received no trim, however, it may simply indicate that metal brocaded tablet weaving was not used, as most of the
surviving trims contain metal threads which slowed their deterioration. It is also interesting to note that neither Inga Hägg
nor Agnes Geijer mention the COLOR of the linen that was determined to be from the smock layer. Given that linen is
very difficult to dye using natural dyes, and that the color produced will fade and/or wash out, it is highly likely that the
layer that comes into direct contact with the body was not dyed at all. Therefore we can assume, with relative safety, that
smocks were generally made of natural, or perhaps for the rich, bleached linen.

The Gown
Contrary to the popular folkloric image we have of our early Medieval ancestors running dressed in ill fitting mud-colored
rags made primarily by wrapping lengths coarsely woven cloth around the body, our early medieval ancestors were
actually quite sophisticated weavers, dyers and tailors. The Vikings were no exception. In fact, Vikings were well known
for their love of color and ostentatious display. Wealthy Vikings dressed to make a statement about their wealth and
importance in the community.

By the 10th century, the smock had become underwear in the truest sense – it was the layer worn closest to the skin and it
was nearly always worn underneath another gown layer, rather than directly under the apron-dress as many costume
historians have supposed. This is confirmed by Inga Hägg’s work with the Birka textile remains – “It is now possible to
prove by the stratigraphical and other evidence exemplified here that women’s dress included two further garments [sic –
than the previously known smock and apron-dress layers]: one tunic worn under the skirt [apron-dress] and one long
jacket worn over it. The mantle, on the other hand, does not seem to have been in frequent use. The base material in the
tunic was wool or linen, and sometimes its front had applications of silk or tablet-woven bands. There was no front
opening, or, if there was, it was not symmetrically placed underneath the jaw.” (Hägg, Inga. “Viking Women’s Dress at
Birka: A Reconstruction by Archaeological Methods”, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of
Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson. Edited by N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting. London: Heinemann Educational Books, The
Pasold Research Fund Ltd., 1983. P. 349.)

This gown layer was long sleeved and reached to the ankles or, sometimes, might even trail a little at the back. According
to Anne Stine Ingstad’s study of the costumes of the Oseburg Queen and her attendant, the Birka tunics and caftans were
previously identified as short garments - about knee length. This assumption was based on the finding of a tablet-woven
braid marking the hem of a tunic at about knee height in a male grave. Anne Stine Ingstad disagrees with this conclusion
citing that there is no reason to believe that female garments were the same length as men’s. She also cites that
contemporary pictures of Viking Age women always seem to depict full length garments, sometimes with a train. Some
of these depictions include some sort of braid or decoration occurring at about knee height while the skirt is long. A
shawl covers the upper portion of the body, so it is impossible to determine
which garment the decoration occurs on, however it is possible that this
actually depicts braid or trim at the hem of the apron-dress.

Inga Hägg provides evidence to support pieced construction including

separately cut sleeves, shoulder seams, and gores in the skirt at both Hedeby
and Birka, as discussed earlier. Due to their pieced construction these gowns
are “fitted” in that they follow the lines of the body more closely than a Cross
or “T” tunic does. It should be made clear, however, that these gowns are not
fitted in the sense of the later costume styles. There is no evidence to support
the idea that these gowns opened up the back or sides to lace closed, therefore
they must have been loose enough to be pulled on over the head.

These gowns were made of linen or wool, though the possibility exists of a silk
gown for the very rich. No evidence has been unearthed of a wholly silk gown,
but silk was available to the Vikings and a few garments have been found that
appear to have been made of silk. In general however, linen and wool served
for the gown layer and the richer the wearer, the finer the fabric used to make
the gown. (18) These gowns were also dyed a variety of bright colors including
reds, yellows, blues, purples, browns and even black. Overdying to create
greens, violets and purples was also possible. Evidence suggests that certain
colors may have been more popular in certain areas, such as reds in the
Birka/Hedeby Style Gowns
Danelaw, purples in Ireland, and blues and greens in Scandinavia. Naturally
pigmented wools were also used, so a range of whites, creams, grays, tans,
browns and blacks were also possible, including woven patterns using these colors. (17)

Evidence from Birka and Oseburg (The

grave of Queen Aasa) indicates that much
care was taken to ornament this layer of
clothing with embroidery, appliqué, silk
trimmings and tablet-woven bands, though
evidence suggests that such
embellishments were placed only on the
fronts of the gowns and the sleeves.
Embellishment was expensive both in
terms of the time spent and the materials
involved, so it is understandable that
thrifty Viking women would not have
spent time embellishing part of there attire
that were unlikely to be seen. (18) The
Vikings did not normally place
embellishment at the very edges of
garments as other cultures did, but instead
it was placed a little way away from the
edge – approximately ½-2”. This may
have been done for aesthetic reasons or to
protect the valuable trimmings from
excess wear. (18) One type of
embellishment does appear at the garment
edges – the use of silk, wool, or linen in a
contrasting color as a period bias tape to
enclose the raw edges of the garment.
(17) This was most likely sewn down to Eura dress from the excavation in Eura, Finland
the garment using a decorative stitch.

As discussed earlier, the principal

differences between the style of gowns known to be worn at Birka and Hedeby involve the shaping of the sleeve cap and
the shoulder seam to create a more fitted garment that did not require the use of underarm gussets. A third style of gown
was worn by Finnish women in the 10th century that also presents a possibility for Viking Women living in the eastern
portions of Sweden. This gown is based on an excavation at Eura, Finland and has been dated to c.1000 AD. This gown,
like the Hedeby and Birka gowns, is pieced to conserve cloth and somewhat fitted. It’s construction, however, is very
different and the flare of the skirt begins a the bust. (18)

The Apron-Dress
The infamous overgown of the Viking Age has been referred to using a variety of terms. Archaeologists have employed
the terms “hängerock” (hanging-skirt) or “tragerrock” (strap-skirt), while costume historians have simply used the term
”Viking Apron”. None of these adequately describes this garment. The archaeological hanging- or strap- skirt imply, to
the uninitiated, that the garment is primarily a skirt – perhaps a skirt held up be straps that go over the shoulders. The
term Viking apron implies that the garment is similar to a modern apron in that it covers only a limited portion of the
torso, either tying on at the waist or perhaps like a modern pinafore apron. Neither of these implications is true. The
garment might best be described as a sort of modern jumper – a garment that covers the majority of the torso and is worn
over another garment or garments. Perhaps if this description had been applied earlier there would not have been so many
misinterpretations. The term most commonly used today for this garment is “Apron Dress”.

In 1938 Agnes Geijer published “Die Textilfunde aus den Gräbern” in Volume III of Birka: Untersuchungen und Studien.
In this paper she postulated that Viking apron-dresses, at least for a time, were constructed of large untailored rectangles
that were wrapped around the body. This book, which was published in German by a Swedish publisher, was both
mistranslated and misunderstood by English writers compiling books about the Vikings. In turn, the illustrators they
worked with did not understand the descriptions or context they were working with (a common problem with costuming
books!) and drew what they thought was appropriate. From this breakdown in communication, the pervasive myth of the
Viking apron, constructed as two somewhat narrow hanging panels connected by straps going over the shoulders, was
born. In spite of the fact that both the work of Inga Hägg and Agnes Geijer herself thoroughly refute this concept, the
myth continues. (18)

The theoretical evolution of this garment was already discussed in the introduction, so all further discussion will center on
the apron-dress worn in the 10th century.

It is now believed that the apron-dress was a status garment worn by married women and/or
women of wealth and rank. It is known that the apron-dresses tended to be brightly colored and
many appear to have been embellished with tablet woven or braided trim across the top of the
front portion. No examples of embroidered or metal trimmed apron-dresses have been found,
however there are only a few extant pieces of apron dresses and of those we have only small
portions. The fact that such things have not been found is not conclusive evidence that they
were not done. (18) Apron dresses may have also had trim or other embellishment at or near the
hem. None of the surviving apron-dress pieces found to date include a lower edge, so it is
impossible to determine whether they were embellished or not. We do
know that women’s gowns were apparently not trimmed at the hem,
probably because of the inevitable damage to the trimmings from daily
wear. We also know that at least some Viking men’s tunics had trim at the hem. Given that we
do not know how long the apron-dress was but are assuming that it fell somewhere between the
knee and ankle (2), it would not be entirely out of character to trim the front hem of the apron-
dress. (18) Additionally, many of the contemporary images of females from the Viking Age
show a woman wearing a long garment with a braid or trim at about knee height. These women
are depicted wearing a shawl which covers the upper portion of the body, so it is impossible to
tell which garment is being depicted, however, it seems logical to conclude that this may be the
decorated hem of the apron-dress layer.
Approximation of the
The majority of apron dresses appear to have been made of wool, but a few of them were made of Hedeby Apron-Dress
linen, and a few very luxurious ones were even lined with silk. The excavations at Hedeby
Scrap
included rags and pieces of used clothing that had been dipped in tar and used for caulking ships.
One of the textiles found is an oddly shaped piece that appears to have been part of an apron-dress. The fragment is wool
and is straight on one side it’s entire length. The other side is straight part-way down and then flares for the remainder.
The fragment is torn off approximately 9 ⅞” below the beginning of the flare. The fragment shows stitching holes on
both sides and a hem at the top. There is also a felted hole at the top which is assumed to be the location of a strap. This
textile fragment is, to date, our best clue about how 10th century apron-dresses may have been constructed. (2)

A number of possible reconstructions have been attempted based on this small scrap of evidence and the information
provided by Inga Hägg and other researchers that the apron-dresses appear to have been cut and constructed in panels.
This, together with our knowledge about the construction of the tunics/gowns has formed the basis of these attempted
recreations, some of which were reasonably successful while others were not. For the purposes of understanding the
rationale behind the recreation selected here, it is important to understand why other recreations did not work.

The first version involved cutting six pieces like the Hedeby scrap and sewing them together, straight sides to bias sides,
to form a tube. This creates a nice drape in the garment, but sewing all the straight sides to bias edges causes the seams to
twist and the garment to want to move around the wearer. Another version used four pieces shaped like the Hedeby
fragment and two large rectangles which served as flat front and back panels. Three variations of this were attempted.
The first involved sewing the straight sides of the shaped pieces together and the bias edges to the sides of the rectangles.
This results in a garment that has the drape located at the front and back of both hips and not enough drape over the hips.
The second variation involved sewing the Hedeby pieces as with the first recreation – straight side to bias side and then
sewing the whole to the rectangles. If done so that the bias side connects to the BACK rectangle on both sides, this
produces adequate fullness over the hips with some extra fullness at the back. The seams want to twist in wearing
however. The third variation involved sewing the bias edges to each other and the straight sides to the rectangles. Again,
the resulting garment does not twist, but it does not provide enough drape over the hips and looks odd. (2)

Other variations on the above experiments involve adding gores into the skirt to give it more fullness and drape. The
Vikings had and used gores to provide more fullness in their tunic and gown skirts and their coat/caftan skirts, so it is
likely that this idea would have been applied to the apron-dress as well. Adding gores to some of the experiments above
does improve the shape, fit and drape of the garments, but it still does not seem to be the final answer.

Archaeological evidence tells us only that ONE of the pieces used to construct a 10th century apron-dress looked like the
Hedeby fragment. The assumption has been that the other pieces must have looked like the Hedeby piece. But what if
that assumption is wrong, or at least, partially wrong? Given the way in which the Viking gowns and tunics were cut and
sewn, it seems clear that the Vikings, like the peoples of concurrent cultures, developed their patterns with an eye towards
creating as little waste fabric as possible. Even though the apron dress was a high status item, it does not follow that the
construction of the apron dress would be an exception to this rule. Therefore the goal must be to produce a somewhat
fitted garment with adequate flair and drape while minimizing the amount of fabric needed. This lead to the development
of the reconstruction discussed here. (2)

A B
E C D
F GH /
/

This reconstruction uses to pieces shaped like the Hedeby fragment which are sewn together to form a single panel. There
are two other panels identical in shape to the doubled Hedeby fragment, and three gores, one of which is formed from two
half gores. In terms of layout, this reconstruction results in a minimum of wasted fabric, especially when considering the
period loom widths which are narrower than the fabric we can purchase today. Assuming a bust measurement of 32”, a
desired total length of 45” and a loom width of 30” – an apron dress of this design can be made with a close just under 2
¼ yards of fabric, including fabric for making the straps. The final garment has a close fitting bust (a necessity when
wearing the heavy brooches!) and a skirt with a 90” hem. This makes a very attractive and well draped garment that
follows the principles of Viking garment construction as we understand them today.
No discussion of the apron-dress is complete without examining
the system of straps used to support the garment via the paired
brooches. Contrary to popular myth, the straps of the apron-dress
do not appear to have been wide strips of fabric. Archaeological
evidence suggests that instead they were narrow strips of fabric
that were sewn to the hemmed upper edge of the apron-dress to
form pairs of loops – short loops on the front and longer loops
reaching over the shoulders from the back. The paired brooches
didn’t insert their pin through the fabric of the straps, instead the
pin served as an anchor point over which the closed loops were
slipped and secured. It also appears that it was more usual to use
linen for the apron-dress straps, even when the body of the
Cutting Diagram for the Apron-Dress
garment was made of wool. According to Inga Hagg: “Around
the iron pin inside this, as is usual in these oval brooches, some
fragmentary linen loops were preserved. The ends of one of these had a number of half-dissolved stitches to which a
small portion of woolen fibers attached. When the fragment is put in place under the brooch the torn part of the hem fits
together with the ends of the short loop. It therefore seems reasonable to assume that the linen straps had originally been
sewn on to the hem of the woolen dress piece.” (Hägg, Inga. “Viking Women’s Dress at Birka: A Reconstruction by
Archaeological Methods”, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-
Wilson. Edited by N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting. London: Heinemann Educational Books, The Pasold Research Fund
Ltd., 1983. P. 335.) Inga Hagg again: “…it was previously assumed that the skirt in the Birka tombs would have been of
linen materials – the same material found in most (not all) of the preserved strap-and-loop-fragments inside the oval
brooches. Geijer took the remains in such cases to be the remains of the mantle – not surprisingly, in view of their
sometimes confusing find positions on top of the brooches. As a matter of fact, scrutiny of the find contexts has made it
possible to identify remains of a woolen skirt in 25 instances among the @140 female inhumation tombs with preserved
textiles at Birka, a comparatively high figure. (Hägg, Inga. “Viking Women’s Dress at Birka: A Reconstruction by
Archaeological Methods”, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-
Wilson. Edited by N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting. London: Heinemann Educational Books, The Pasold Research Fund
Ltd., 1983. P. 343.)

The Caftan
The outermost layer of clothing worn by Viking women has probably been the most frequently misunderstood. Many
statements have been made about this garment that were based more on misinterpretations of the work and evidence
uncovered than on factual information. For example, in Complete Anachronist #59: Women’s Garb in Northern Europe,
450-1000 C.E., the statement is made that “The caftan does not appear in the same graves as the gown layer. It appears to
be an early fashion abandoned by many in the tenth century.” (Preist-Dorman, Carolyn, Christina Krupp, R. E. Huston,
and Greg E. Priest-Dorman. (SCA – Mistress Thora Sharptooth, Countess Marieke van de Dal, Mistress Tera
Dragonstaff, and Dofinn-Hallr Morrisson). Complete Anachronist #59: Women’s Garb in Northern Europe, 450 –1000
C.E.: Frisians, Angles, Franks, Balts, Vikings and Finns. SCA Publications: Milpitas, California. P. 46.) This statement
is directly refuted by Inga Hägg’s work with the excavations at Birka. Her analysis of the textile remains lead her to the
following conclusion – “It is now possible to prove by the stratigraphical an other evidence exemplified here that
women’s dress included two further garments [in addition to the previously identified smock and apron-dress layers]: one
tunic worn under the skirt [apron-dress] and one long jacket worn over it. The mantle, on the other hand, does not seem to
have been in frequent use.” (Hägg, Inga. “Viking Women’s Dress at Birka: A Reconstruction by Archaeological
Methods”, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson. Edited by
N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting. London: Heinemann Educational Books, The Pasold Research Fund Ltd., 1983. P. 349.)

This conclusion is supported by analysis of the third brooch present in many of the female graves. In the graves dating
from the 7th and 8th centuries the third brooch appears to have been used to fasten a woolen mantle. While it still may
have fulfilled this function in some of the Birka tombs, the textile remains support the theory that in the 10th century the
caftan replaced the mantle as the standard “coat” layer. There are only three preserved instances in the 10th century Birka
graves where the pin of the third brooch-pin has been stuck directly through the wool in the way a mantle was
traditionally fastened. The woman’s caftan seems to have been fastened in front with a brooch that was passed through
loops sewn to the edges of the front opening of the caftan in an arrangement similar to that which supported the apron-
dresses. The textile remains found on the backs of these brooches consist, in the majority of such loops around the pin.
The front edges of the caftan, then, were kept apart by the brooch. (9)

Textile remains also indicate that the caftan was fitted to the body and constructed using methods similar to those of the
gown/tunic layer. The presence of wedges and joints in the preserved textile fragments support this theory. Silver bands
located around the wrist bones of one skeleton also indicate that the caftan probably had long sleeves. The presence of
silk ribbons, tablet-woven bands and other trimmings indicates that some of these caftans were heavily ornamented and
may have even been lined with silk. (9) “Especially characteristic of the under- and overtunic [the tunic and caftan
respectively] is the rich ornamentation with silk bands, embroidery, and braided bands [tablet-weaving], as well as
passements of gold and silver wire. In men’s and women’s costumes, the bands go along edges, over seams, around the
neck and sleeves, and sometimes even along the lower hem. These ornaments were primarily on the front of the garment.
This is particularly evident in the excavations of women’s graves where they never appear on the fragments of cloth from
the back side.” (Hägg, Inga. “Doe Tracht,” in Birka II:2, Systematische Analysen der Graberfund, edited by Greta
Arwidsson. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1986. P.65. Cited through the intermediary source - Ingstad, Anne Stine.
Trans. By Maggie Forest (SCA – Lady Muireann ingen Eoghain ua Maoil Mheaghna). “The Textiles in the Oseberg
Ship” in Textilsymposium Neumünster: Archäologische Textilfunde, 6.5. - 8.5.1981., ed. Lise Bender Jørgensen and Klaus
Tidow. Neumünster: Textilmuseum Neumünster, 1982.) Other textile remains show that plain, utilitarian versions of the
caftan existed, indicating that the caftan was an integral part of the costume. (9)

Colors Available to the Vikings

In general, dying was done after the fiber was spun but before it was woven into fabric. (18) A variety of dye stuffs were
available to the Vikings and the surrounding cultures from whom the Vikings obtained imported fabrics. Woad and
Indigo, which both contain the chemical indican, were used to produce black, deep blues, pale blue-grays, and when used
in a weak dye bath, light greens. (1) Although some costume historians have debated the use of blue in the Viking Age,
there is evidence that suggests that blues and greens may have been very popular colors for residents of Scandinavia while
other colors were preferred elsewhere, such as reds in the Danelaw and purples in Ireland. (17) In addition, the Eddasong
“Rigstula” (“The Younger Edda: Rigstula”) describes the Jarl’s mother as being dressed in a blue gown, while many of
the finest textiles found at Birka may have been blue. (5) This may indicate that blue was a status color in Scandinavia.

Madder roots, which grow throughout France, England and parts of Scandinavia, produce red dyes ranging from deep
brick red to bright orange red, all of which slowly fade to buff. In Turkey soap was used in the dying process to make the
color brighter. The Vikings are known to have traded for cloth from the Middle East, so bright reds are a possibility for
Viking Age clothing. Kermes, a bright true red made of the dried shells of beetles, was also available to the Vikings.
Kermes was produced on lands owned by Charlemagne and could have been purchased or acquired through other means.
Several figures on the Oseburg tapestries and a silk cuff from a grave find were dyed with Kermes. (1)

A range of purples was also available. Various lichens of the genera Rocella and Lexcanora are wide spread throughout
Europe and produce purple dyes that are fugitive (colors that fade in light). Silk textiles found in the Viking excavation at
Fishamble Street, Dublin contain traces of lichen purple. Murex and Thais mollusks also produce purple dye. A process
was developed in the 6th century that made it possible to preserve the mollusks for up to 6 months between the time they
were harvested and the time the dye was extracted. Murex dye was made by the Byzantines and was restricted to the
Byzantine court, but the dye or fabric dyed with it may have been available to the Vikings through trade or theft. (1)

Yellow fabrics found at Jorvik (Viking Age York) were dyed with weld, which is one of the most light-fast of the natural
yellow dyes. The leaves of the cherry tree, both wild and domestic, also produce a light fast yellow dye that is paler than
that produced by weld. Other natural yellow dyes, such as onion skins, were available to the Vikings, but they produce
colors that fade more rapidly with exposure to sunlight. (1)

A variety of browns and tans could be achieved using tannin based dyes such as walnut shells, oak galls and bark.
Additionally, the natural colors of the fibers could be used. Linen is naturally a creamy off-white to very light taupe and
can be bleached with urea and sunlight to white. Wool comes in all the colors of sheep, from white, cream, pale tan, and
light gray to dark gray, rich brown and black. (18)
Additional colors, such as greens, oranges and some shades of purple, were produced through overdying. Additional
variations in color could be produced through the use of mordants and/or alterants. Mordants are chemical substances that
encourage the fiber to accept the dye, may increase the color’s resistance to fading, and can darken or intensify the color.
Alum was available in the form of clubmoss as well as in mineral form. Iron salts could be achieved by dyeing in an iron
pot or by using iron implements in the dyeing process. Copper sulfate, also known as blue vitriol, may have been used.
We know that it was used in Italy in the 9th century to color glass, and we also know that the Vikings used copper pots for
cooking and other purposes. Alterants are substances that are added to the dye bath to change or alter the color. Known
alterants in the Viking Age include tannic acid, ammonia, cream of tartar, lye, urea, vinegar and lime. (1)

Fibers Available to the Vikings

Cotton
Cotton was available to Europe through trade with the Near East where it was worn and sold during the Viking Age.
Vikings may very well have bought and worn cotton and cotton silk blends believing that they were silk. Some museums
in Europe contain fabrics that are cotton, cotton blends or other fibers that were mistakenly labeled as silk. Although
cotton has never, to our knowledge, been found in any Viking graves, this is not conclusive evidence that they did not
have it. Cotton rots easily in damp ground and does not survive burial well so it is unlikely that cotton would have
survived to be excavated, and any surviving fragments may have been misidentified in the past. (1)

Linen
Flax, the fiber from which linen is made, is grown throughout Europe, including Scandinavia. Most of the linen found in
the garment textiles however is of a finer quality than that which appears to have been local manufacture. It is suspected,
therefore, that most of the linen for garments was imported from Kiev, where an extensive linen industry had developed at
an early stage. (7) The most common weaves found in the garment linens are tabbies. Tabby weaves are basic, over one,
under one weaves, with possible variations and more rarely, simple twills. (18)

Linen was available in blends with other fibers in addition to its presence as a pure linen textile. Linen and silk blends use
linen for the warp which is hidden beneath the silk weft. The silk fibers take dye easily and consequently, these linen silk
blends would have been brightly colored. (18) Wool/linen brocades consist of a linen warp, linen weft and a pattern weft
of wool (the pattern is worked in colored wool against the white linen background). The patterns consist of geometrical
figures. Textiles of this variety were found in the Oseburg burial. (10)

Linen is very difficult to dye using natural dyes. Most of the natural dyes that achieve bright colors on wool will produce
only pastel colors on linen and the dye will usually fade or wash out quickly. Only two types of natural dyes are
successful on linen: woad and tannin based dyes. Woad will create a range of medium to light blues, blue-green and
bluish-purple colors when used on linen. Onion skins will dye linen to a rich golden color, and walnut shells, oak galls
and bark will create a range of browns and tans. (18)

Thanks to the work of Agnes Geijer and Inga Hägg we have confirmation of the existence of the linen smock as a true
undergarment. The pleated smocks worn at Birka take advantage of the nature of linen as a textile in that it takes a crease
easily and hold that shape through multiple wearings. These pleated smocks must have been made of linen. The Hedeby
and Oseburg smocks need not have been specifically made of linen, but archaeological evidence suggests that smocks
made of linen were the rule and smocks of wool or other fibers were the exception. Given the expectation that this layer
of clothing would receive more frequent washing than outer garments, and as a result of constant exposure to the skin
which would affect the color of any dyes used, it is presumed that the smock layer was made of undyed linen. (1)

The gown layer worn over the smock and under the apron-dress was sometimes made of linen. This gown layer might be
dyed or undyed. It was once believed that the Birka apron-dresses were only made of linen. Inga Hägg’s work with the
excavated textile fragments has revealed that most apron-dresses were made of wool, but some were made of linen. Linen
was also used as a lining for some, though not all, caftans. Linen thread seems to have been a common choice, regardless
of the textiles being sewn. One wool caftan was found at Birka that was lined with silk and sewn with linen. (1)

Modern versions of the period linen are not easy to find, however substitutes can be found. The linen found in the smock
layer of the grave finds is woven from thin threads in a loose tabby weave that can be seen through. Modern cotton
broadcloth is woven in a tabby weave with threads of approximately the right size, but the weave is too tight to properly
approximate the period linen. Modern suit-weight linens and linen-look fabrics have similar thread counts, but the threads
are too thick. Handkerchief linen or linen-look makes a good substitute for gowns and unpleated smocks. Cotton voile or
batiste makes a better substitute for pleated smocks, although the fabric will not pleat as well. It is important that pleated
smocks are made of a very fine fabric so that the smock is not bulky. Cotton or poly/cotton broadcloth is adequate for
linings. Use all of these fabrics in natural colors – cream, white, very pale yellow, very pale beige, or very pale gray. The
gown, apron-dress and linings can also be in tannic dye colors (soft yellow, tan or light brown), or light blues.

Wool
Wool is produced from the hair of sheep, which the Vikings took with them wherever they established permanent
settlements. As with the linen fabrics, Agnes Geijer believes that the woolen textiles used for clothing were imported
while those produced locally were used for furnishings and for the clothing of the lower classes. The majority of woolen
fabrics found at Birka are classified as worsteds – fabrics woven with yarn made from combed wool which produces a
glossy surface without any sign of wooliness. A number of these fabrics are in a tabby weave, while the others are all
twills. Twill weaves have a ribbed texture made up of diagonal lines that may run continuously or be broken into
chevrons, lozenge shapes or combinations of all three. It is believed that the fine wools used for clothing at Birka were
imported from Syria. (7) The sheep kept by the Vikings produced coarser, shorter and less easily spun wool than their
southern counterparts, so the finer grade textiles could not have been a local product. (1)

Natural wool is found in a variety of brown shades including blonde, grays, black, and of course, white. Wool takes
natural dyes fairly easily, producing bright colors on white or light colored wool. Dark wool could be over-dyed with
black or brown to distribute the color more evenly, producing cloth of a durable and uniform black or dark brown. (1)

Just as it does today, wool textiles in the Viking Age came in a variety of weights and textures that were suited to a variety
of purposes.

Rain capes were made of heavy-weight wool that was spun loosely and woven very coarsely. The yarn was not washed or
dyed before spinning and weaving, leaving the natural oils which repel rain intact. A long pile of combed, slightly twisted
sheep’s wool was threaded through the weave with a needle, leaving both ends of the pile hanging free. This created a
nap about an inch long. The hairs of the pile could be curled tightly or left untwisted, which would have looked like the
shaggy fur of an animal. The cloaks were worn with the pile on the outside to shed the rain. A fragment from the Viking
barrow at Cronk Moar, Isle of Man, has 5 thread by 8 threads per inch in the base weave, compared to a modern heavy
wool coat with has 10 or more threads per inch. Another sample found at Birka is made from two natural colors of
unspun wool. (1)

Mid-weight wools, those fabrics with more than 20 but less than 40 threads per inch and with a weave that is clearly
visible, were used for cowls, tunics, and men’s pants. (1)

Light-weight wool, of the type believed to have been imported from Syria, was used for the majority of Viking Age
clothes. Men’s tunics and women’s gowns were made of this material and might be embroidered, or trimmed with silk,
silk ribbons, metal-brocaded silk ribbons and/or fur. Apron-dresses and caftans were also made of this material, and may
have been trimmed or embellished. Some caftans and apron-dresses were fully lined with silk. Another status garment
that was definitely worn by men and may have been worn by women of high rank as well was the cape. These light-
weight capes were not heavy enough to provide much warmth. They were highly decorated with embroidery, appliqué,
metal work, metal-brocaded bands and silver or gold spangles. (1)

Not all wool clothing was made of woven textiles. Sprang and looped-needle-netting techniques were used to make such
items as socks and mittens. (1)

A modern version of the rain capes can be made from synthetic fleece (the variety that uses a slightly curly pile set into a
knit backing that resembles a sheep’s pelt) or fake fur with a pile about an inch long in natural wool colors. Spray the pile
with water repellant, such as Scotchguard. You can create a pattern by inserting contrasting colors of natural colored
wool yarns or tufts of real wool into the fake fur with a needle – comb it afterwards to relax the twist of the modern yarn.
Inserting a layer of water-proof nylon between the fake fur and a woven lining will make the cloak both wind and rain
proof. (1)
The wool fabrics carried in greatest abundance by modern fabric stores are mid-weight twills with thread counts of about
30 threads to the inch. These tend to be colored herringbones and plaids. Although we have no historical data to support
Vikings using these patterns, many people use them anyway. Wool blends and synthetics that imitate wool or this weight
are also good choices for tunics, gowns and pants. In warmer regions heavier weights of linen, linen blends or linen looks
can also replicate the look of wool fabrics. (1)

Modern dress weight wools with a thread count of 50 by 60 threads per inch, or similar wool blends or synthetic
substitutes, make good ceremonial capes and higher status gowns and apron-dresses. Most of the twills woven in Viking
times used a warp in one color and a weft in another, which causes the pattern to stand out. Look for light-weight
herringbone twills or tabby weaves with a slight rib. (1)

Silk
Silks were imported from Iran and the eastern Mediterranean. The most common variety was a multi-colored compound
twill known as samitum, followed closely by plain tabby silk. Less common was tabby weave silk called taffeta, which,
unlike modern taffeta, had a distinct rib. Even more rare was damask, a single color fabric where the pattern is created by
raising it above the surface of the fabric, or printed silk. Silk is naturally a pale grayish or creamy colored fiber, but it
could be bleached to pure white. Silk takes most natural dyes very well. It was usually dyed where it was made, in
Byzantium or the Orient.

The Old Norse word for silk is “serk”, which is also a Norse word for “shirt”. This has been interpreted to mean that
some garments may have been made entirely of silk. Support for this theory can be found in a variety of Viking Age
sources. A man’s colored silk garments from Arabia were rumored to be among the treasures that fell into Irish hands
when the Irish won Limerick back from the Vikings in the mid-9th century. Silk caftans have also been found in the
graves of very wealthy men. Although no garments made wholly of silk have been found in any women’s graves, that
does not mean that they did not exist. In addition to large clothing items, a number of accessory items have been found
that were made of silk, including – scarves of fabrics resembling silk chiffon and silk broadcloth, caps made of silk taffeta
and tabby woven silk from 10th century Jorvik, a silk headband trimmed with gold brocaded-tablet weaving at Mammen,
Denmark, and wool stuffed bracelets or wristlets also found at Mammen. The bracelets are made of silk taffeta, lined with
silk broadcloth and trimmed with samite and fancy tablet weaving. The bracelets and headband were probably worn by a
man, but that does not limit their use to men only. (1)

Silk fabrics also had other applications in Viking Times. Solid color silks, usually relatively heavy silk taffeta or
broadcloth was used to line caftans and apron-dresses. Strips of single color and patterned silks were used to decorate
non-silk fabrics. It might be used as the trim itself, or as a background for another trim, such as a tablet-woven band. In
some cases silks of two or more colors might be layered to create a decorative affect, such as cuff from Lund, Sweden
which used three narrow strips of gold-colored silk appliquéd onto a base of red silk. Silk thread was used to make
brocaded tablet-woven bands used as trims for garments and for fillets, as well as for embroidery. This thread resembled
modern silk embroidery floss. (1)

Modern substitutes for period silks are not easy to find. Period damasks were geometric rather than floral, but if the silk is
to be cut up and used in narrow strips the pattern is less important. Look for modern silk, polyester and other shiny
damasks. Samite is closest to the fabric used for patterned silk neckties, which can make a great source for small amounts
of silk. Other modern substitutes are modern blouse-weight silks and polyesters with a pattern and a shiny finish. As with
the damasks, the patterns need not be period as long as the fabric is cut into narrow strips of an inch or less. Period taffeta
is much closer to modern silk, polyester or acetate file that it is to most modern taffetas. Some modern taffetas do have a
distinct rib, but most do not. Plain tabby silk can be imitated with any plain, shiny, even weave fabric with no ribs or
surface designs, such as taffeta or blouse-weight silks and synthetics. A period plain-woven fabric made from very fine,
hard twisted thread that closely resembles modern chiffon was used for scarves. (1)

Seams and Sewing Techniques

The Vikings appear to have been skillful tailors. The pieces of their garments that remain reveal considerable
sophistication in cut and execution. (12) It is important to remember, however, that the Vikings were much more relaxed
about letting a seam show on the outside of garment than we are. In fact, extra attention was often called to the seams by
using thread in a contrasting color, sometimes in a decorative stitch, or by sewing narrow braids down over the seams on
the outside of the garment. (17) Perhaps this difference in aesthetics arose from the amount of labor involved in making a
garment – richer, higher ranker Vikings who had more time and materials to devote to the making of clothing could afford
the luxury of clothing that fit better by utilized more cutting and sewing, and wanted to call attention to that fact. We will
never know, but the fact remains that Viking aesthetics regarding garment construction are not the same as our modern
aesthetics.

In general, the thread used to sew a garment together was composed of the same fiber as the textile it was used on. Wool
and linen sewing threads were usually two-ply (two strands twisted together), while silk was usually single-ply. Wool
threads were the coarsest, ranging from 0.8-1.5mm in diameter. Linen threads were finer, at 0.4-1.0mm and silk threads
ranged from 0.3-0.8mm in diameter.

The running stitch forms the basis for almost all the construction seams in the textiles at Birka, Hedeby and Jorvik. The
running stitch is done through two or more layers of fabric with the needle going up and down in a straight line. The
thread forms a dashed line and the stitch has very little elasticity and may break if used on stretchy fabrics or on the bias.
Running stitch was not, however, the only stitch used in garment construction. At Jorvik, for example, a common way to
join two pieces of silk or wool was to use the overcast stitch. Overcast stitch is done through the edge of one or more
layers of fabric. The needle goes through the fabric from one side and is brought around the edge to go through the fabric
again from the same side. The thread forms a spiral going around the edge of the fabric. It was used to join raw edges of
wool fabrics, folded under edges of finer wools or silks, or rolled edges of silks. Hemstitch, which we tend to think of as
being useful only in hemming garments, was also used to join pieces of fabric. In hemstitch the folded edge of the fabric
is held flat against the main fabric and the needle is passed down through the main fabric alone and then up through all the
layers. The thread forms a series of diagonals crossing the line of the edge. In the Viking Age hemstitch was frequently
used to create flat-felled seams by folding both edges together and then hemstitching down both sides of the join.
Backstitch, which is similar to running stitch but each stitch backtracks when it come up through the fabric to create a
looped thread track, appears to be a later development and was not used in the Viking Age. (11)

In general, the stitching of the Viking age was very fine. Wools were usually worked with 1-3 stitches per centimeter,
depending on the quality and weight of the wool. Linen was worked with 3-5 stitches per centimeter and silk with 4-6
stitches per centimeter. (12)

Seam Finishes
Viking Age tailors used a variety of seam finishes. Seams were almost never left unfinished as seam finishes contribute
not only to the strength of the seam but also to the overall preservation of the garment by preventing the cut edges of the
fabric from fraying. Some times the two edges were treated separately. Each edge was folded under, pressed flat against
the underlying material and sewn into place using another running stitch or a an overcast stitch. Variations on modern
French seams are also found – in this case the original seam was sewn with a running stitch and then the two raw edges
were folded inward towards each other and sewed together with an overcast stitch. The double hemstitched seam
mentioned above creates a neat flat felled finish. Another way to accomplish a flat felled seam was to sew the initial seam
in a running stitch, and then treating the raw edges as one, fold them towards the underlying material and fix into place
with either a running stitch or a hem stitch. (11 & 12)

In general, necklines were not finished with a facing, although a few examples of this technique have been found. More
commonly necklines were either enclosed or edged with a strip of contrasting fabric or tablet woven trims. Enclosing
necklines is like using modern bias tape, except that the Vikings do not seem to have cut their fabric strips on the bias.
Strips of fabric about 1” wide or less had the raw edges folded in. The resulting “tape” was folded over the raw edge of
the garment and sewn down with a running stitch or, more commonly, an overcast stitch so that the stitching caught both
edges of the contrast fabric and secured it to the garment. Edging could be done with the same type of fabric strips or
with tablet-woven or braided trims. The raw edge of the garment was laid over the trim or “tape” so that the edge fell at
about the middle of the trim. This was then stitched into place, usually with a running stitch. The trim was then folded
back onto the garment and stitched into place with a running or overcast stitch. This creates a fold at the edge of the
garment and a decorative line of trim which covers the raw edge just inside the outer edge of the garment. (11 & 17)

Hems, in general, were done with the hemstitch. The primary differences between hemming methods seems to be in the
way the raw edges were folded before being sewn. Hems on silk were generally rolled and sewn with an overcast stitch.
Heavier wool fabrics were frequently folded only once, to the inside of the garment, and secured with hemstitching.
Linen and lighter wools were generally double folded towards the inside of the garment and hemstitched. In some cases
the double fold was folded towards the OUTSIDE of the garment and sewn into place using a decorative stitch, such as
the herringbone stitch. (12)

Wrists and other small areas were often finished with the same techniques as the neckline, however they could be
hemmed in the same manner as the skirt as well. The finish used on individual garments appears to have depended on the
amount of embellishment the garment was going to receive.

Embellishments Used in the Viking Age

Appliqué
Viking Age tailors used two kinds of appliqué to enrich their garments. The first kind is the most common – strips of
contrasting fabric, usually silk, were applied to the garment as trims and decorative elements. These strips were applied
as trims around the neck and at the ends of the sleeves of the gown layer, at the top edge of the apron-dress, and possibly
also at the hem as well, and around the neck, ends of the sleeves and the front edges of the caftan. Additional strips might
be used to cover seams or be placed across the chest, running up the arms or in blocks on the skirt or across the front of
the skirt above the hem. (18)

The second kind of appliqué is what modern people think of when they hear the term – sewing pieces of fabric cut out in
various shapes on to a background of another fabric. This type of appliqué usually also involves embellishing the cut out
shapes, either before or after applying them to the ground fabric. Evidence that this type of appliqué’ was used to
embellish women’s clothing comes from the Oseburg burial. Queen Aasa wore a blue garment that had been appliquéd
with animal shapes cut out from a different blue cloth. Due to the fragmentary nature it has not been determined if this
was the gown, apron-dress or possibly a caftan – further analysis of the textile remains will be needed to make that
determination, if it is even possible as all the jewelry was stripped from both bodies and it has been from the order of the
textile layers preserved within the brooches that such determinations have been made in other finds. Nevertheless, one of
the woman’s garments was decorated with appliqués shaped like animals. (5)

In addition, the light-weight “status cloaks” were sometimes decorated with appliqué in addition to the embroidery, trims
and other ornamentation. Finally among the textile finds at Birka were small shapes made of silver and gold wire that are
something between appliqué and embroidery. These pieces were labeled “Stickerei” by Agnes Geijer who believes that
they may not truly be embroideries in that some of them do not appear to have been done with a needle. Some are worked
upon a woven ground while others were created free-form without any ground fabric. Similar examples were also found
in Gotland. These wire pieces were applied to various items of clothing as embellishments. (7)

Embroidery
Embroidery was a relatively late development in Viking culture. The Vikings do not appear to have taken up this art form
until the first half of the 9th century when the Vikings began to imitate the arts of many of their neighbors. Two
distinctive styles of embroidery developed: a style influenced by lands to the west and represented mostly by finds at
Bjerringhøj (Mammen parish, Denmark) and Jorvik; and a style influenced by lands to the east and represented mostly by
finds at Birka and Valsgärde. (16)

The western style was probably learned from the Anglo-Saxons. It was composed of fiber-on-fiber stitchery and used
stitches that are still known in the modern world, such as stemstitch, couching, and chain stitch. The earliest known
example of this style of embroidery is from the Oseburg burial. In addition to the appliqué mentioned above, Queen
Aasa’s clothing was also decorated with embroidery and her attendant’s gown was embellished with free-hand
embroidery in the shape of animal faces. (16)

The eastern style of embroidery was probably Kievan Rus, Byzantine or Slavic in origin. It depended heavily on silver
wire or silver wrapped thread for its decorative effect. This style of decoration is more appropriately called “textile
surface decoration” than true embroidery. It involves a few techniques that were worked with a needle, such as
stemstitch, and surface couching, but much of the style depends on ösenstich which is easier to work with just the wire
itself than with a needle. Ösenstich uses a wire (approximately 26 gauge beading wire) to work rows of closely-spaced
mesh stitch into strips of tubing, flattened metallic trimmings or three-dimensional shapes. The wire constructions were
then sewn onto garments as ornaments. (16)
Viking embroidery really did not catch on as a common means of garment embellishment until the 10th century. A late
10th century grave find from Bjerringhøj (Mammen parish) yielded a quantity of embroidered clothing. Two different
garments, believed to be a tunic and a cloak, are embroidered with several different motifs worked in stem stitch.
Although both the ground fabrics and the wool floss have been reduced to brown, it is thought that the fabrics were
brightly colored and that there were two different, contrasting, colors of wool floss. The base cloth also shows evidence
of multitudes of other needle holes indicating that there was other embroidery, perhaps worked in linen, which has
decayed completely. Only one example of embroidery has been found in Jorvik. It is a crude silk cross worked in chain
stitch on the outer layer of a silk samite bag which may have been a reliquary. The bag dates from the late 10th or early
11th century. (16)

Three Viking graves at Valsgärde in Sweden yielded examples of eastern style spun silver-thread embroidery worked on
silk grounds. All the examples date from the 10th century, and all appear to have been used as garment trimmings.
Additional examples of eastern style embroidery were found in five graves at Birka. The graves, which belong to both
men and women, all date to the 10th century. Stem stitch is employed in all five graves, but the materials vary – silk floss
on silk fabric, wool floss on wool fabric, and silk floss and gold thread on an unknown (completely decayed) background.
(16)

One additional type of embroidery used during the Viking Age is the decoration of seams. This practice actually pre-
dates the Vikings but the practice continued throughout the Viking Age. One of the Oseburg garments seams is oversewn
with a loop stitch using a doubled thread. (16)

The embroidery materials in use during the Viking Age include flosses of wool, linen and silk, threads and wires of gold
and silver, and background fabrics of wool, linen and silk. Some embroideries were executed so as to completely cover
the background material and some were not. Some examples of Viking embroidery are crude and unsophisticated, while
others are incredibly precise, beautiful and ingenious. (12)

The motifs used in Viking embroideries range from those that appear to be very Byzantine in origin and those that appear
to be Anglo-Saxon in origin, to those that appear to be purely Viking. Byzantine styles are represented by highly ornate
motifs made up of geometric shapes and “classical” borders. Anglo-Saxon influence can be felt in foliage based motifs of
twining vines, which strongly resemble the border vegetation motifs from the Winchester school of illumination. Viking
style designs involve human and animal figures, usually highly stylized and often interlaced. (12)

Tablet Weaving/Metal Trims

“Especially characteristic of the under- and overtunic [the tunic and caftan respectively] is the rich ornamentation with
silk bands, embroidery, and braided bands [tablet-weaving], as well as passements of gold and silver wire. In men’s and
women’s costumes, the bands go along edges, over seams, around the neck and sleeves, and sometimes even along the
lower hem.” (Hägg, Inga. “Doe Tracht,” in Birka II:2, Systematische Analysen der Graberfund, edited by Greta
Arwidsson. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 1986. P.65. Cited through the intermediary source - Ingstad, Anne Stine.
Trans. By Maggie Forest (SCA – Lady Muireann ingen Eoghain ua Maoil Mheaghna).

Tablet weaving has been known in Scandinavia since the Bronze Age. The oldest Scandinavian tablets were found in
Denmark and are dated to between 200 BC and 200 AD. Examples of tablet weaving have been found that date back to
the Migration Era (300-550 AD) and as late as 1300. Many examples have been found that date from the Viking Age. (1)

Tablet weaving appears to have begun as a method of creating a starting border for fabric woven on the warp weighted
loom. Plain weaves executed separately from the fabric began to appear as belts and other fastenings during the Bronze
Age. Decorative techniques were developed and by the Viking Age the most popular form of tablet weaving was
brocading. Brocaded tablet weaving is done by adding decorative gold or silver threads as an extra weft on top of a plain
weave ground. The ground is normally of a single color, but could also be multi-colored. (1) Most of the extant examples
of tablet-weaving from the Viking Age have not been tested for dyestuffs, due to their fragmentary state. In many cases,
the only part of the band that remains is the metallic weft, making it impossible to determine the color of the background.
The few bands that have been tested generally reveal that they were originally a bright color, such as red, blue or purple,
against which the metallic weft would have shown up very well. Testing and observation of these bands shows that the
Vikings seem to have worn much more silver trim then gold, while their Saxon and Frankish neighbors showed a marked
preference for gold. (14)

Agnes Geijer postulates that, although advanced tablet-weaving techniques existed in Scandinavia even before the Viking
Age, the majority of tablet-woven bands found in the excavations at Birka were actually imported from Byzantium. This
theory appears to be corroborated by the discovery of two groups of related embroideries and tablet-woven bands found in
Durham, England and Maeseyck, Belgium and dated to 905-16 AD and about 850 AD respectively. The linking factor is
that in all of the bands believed to be of Byzantine origin, the thread is manufactured by wrapping the metal around a core
of fiber (silk, linen or horsehair) rather than using solid wire type threads. Additionally, the metallic threads are
introduced singly, rather than in pairs as is done in the work identified as domestic, which would testify that these bands
were the product of a higher standard of craftsmanship than that established in the west at that time. (7)

With the exception of the bands produced by the Anglo-Saxons, most early period brocaded trims used geometric patterns
such as diagonals, triangles, lozenges, strapwork, broken combs, crosses in saltire, S-patterns, swastikas, chevrons and
stylized Tree of Life patterns. The Anglo-Saxons added scrolling vines, acanthus leaves, scrollwork, floriated crosses and
stylized animals such as birds, lions and dragons to the tablet-weaving repertoire. Conspicuously absent, however, are
patterns based on paisleys, flowers, circles or half circles. (14)

The tablet-woven bands tend to be very narrow. Although some examples from the 5th through the 7th centuries measure
as wide as 1¼”, the trims used in the Viking Age were considerably narrower. The majority of the brocaded bands found
at Birka and dating from the 9th and 10th centuries measure about 3/8”, with some as narrow as 1/8” and a few as wide as
¾”. The brocaded bands found in the grave at Mammen measure ½” wide. (14)

Metal Spangles
The 10th century man’s grave at Bjerringhøj, Mammen parish, Denmark contained a cloak made of light-weight wool that
was embellished with embroidery and enriched with gold spangles on the chest sewn on in the shape of a cross. (1 & 18)

Accessories
Headdresses
The use of various forms of headdresses appears to have become more common in the 10th century. This seems to
represent the increasing importance of Christianity, as finds of headdresses are more numerous in Viking settlements in
areas that were already Christian. The more remote locations, which retained the pagan practices longer, yield far fewer
finds of this type. There are a few examples of 9th century headwear. Two from Birka yielded a silver-brocaded tablet-
woven band worn as a fillet and the remnants of a cap that had been decorated with a silver-brocaded tablet-woven band.
The remains of the cap were only preserved by the presence of the metal in the tablet-woven band. It is possible that such
caps were common in Birka but that the use of the metal-brocaded trim was not. (18)

Two other 9th century examples come from the Oseburg burial. Both women in the tomb were buried with veils of a
gauze-like weave – the Queen’s was of linen and the servant’s was of wool. Neither veil shows any evidence of having
been knotted around the head or hair, but no other clues about the method in which they were worn survive. It is known
that the grave was plundered in antiquity and that every item of jewelry and portable item of value was taken. Given this,
it is reasonable to theorize that both women wore the veils in the style of their Frankish neighbors to the south – that is, a
tablet-woven band, often gold- or silver-brocaded, was worn fillet wise around
the head, and the veil, which was placed over the head, was pinned to the band
at the temples with small gold or silver pins. The grave robbers would have
taken the metal-brocaded bands and the veil pins when the other valuables
were plundered. This theory is supported, at least in part, by the silver-
brocaded fillet found at Birka. (18)

The 10th century finds at Birka yielded a number of women’s graves with
silver-brocaded bands worn fillet-wise. Other graves yielded the remains of Jorvik and Dublin Caps
silk or wool caps that had been embellished with silver-brocaded bands. More
complete caps, or coifs, in three styles were found at excavations at Jorvik,
Dublin and Lincoln. The Jorvik find revealed a complete silk cap with linen ties. The cap is constructed from a rectangle
with the fold on the top of the head. The seam at the back of the head has been sewn closed and the seam forms a curve at
the top that follows the shape of the head. The Dublin caps were predominately made of wool. Like the Jorvik cap, they
are constructed from a rectangle with the seam sewn closed at the back. Unlike the Jorvik cap, however, the join between
the fold at the top and the seam at the back is a straight line sewn on the outside of the cap. The remaining fabric has not
been cut away. The Lincoln cap is not sewn together done the back at all, perhaps to allow the Viking knotted hairstyle to
show. None of these caps have been found with tablet-woven decoration, but some of them were brightly colored. (18)

Hairstyles
Viking women apparently wore a variety of hairstyles. It is believed that early Viking women, those who lived in before
the 9th century, probably did not wear a headdress at all. The increasing influence of the Christian Church and their
Christian neighbors brought about the fashion for covering women’s hair, though pagan Vikings may have continued to
leave their hair uncovered. All of our knowledge of Viking Age hairstyles comes from contemporary depictions of
women. These depictions are difficult to interpret accurately as the representations are highly stylized. Two hogback
stones in Lowther, Cumbria depict women with their hair worn in two braids on either side of the head, but the vast
majority of Viking artwork depicts women wearing their hair tied in a knot on the back of the head with the length of the
hair allowed to fall free like a ponytail. It is possible that these representations actually depict a knotted scarf, however
archaeological evidence has unearthed nothing to support this theory. Additionally, at least two bog finds dating from the
Bronze Age have been found that have their hair twisted up into knotted ponytail hairstyles similar to those depicted in
Viking Age artwork. (18 & 19)

Shawls
Shawls are more pictured far more frequently in Viking art than they are encountered in Viking graves. There is evidence
that the shawl or mantle was a regular item of dress in the 7th and 8th centuries but was slowly replaced by the caftan in the
9th century. It may be that the shawl was considered to be an informal garment and was not fancy enough to wear to the
grave. (18)
Stockings
Linen and wool stockings were worn by both the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons during the pre-Viking Age and throughout
the Viking Age. Although no textile remains identified as stockings have been found in Viking graves, it is not
unreasonable to assume that, like the linen of the smock layer, the textiles simply did not survive burial. Socks and
stockings have been found that were made using both sprang and looped-needle-netting techniques. The stockings reach
to the knee, while the socks appear to have come up only to just above the ankle. (1)

Shoes
Examples of Viking Age footwear are relatively plentiful, especially from the excavations in Viking Age towns. The
Vikings wore a variety of footwear, including shoes, ankle-boots and high boots. Vikings do seem to have preferred
shoes and short boots over high boots. The uppers are usually made of goat-skin, with a separate sole. The shoes and
boots were usually fastened with a strap that might tie or buckle, or they open down the middle and lace up using leather
thongs. The edges of the opening were often reinforced and the uppers, which were sometimes dyed various colors, might
have ornamental seams. By the 10th century footwear was being made by specialists and shoe making was fairly
standardized over large areas. Another kind of footwear that probably had an eastern origin, deriving from Russia and the
Baltic lands, was the felted boot. These boots were made of wool felt formed to the foot and were made to slip on, rather
like modern snow boots. (19)

Belts
To date no archaeological remains have been found to indicate that Viking women wore belts, although some garments
show wear around the waste that might indicate that presence of a belt. Presumably, since no metal belt fittings or leather
remains have been found in a woman’s grave, women’s belts might have been made of tablet-woven silk, linen or wool
instead. There is evidence that some men wore pouches hanging from their belts, but the evidence is less clear for women
wearing pouches. We do know that women hung various implements such as knives, scissors and toilet instruments from
special chains or straps looped over the paired brooches that supported the apron-dress. (18) We might logically assume
that a pouch, and therefore a belt, would be unnecessary when wearing the apron-dress. If we accept the conclusion that
the apron-dress was a status garment, and therefore not worn on a daily basis by most women, then we must consider the
possibility that women might have worn a belt on a daily basis but were buried in their formal wear.
 Mittens
Mittens made of sprang, needle-looping or sewn from wool or wool felt were common accessories worn by Viking Age
women. (1 & 18)

Jewelry
“Each woman carries on her bosom a container made of iron, silver, copper, or gold – its size and substance depending on
her man’s wealth. Attached to the container is a ring carrying her knife which is also tied to her bosom. Round her neck
she wear gold or silver rings; when a man amasses 10,000 dirhems [Arabic coins] he makes his wife one gold ring; when
he has 20,000 he makes two; and so the woman gets a new ring for every 10,000 dirhems her husband acquires, and often
a woman has many of these rings.” Ibn Fadlan describing a party of northern merchants he met on the River Volga,
c.920.

Brooches
Having established that Viking women of rank and/or wealth wore the apron-dress on formal occasions, it is important to
examine the paired brooches that were used to support this garment. Paired brooches have been found in graves all over
Scandinavia and Viking settlements outside Scandinavia, but only in the graves of women whose other accoutrements
established them as at least moderately wealthy. (19) The brooches, which were worn in pairs, had hollow convex shells
with a pin fitted inside so that the dress loops would have been concealed in use. Not all the paired brooches are oval –
the women of Gotland appear to have preferred smaller, stylized animal heads to support their apron-dresses, and on very
rare occasions, women of great wealth and importance were found with unique brooches; such as a pair of German
enameled brooches found in a grave at Birka. (8) The paired oval brooches are, however, the most common variety
found. These brooches were, for the most part, mass produced in bronze or pewter. The ornamentation on them was
stereotyped and the mass produced brooches can be traced to a few designs. Only the very wealthy could afford to have
unique jewelry specially made for them by a great craftsman. Though a few such examples of clearly unique brooches
made of gold or silver exist, most people contented themselves with mass-produced gilt bronze imitations. (19)

In many of the graves a third brooch appears in a prominent position on the chest. This brooch was used to fasten the
caftan or, in the earlier graves, the shawl. These brooches took many forms, including round, oblong or stylized animal
shapes. They range from cast disks of bronze or silver to highly elaborate composite brooches, such as those from
Gotland that look like round boxes. These are probably the brooches described by Ibn Fadlan in the quote above. The
most common variety have two symmetrical arms or are three lobed – both shapes that were inspired by Frankish
fashions. As with the paired brooches, a few very rich women appear to have had specially made brooches but the
majority of women made due with mass-produced brooches of gilt bronze. (8 & 19)

A fourth brooch encountered almost exclusively in the 10th century graves at Birka is the small brooch that held the neck
of the pleated smock closed. These brooches are all quite small, about 1” across, and appear to always be round. (9)

Necklaces
Viking women wore a variety of necklaces. The neck rings mentioned in the by Ibn Fadlan were generally made of gold
or silver wires or rods that were twisted or plaited together. Like the Celtic torques, some of these neck rings were open
and finished with ornaments on the ends. These rings may have been worn with the opening at the front. Other neck
rings were closed, graduated circles that slipped on over the head. The thickest part of the ring may have been worn in
front, and the join was usually covered with a bead. These were clearly status symbols. (8)

Elaborate necklaces of silver, or more rarely of gold, were testaments to the skill of the Viking gold and silver smiths.
Contrary to popular myth, the constructed necklaces, whether made up of beads, silver, coins or other materials, show
great attention to detail and symmetry. The famous rock crystal necklace found in Sweden is composed of 10 matched
sets of rock crystal pendants of graduated size and a single, larger rock crystal pendant. The crystal pendants are
separated by ornate silver beads which are also paired and graduated. Another famous necklace is comprised of Arabic
coins that have had loops attached to each side and are connected by large silver loops, forming a chain of alternating
coins and loops. (8 & 19)

Vikings used beads of a variety of materials, including ornate silver or gold worked beads, amber, crystal, carnelian,
multi-colored glass (both shiny and frosted) including single color and milefiori, freshwater pearls, carved bone and
carved stone, including very simple faceting. Vikings were fond of adding pendants to their necklaces. The pendants
might be made of fancy beads strung on loops of silver wire, Arabic or Oriental coins with attached loops, cast medallions
in a variety of shapes including Thor’s hammers and crosses, and found items such as Frankish or Anglo-Saxon book or
belt mounts and other items. (8 & 19)

Festoons
In addition to necklaces, Viking women hung festoons of beads, with and without pendants, from the paired brooches
supporting the apron dress. The festoons were made in the same fashion and of the same materials as the necklaces. (8 &
15)

Bracelets
Viking men and women wore arm rings, or bracelets, which were generally made like smaller versions of the neck rings.
Arm rings were also made from wide bands of silver or gold, which were embellished with stamped ornamentation. The
very rich had cast bracelets made in their own designs.

Earrings
Another misconception is that Viking women did not have earrings. This is not entirely true. While it is true that we have
no knowledge of earrings being made in Viking areas, earrings imported from Baltic and Slavic areas have been found in
Sweden. These are not earrings in the modern sense – they do not go through the ear lobe as our modern earrings do.
These earring hang from elongated “U” shaped wires that are worn OVER the ears. Most of those that have been found
are large crescents made of filigree work and/or stamped and ornamented silver or gold. They often have small hanging
pendants and were quite elaborate. (8)

Rings
Finger rings took forms similar to the braided or stamped arm rings, or they could be made of gold or silver wire and
beads. Many rings were imported from Russia and Byzantium. (8)

Other Items
Fabric straps, braided cords or metal chains were used to suspend various small implements, such as scissors, knives,
tweezers, ear scoops, keys, etc. from the apron-dress brooches. (8)

Construction/Instructions:
SMOCK
Gather

Oseberg Smock Hedeby Smock Birka Smock - Constuction Birka Smock - Pleated

Oseberg Vikings – wide oval or “boat” neckline; cut T-tunic fashion (18)
Hedeby – rounded neckline; inset sleeves with slightly curved armholes, inserted gores and front and back sewn together at the
shoulders. Cut according to the diagram for how to make a period style tunic. (18)
Birka – small round or (more usually) keyhole necklines closed with a (usually small) round brooch); cut T-tunic fashion; finely
pleated Cut like a t-tunic, with an extra wide body and extra wide sleeves that are sewn into the arm opening. If you are going to
make a pleated smock, a true linen (handkerchief weight) will produce the sharpest pleats, however this will be very expensive. 14
cotton-linen blend would be second choice, or a very light weight cotton such as batiste or voile. (18)
Pleating Instructions:
Period Way – Tightly gather the fabric across the shoulders, hem, upper sleeve and wrist edge with a needle and thread. Soak the
whole smock in water and suspend one end from a hook to dry. Attach a weight to the hem end of the garment (and also the wrists) to
pull the pleats into line as the fabric dries. (1)
The Modern Way – After soaking the garment, wring it very tightly until it twists back on itself like a hank of yarn and microwave the
fabric until it is dry.

Gown
Hedeby/Birka Style
Step 1 – You will need the following
measurements: Shoulder to Hem, Waist, Waist to
Hem, Arm Length, and Arm Around the Elbow.
Shoulder to Hem – measure from the top
of your shoulder over the fullest part of
the bust and to the floor. Add 3”.
Waist – Since Viking gowns are believed
to have primarily been pulled on over the
head you will not use your actual waist
measurement for the Waist. Measure
snugly around your bust – the measuring
tape can be tight, but not so tight that you
will not be able to pull this over your bust.
Add 1-2”.
Waist to Hem – Find your waist, which
should be a point about 2” above where
your hips and/or butt begin, and measure
from there to the floor. Add 3”.
Arm Length – Measure from the edge of
the shoulder around the back side of your
arm, while bending the arm to a 45 degree
angle. If you don’t measure around the
bent arm, your sleeves won’t be long
enough when you move your arms, and if
they are tight you won’t be able to bend
your arms.
Arm Around the Elbow – Measure around your arm at the point just above the elbow, with your bicep flexed.
Step 2 – Draw out your pattern pieces as shown in the fabric layout diagram.
Step 3 – Create your Neckline. Both the smock and the gown can have the same neckline, i.e.: a boat neckline over a boat neckline,
or round over a round. For more variation and visual interest, consider layering two different styles of necklines so that the smock
layer shows, i.e.: a keyhole neckline on the smock under a round neckline in the gown, or a boat neckline under a round neckline.
Certain styles appear to have predominated at certain times and places, such as the pleated smock with a keyhole neckline worn under
a gown with a round neckline at Birka in the 10th century.
To make any neckline you will need to do some very simple math.
1. Measure around your head (as if measuring for a circlet) and add 1”. This is the minimum opening you will need in
order to put your tunic/gown on. You will need to translate this measurement into a circle with this measurement as its
circumference (the length around the outside of the circle).
2. Divide your head measurement by 3 and round to the nearest half inch. This is the diameter, or the length across the
middle of the circle.
3. Divide the diameter by 2. This is the radius, or ½ the distance across the middle of the circle.
4. Using scrap fabric or paper, draw a circle: Fold the fabric or paper in half and then in half again; using the corner that
has been double folded as your center point, take a ruler and put the 0” marking on the center point; starting at one
folded edge make a mark at the radius length and move the ruler in an arc so that the 0” mark is always in the corner;
when you are done you should have a dotted line that forms a ¼ circle; cut out on
this line and you will have a pattern for a circle that when used as a neck hole will
fit over your head.
2"
6"
Oseberg: Wide oval or boat neckline. This neckline looks like an oval set sideways 4"
on the tunic/gown, so that the wide part goes across the shoulders and the narrow part
lies on the front and back of the neck
4"
1. Measure around your head and find the radius as described above. Do NOT make
a circle!
2. Divide the radius by 2. On a piece of paper or scrap of fabric folded into quarters,
 measure this distance from the center point and mark on one folded edge.
3. Add the regular radius and the ½ radius together, measure from the center point and mark this distance on the other
folded edge.
4. Draw a shallow arc/curve connecting these two points, and cut out to form a shallow oval. Use the oval as your pattern to
cut out the neckline on your tunic/gown.
5. Fold your tunic/gown in half with the center top of the shoulders on the top fold, and then fold again lengthwise so that
the center of the shoulder fold forms a center point. Do the same with your oval pattern.
6. Lay the pattern on the fabric so that the center points match and the LONG side of the oval is toward the
shoulders/sleeves. Trace the oval and cut out.
7. Finish the neckline with a facing (see the instructions for making a keyhole neckline for more information about
facings), a very narrow hem, bias tape or other desired finish.

Hedeby: Wide rounded neckline. This is NOT a low cut neckline – Absolutely NO cleavage should show!!!!! This should
look like a modern, modest scoop neckline.
1. Make the circle pattern described at the beginning of this section, BUT use your head measurement plus 2”.
2. When you have made your circle shaped pattern, cut it in half across the diameter (one of the two fold marks that fall
across the middle of the circle).
3. Using another piece of paper or scrap fabric, lay one half of the circle pattern down. Divide the radius of the circle in
half and mark a straight line this far away from the flat edge of your half circle.
4. Lay the other half of your circle pattern so that it’s flat edge is on this line. Draw two straight lines to connect the two
halves of the circle to make an oval.
5. Trace around the two half circle ends and remove the pattern pieces. Go back to the line you drew in order to place the
second half of your circle pattern. Using the ½ radius measurement again, mark a second line closer to the end of the
oval. This will be your shoulder line.
6. Now cut out your pattern. Use the oval as your pattern to cut out the neckline on your tunic/gown. Fold your
tunic/gown in half lengthwise so that the fold is in the center of the body piece and so that the mark showing the center
top of the shoulder shows. Fold your oval pattern in half lengthwise so that the shoulder line shows.
7. Lay the pattern on the fabric so that the center folds match and the LONG side of the oval is oriented towards the front
and back of the garment. Line up the shoulder line on the oval pattern with the shoulder line on the tunic/gown – this will
put most of the oval on the FRONT of the tunic/gown and only a small part of it on the back. This is because humans
aren’t built with their necks exactly on top of their shoulders! Double check to make sure that the front of the neckline is
on the front of the tunic/gown.
8. Trace the oval and cut out. Finish the neckline with a facing (see the instructions for making a keyhole neckline for
more information about facings), a very narrow hem, bias tape or other desired finish.

Birka: Keyhole neckline. This neckline has a smaller opening that lies up close to the neck with a (usually) vertical slit that
allows it to open up enough to get your head through. Often the slit is closed with a brooch or button, though not always.
1. Measure LOOSELY around your neck – measure to a point that is comfortable for you, rather than tight. This is where
your neckline will lie when the slit is closed.
2. Add 1” to the neck measurement and divide by 3 to get your get your diameter. Round this number to the closet ½” and
divide by 2 to find the radius.
3. Following the basic instructions at the beginning of this section, make your circle pattern using this radius. Unfold the
circle pattern. Find one of the diameter lines (one of the two fold marks that fall across the middle of the circle).
4. Divide the radius of the circle in half and mark a straight line this far away from the diameter of your circle. This will be
your shoulder line.
5. Use the circle as your pattern to cut out the neckline on your tunic/gown. Fold your tunic/gown in half lengthwise so
that the fold is in the center of the body piece and so that the mark showing the center top of the shoulder shows.
6. Fold your circle pattern in half lengthwise so that the shoulder line shows. Lay the pattern on the fabric so that the center
folds and shoulder lines match on the circle pattern with those on the tunic/gown – this will put most of the circle on the
FRONT of the tunic/gown and only a small part of it on the back. This is because humans aren’t built with their necks
exactly on top of their shoulders! Double check to make sure that the front of the neckline is on the front of the
tunic/gown.
7. Trace the circle and cut out. Keyhole necklines work best when made with a facing.
8. You will need a second piece of fabric that is much larger than your circle pattern. It can be the same fabric as your
tunic/gown or it can contrast with it. Facings can be made to show (decorative) or to be hidden. Take your facing fabric
and fold it into quarters. Fold your circle pattern into quarters. Lay the circle pattern onto the facing fabric, lining it up
in the corner and on the folds. Trace around the pattern so that you have quarter circle arc that duplicates the circle of
the neckline. Remove the circle pattern.
9. Do NOT unfold the facing fabric! Using a ruler, follow around the edge of the arc and mark a second arc 3-4” away.
10. Along one of the folded edges measure out 5” from the OUTER arc and mark this point.
 11. Measure in 1 ½” in from the fold and draw a line parallel to the fold and extending down from the arc. This part will be
the facing/lining of the slit at the neck.
12. Cut out the facing along the inner arc and the outer arc, including the rectangular extension. When you unfold the fabric
you will see that you have two extensions – simply cut one off following the line of the circle.
13. Open up the un-sewn tunic/gown and lay it flat. If you want your facing to be hidden, lay it right side (outside) up; if
you want your facing to show as a contrast lay the tunic wrong side (inside) up. Lay your facing fabric over the neck
hole of the tunic with the right side (outside) down (against the tunic fabric). The holes should match very closely.
14. Turn the facing fabric until the center of the extension lines up with the center front of the tunic/gown. Pin the facing
fabric in place. Draw a line down the center of the extension to 1 ½” from the end of the extension – this is where you
will cut the slit, but don’t do it yet.
15. Sew around the neck hole using a ¼” seam allowance. Now sew down one side of the “slit” across the bottom and back
up the other side of the slit. Backstitch ( sew a spot, stop and have the machine sew backwards over the same spot for
several stitches, then resume sewing forwards) at the corners and the bottom of the slit.
16. Carefully cut the slit. Clip the seam allowance all the way around the neck by cutting little triangles out of it. Clip the
corners at the top of the slit and clip into the corners at the bottom of the slit. This will allow the facing to lie flat when it
is turned.
17. Turn the facing to the other side and iron flat. Pin the facing fabric flat. Turn the edges of the facing under, or cover
with bias tape and sew down. The sewing line can be covered with gimp or trim. Other variations on facings are
possible, including making the extension in various shapes or making the whole facing of a large rectangle of contrasting
fabric rather than shaped like the one above.

Step 4 – Sew:
a. Fold the main body piece in half and mark where your neck hole will be and the center top point of each shoulder.
b. Refold the main body piece in half LENGTHWISE and, using your Waist to Hem measurement, mark the waist point on
both the front and back.
c. Now cut a straight slit along the fold line from the hem to the waist.
d. Sew in your Insets. The side of the inset will be longer than the length of the slits you just cut. THIS IS NORMAL. To
sew the inset to the body piece, start at the point of the inset and match it to the top of the slit. Sew the inset in by hand
for the first 1 ½ - 2” – even if you are not a good hand sewer, the results will be MUCH nicer if you do this by hand
because it is VERY hard to get this right by machine. For both sides, start at the tip of the inset and sew down the
length, then go back to the tip and repeat the process for the other side. Sew the remainder by machine if you wish.
e. Sew the side gores on. Again, using your Waist to Hem measurement, find and mark the waist on each side of the main
body piece. Sew the ANGLED side of the gore to the straight edge of the main body piece – match the point of the gore
to the waist point on the body piece and sew from the point of the gore to the hem. Do this for all four gore pieces.
f. Sleeves and Underarm Gussets. Underarm gussets are tricky, but if you cut them in half on the diagonal they become
much easier to deal with. Sew each gusset piece to the sleeve pieces so that the body end of the sleeve, with the gussets
attached, forms a long straight line.
g. Sew the sleeves to the body. Fold the sleeves in half LENGTHWISE and mark the center top of the sleeve on the body
end. [If you want your sleeves to taper in towards the wrist, this is the time to make that adjustment – Measure around
your fist and add 1”. Measure from your wrist to your elbow, this is the point at which your sleeve will begin to get
narrower. Measure from the wrist edge of the sleeve to the “elbow” and mark this point. AT the wrist edge, measure
from the center fold of the sleeve out ½ of your fist measurement plus 1” and mark this point. Using a ruler, draw a
straight line connecting the two points on your sleeve and cut along this line.] Match the center top of the sleeve on the
body side to the center top point of each shoulder, pin and sew.
h. Lay your tunic/gown out flat – it should like a large cross. Take this opportunity to iron all your seams flat. Apply any
desired trim around the neckline, arms, wrists, chest, etc.
i. Sew up the side seams. Fold the tunic/gown over with the right sides (outsides) facing each other. Start and the wrists
and move along each side to the hem – Pin and then sew.
j. Hem the tunic/gown. You will need to trim off the points of the insets and gores before hemming. Depending on your
body shape and your desired method of hemming, you may need to have someone trim the hem for you all the way
around. Hem as desired – double fold, invisible hem stitch, bias tape, etc.

Eura Dress
Step 1 – You will need the following measurements: Shoulder to High Bust, Bust, High Bust to Hem, Side of Neck to Wrist, Arm
Around the Elbow and Wrist to Hem.
Shoulder to High Bust – measure from the top of your shoulder to approximately armpit level. This should be about where
the upper edge of your apron dress will lie. Add 2”.
Bust – measure around the fullest part of the bust. Add 2” and divide by
 High Bust to Hem – From your high bust,
measure to the ground. Add 3”.
Side of Neck to Wrist – Measure from the
edge of the neck, along the shoulder and
around the back side of your arm, while
bending the arm to a 45 degree angle. If you
don’t measure around the bent arm, your
sleeves won’t be long enough when you move
your arms, and if they are tight you won’t be
able to bend your arms. Add 1”.
Arm Around the Elbow – Measure around
your arm at the point just above the elbow,
with your bicep flexed.
Wrist to Hem – measure around the back side
of your bent arm to the armpit, and then from
the armpit to the floor.
Step 2 – Draw out your pattern pieces as shown. You
can fold your fabric in half so that you can cut two
pieces at once. You will need to cut two of each piece.
Step 3 – Sew:
A. Sew the sleeve pieces together
for 2-3” on either side. Hem the
remainder for the neckline.
B. Sew the sides of the sleeve pieces onto the top of the front and back pieces, lining up the join in the sleeves with
the center front and center back.
C. Sew the long side pieces to the sleeves and center front/back pieces, starting from the wrist and sewing toward
the hem.
D. Hem or finish the wrist.
E. Hem the bottom to the desired length.

Apron-Dress

A B
E C D
F GH /
/

15" 15" 15"

45" fabric
Bust - 44" + 1" = 45"
Making the Apron-Dress Reconstruction: A D Torso - 13" + 1" = 14"
Length - 31"
Step 1 – Measure around the largest part of your bust (between waist 31"

and underarm) and add 1”. Call this your Bust Measurement. E
Step 2 – Measure from where you want the top edge of the Apron-Dress G
76" (2 yds., 4")

to lie (must be comfortable under the arms) to where you want the flare to 15"

begin. This can be at the high waist, waist or low waist, depending on 14"
C B
your figure. Add 1” to this measurement. Call this your Torso 15"
Measurement. H
Step 3 – Measure from the point where the flare will start to the point F
where you want your hem. Call this your Length Measurement. 31"
Step 4 - Using your Bust Measurement and your fabric, decide upon the
cutting layout that will work best for you. You will need to calculate the
exact yardage needed for your apron according to your measurements.
15" 15" 15"

ii.
Be aware that using fabrics with a directionally oriented pattern (i.e.: most plaids) will require significantly more fabric.
Step 5 - Laying out your pattern:
A. Lay out your pre-washed (and ironed, if necessary) fabric. Have a yardstick and chalk or fabric marking pen ready. You
may also want a notepad, pencil and calculator handy if you are not good at math.
B. Take your total bust measurement (bust + 1”) and divide by 3. Mark your fabric by this measurement – for example, if your
bust measurement is 36” you will mark 12” intervals. For 45” you will mark 14” intervals. For 60” you mark 20” intervals.
The pattern pieces will be correctly sized and 12" 12"
12"
proportional to your bust measurement, so this is the
basic unit of width that you will work with. 45" fabric Bust - 35" + 1" = 36"
C. Mark out your pieces. The hem edge of your body C A
Torso - 13" + 1" = 14"
pieces will be twice as wide as the bodice portion. Length - 31"
31"
For example – a 36” bust measurement with a bodice
portion of 12” will have a hem of 24”. A 45” bust
with a bodice 14” wide will have a hem 30” wide. A E
60” bust with a bodice of 20” will have a hem of 40”.
The bottom of the gores will be the same as your H
12"
bodice width – in these examples the bottom edge of
the gore will be 12”, 14” or 20” wide and as tall as B 14" D
the skirt portion of the body piece.
This will produce an apron dress with a skirt hem that is three
times the circumference of the bust. This apron dress has very G F
nice lines and a good drape. The skirt is full enough to be
attractive, but is not too full and appears to match those shown
in Viking art fairly closely. The bust of the apron dress will 31"
fit snugly and be mildly supportive. This also seems to be
reasonable, given the active culture. If you want a looser
fitting bust, add more ease to the initial measurement. I would
not recommend adding more than 2-4” though, or the upper 12" 12" 12"

edge will sag unattractively and look sloppy. Keeping the

bodice portion fairly snug helps alleviate the problems of the weight of the brooches pulling the apron dress (and the gown
underneath) down in front. It also helps to keep the brooches from moving around. If you want a skirt that is not as full, you can
leave out the gores. Some fabrics or embellishments may show better with less fullness.
Step 6 - Sewing:
A. Sew the pieces of the body panels together to form a single body piece, if applicable. Sew the gore pieces together to form a
single gore, if applicable.
B. Sew one gore to each body piece, starting from the hem edge and sewing from hem to waist – be sure that you put the gore
on the SAME SIDE of the body piece each time. For example, if you sew the gore to the RIGHT side of the first body piece,
you must sew the other two gores to the RIGHT side of the other two body pieces.
C. Sew the three body pieces together, placing the gore side of one body piece to the non-gore side of the next body piece and
sewing from the top to the hem. When you are finished you will have a flared tube made up of alternating body pieces and
gores.
D. Turn the upper edge under twice to form a very narrow hem and sew, or finish with bias tape, trim or the finishing method of
your choice.
E. You will need to trim the hemline to shape and then hem using the method of your choice – double roll hem, blind hem, bias
tape, trim, etc.
Step 7 - Straps: There is a lot of conjecture and supposition regarding the straps of the apron dresses. It appears that most of the
straps were made of linen even when the dress itself was made of wool or other. The presence of the felted hole at the top of the
Hedeby apron dress piece suggests that the straps were passed through holes in the upper edge of the apron dress. Most people simply
sew their straps to the upper edge of the dress. Sew a short loop of “strap” to the front edge and a long loop of “strap” to the back so
that the brooch can pass through the loops without damaging your fabric.

Caftan
The caftan is constructed like the Hedeby/Birka gowns except that the front slit for the inserted gore is extended all the way to the
neck to create the front opening. Make the sleeves wide enough to fit comfortably over the gown or tunic sleeves. It is not known
exactly how long the caftan was, however a hemline ranging between the knees and the ankles is both practical and attractive. The
caftan is secured using a loop and brooch system very similar to that used on the apron-dress. For the caftan, sewn two short loops to
the front edges at about the solar plexus. To make a fully lined caftan, sew the outer layer and the lining independently (be careful to
cut them out identically though!). With the right sides together line up the front edges and neckline, pin and sew together. Turn and
press. Turn up the edges of the wrists and hem and sew, or cover with bias tape or other preferred finishing method.
 Sources Consulted:
1: Broberg-Swangin, Terry 14., Mary Catherine Chato, and Dorian L. Patkus. (SCA – Mistress Thorhalla Carlsdottir af
Broberg, Mistress (?) Catherine of Haga, and Mistress Birgit av Birka.) Complete Anachronist #64: Scandinavian Textiles.
SCA Publications: Milpitas, California.

2: Cellio, Monica. (SCA – Ellisif Flakkari). “The Viking Apron Dress: 14 New Reconstruction”. Internet article:
http://sca.uwaterloo.ca/mjc/sca/aprond.html.  1995.

3: zum Dunklenturm, Lady Beatrix. (Mundane Name not given). “Bea's Viking Apron Dress”. Internet Article:
http://silverdor.knownworldweb.com/viking/vikingad.html. Copyright © 11/28/01 Lady Beatrix zum Dunklenturm.

4: Fentz, Mytte. Trans: Maggie Mulvaney. Drawings: P. Nørbo, Jørgen Kragelund

Photos: Ove MadsenSummary translation: Peter Crabb. “An 11th century linen shirt from Viborg”. This article originally
appeared as "En hørskjorte fra 1000-årenes Viborg" in KUML 1987; Årbog for Jysk Arkælogisk Selskab. Internet Article:
http://www.forest.gen.nz/Medieval/articles/Viborg/VIBORG.HTM Copyright © 6/9/99 Maggie Forest.

5: Forest, Maggie. (SCA - Lady Muireann ingen Eoghain ua Maoil Mheaghna) “A New Theory on the Costumes of the
Oseberg Queen and Her Attendant, With Comments” Translation from the chapter “Hva var textilerne vaert brugt til?” from
the book Oseberg Dronningens grav by Anne Stine Ingstad.

6: Forest, Maggie. (SCA - Lady Muireann ingen Eoghain ua Maoil Mheaghna) “'T-tunic' - the period way”, originally
published in 'Tournaments Illuminated', now published as an Internet Article:
http://www.forest.gen.nz/Medieval/articles/Tunics/TUNICS.HTML. Copyright © 6/9/99 Maggie Forest.

7: Geijer, Agnes. “The Textile Finds from Birka”, in Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor
E. M. Carus-Wilson. Edited by N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting. London: Heinemann Educational Books, The Pasold
Research Fund Ltd., 1983.

8: Graham-Campbell, James and Dafydd Kidd. The Vikings. London: The British Museum, and New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Distributed by William Morris and Company, Inc., 1980.

9: Hägg, Inga. “Viking Women’s Dress at Birka: A Reconstruction by Archaeological Methods”, in Cloth and Clothing in
Medieval Europe: Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson. Edited by N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting. London:
Heinemann Educational Books, The Pasold Research Fund Ltd., 1983.

10: Ingstad, Anne Stine. Trans. By Maggie Forest (SCA – Lady Muireann ingen Eoghain ua Maoil Mheaghna). “The Textiles in
the Oseberg Ship” in Textilsymposium Neumünster: Archäologische Textilfunde, 6.5. - 8.5.1981., ed. Lise Bender Jørgensen
and Klaus Tidow. Neumünster: Textilmuseum Neumünster, 1982.

11: Jones, Heather Rose. (SCA – Mistress Tanggwystyl verch Morgant Glasvryn) “Archaeological Sewing”, originally
presented at the West Kingdom Spring Collegium, 2001, now published as an Internet Article:
http://www.virtue.to/guest_authors/archaeological_sewing.html. Copyright © 2001 Heather Rose Jones.

12: Priest-Dorman, Carolyn. (SCA – Mistress Þóra Sharptooth ) “Anglo-Saxon and Viking Works of the Needle: Some Artistic
Currents in Cross-Cultural Exchange”. Internet Article: http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/asvembroid.html Copyright ©
1992 Carolyn Priest-Dorman.

13: Priest-Dorman, Carolyn. (SCA – Mistress Þóra Sharptooth ) “Colors, Dyestuffs, and Mordants of the Viking Age: An
Introduction”. Internet Article: http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/vikdyes.html. Copyright © 1991, 1997, 1998, 1999
Carolyn Priest-Dorman.

14:: Priest-Dorman, Carolyn. (SCA – Mistress Þóra Sharptooth ) “Metallic Trims for Some Early Period Personae”. Internet
Article: http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/metaltrims.html Copyright © 1994, 1996, 1997 Carolyn Priest-Dorman.

15: Priest-Dorman, Carolyn. (SCA – Mistress Þóra Sharptooth ) “A Quick and Dirty Look at Viking Women's Garb in the Ninth
and Tenth Centuries”. Internet Article: http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/qdirtyvk.html. Copyright © 1991,1999 Carolyn
Priest-Dorman.

16: Priest-Dorman, Carolyn. (SCA – Mistress Þóra Sharptooth ) “Viking Embroidery Stitches and Motifs”. Internet Article:
http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/vikembroid.html Copyright © 1993, 1994, 1997 Carolyn Priest-Dorman
17: Priest-Dorman, Carolyn. (SCA – Mistress Þóra Sharptooth ) “Viking Tunic Construction”. Internet Article:
http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~capriest/viktunic.html. Copyright © 1993, 1997 Carolyn Priest-Dorman.

18: Preist-Dorman, Carolyn 14., Christina Krupp, R. E. Huston, and Greg E. Priest-Dorman. (SCA – Mistress Thora Sharptooth,
Countess Marieke van de Dal, Mistress Tera Dragonstaff, and Dofinn-Hallr Morrisson). Complete Anachronist #59:
Women’s Garb in Northern Europe, 450 –1000 C.E.: Frisians, Angles, Franks, Balts, Vikings and Finns. SCA Publications:
Milpitas, California.

19: Roesdahl, Else. Trans. By Susan M. Margeson and Kirsten Williams. Vikingernes Verden. [English Title - The Vikings.]
Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1987. Translation published – London: Allan Lane, the Penguin Press, 1991.