Forensic 3

Types of blood groupings

There are four main blood groups (types of blood)

A, B, AB and O. Your blood group is determined by the genes you inherit from your parents.
Each group can be either RhD positive or RhD negative, which means in total there are eight
main blood groups.

 Type A has the A antigen.

 Type B has the B antigen.

 Type AB has both A and B antigens.

 Type O has neither A nor B antigens.

Procedure on blood groupings

Blood typing is a test that determines a person’s blood type. The test is essential if you need
a blood transfusion or are planning to donate blood. Not all blood types are compatible, so it’s
important to know your blood group. Receiving blood that’s incompatible with your blood type
could trigger a dangerous immune response.

that isn’t their blood type. As long as the blood they receive doesn’t have any antigens that mark
it as foreign, their bodies won’t attack it.

In other words, donations work as follows:

 O: Type O individuals can donate blood to anyone, because their blood has no antigens.
However, they can only receive blood from other type O individuals (because blood with
any antigens is seen as foreign).
  A: Type A individuals can donate to other type A individuals and type AB individuals.
Type A individuals can receive blood only from other type A individuals and type O
individuals.

 B: Type B individuals can donate blood to other B individuals and AB individuals. Type
B individuals can receive blood only from type B individuals and type O individuals.

 AB: Type AB individuals can give blood only to other AB individuals, but can receive
blood of any type.

Blood types are further organized by Rh factor:

 Rh-positive: People with Rh-positive blood have Rh antigens on the surface of their red
blood cells. People with Rh-positive blood can receive Rh-positive or Rh-negative blood.

 Rh-negative: People with Rh-negative blood do not have Rh antigens. People with Rh-
negative blood can receive only blood that is also Rh-negative.

Together, the ABO and Rh grouping systems yield your complete blood type. There are eight
possible types: O-positive, O-negative, A-positive, A-negative, B-positive, B-negative, AB-
positive, and AB-negative. While type O-negative has long been considered a universal
donor, more recent research suggests that additional antibodies are sometimes present and may
cause serious reactions during a transfusion.

Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered blood types in 1901. Before that, blood transfusions were
risky and potentially lethal. Landsteiner made the process much safer, and he was awarded the
Nobel Prize for his work.

Why blood typing is done

Blood typing is done prior to a blood transfusion or when classifying a person’s blood for
donation. Blood typing is a fast and easy way to ensure that you receive the right kind of blood
during surgery or after an injury. If you’re given incompatible blood, it can lead to blood
clumping, or agglutination, which can be fatal. Blood typing is especially important for pregnant
women. If the mother is Rh-negative and the father is Rh-positive, the child will likely be Rh-
positive. In these cases, the mother needs to receive a drug called RhoGAM. This drug will keep
her body from forming antibodies that may attack the baby’s blood cells if their blood becomes
mixed, which often happens during pregnancy.

Research about blood stain and blood spot

Bloodstain

Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA) is the study and analysis of bloodstains at a known or

suspected crime scene with the purpose of drawing conclusions about the nature, timing and
other details of the crime.[1] It is one of the several specialties of forensic science.[2]
The use of bloodstains as evidence is not new. However, since the late 1950s, BPA experts have
claimed to be able to use biology, physics (fluid dynamics), and mathematical calculations to
reconstruct with accuracy events at a crime scene and these claims have been accepted by the
justice system. For example, the shape of blood droplets might be used to draw conclusions as to
how far away the victim was from a gun when they were shot.
This technique of forensic science has drawn more skeptical scrutiny since 2000;[3][4] as part of
the work in BPA was performed rather intuitively. A research report submitted to the U.S.
Department of Justice by the National Academy of Sciences in 2009 highlighted several
incidents of blood spatter analysts to overstate their qualifications as well as questioned the
reliability of their methods.

Blood spot

Newborn dried blood spots (NDBS) are routinely stored and used for research purposes. Every
year, millions of newborns worldwide are a part of a newborn screening program, where a few
drops of blood from the baby’s heel are collected on a filter paper card. After the primary
screening program, the NDBS can be stored in a freezer at the Danish Newborn Screening
Biobank, under the Danish Statens Serum Institute and used for secondary purposes.

With this paper, our aim is to move beyond the primary screening purpose and elucidate how
often and for which objectives the Danish NDBS samples are used for secondary purposes. The
aims of our study are (1) to estimate how often the Danish NDBS samples are used for secondary
purposes and what the probability is of a person’s sample being used, and (2) to describe what
kind of research the Danish NDBS samples are used for. From contact with the Danish Newborn
Screening Biobank, we understood that no metadata exists on how many samples had been used
for secondary purposes; nor for what kind of research the Danish NDBS samples had been used.
To answer these questions, we therefore conducted a scoping study [1, 2] of all articles using the
Danish NDBS samples.X
We argue for the importance of reaching, as accurately as possible, an estimate of the use of
samples in the Danish Newborn Screening Biobank from four main perspectives: First, the
debates around the use of NDBS samples has often been concerning consent policies [3–6].
Here, it is crucial to understand the practical implications of seeking and giving consent to
research based on the NDBS sample, yet no information regarding this is available. Without any
numbers, these discussions are based on uncertain assumptions. Second, knowing what kind of
research is conducted using the NDBS samples is essential to understand both what the
population might (unknowingly) be participating in, and what kind of research is made possible
with the NDBS samples. Third, international debate has revolved around the relationship
between gathering, storing, and using samples in biobanks—in particular, the importance of
exploiting the full potential of the biobanks by sharing and using the samples [7]. Again,
empirical insights to the actual use of biobanks would straighten these discussions. Information
as to the relationship between the storage and use of samples from the Danish Newborn
Screening Biobank will provide valid input in discussion on the use of biobank material and will
serve as input to the debate of informed consent. And fourth, increased knowledge about when
and how the Danish NDSB samples are used for research can help increase the level of
understanding of why the NDBS samples are collected and stored for the public [8].X
The use of NDBS samples for research purposes has also been a topic for international
controversy. Most famous is the case from Texas where the dispute over the retention and use of
the samples without parental knowledge or consent led to the destruction of over five million
NDBS samples [9].X
In Denmark, newborn screening was implemented nationally in 1982 [10], and since then an
average of 62,000 newborns are annually a part of the Danish newborn screening program.
Although the screening program is legally voluntary, it might not always be perceived as such by
the parents. The blood spots are sent from the hospitals to the national Statens Serum Institute
[10] where they are currently screened for 17 diseases [11] and subsequently stored indefinitely
in the Danish Newborn Screening Biobank at the institute [12]. The samples are stored for three
reasons: for the use of the child and the family, in case of further diagnostics or for identification
purposes; for use in quality assurance and development of new analysis methods; and finally, the
biobank also serves as a national resource for research purposes [13]. By Danish law, the
samples can legally be stored and later used without explicit informed consent [14]; accordingly,
problems of selection bias are avoided. Consent for the storage and subsequent use of the
samples is embedded in allowing the sample to be taken. The policies enabling this kind of
population-based data sourcing and usage are not unique in the Danish setting but are in many
ways an example of Denmark as a “research radical country” [15]. In practice, consenting to
having your child screened for diseases is also a (tacit) consent both to having your child’s
sample stored and also to the sample being used for secondary purposes [16]. Acquiring access
to the NDBS samples for researchers is a four-step process. First, the project must be approved
by a Research Ethics Committee and the Danish Data Protection Agency. Second, the project
may apply via Scientific Services; the joint Danish port of access to biological material and data
under the Danish Health Data Authority. The application will then be forwarded to the
Coordinating Centre at the Danish National Biobank, which will process the case. Third, all
applications received are processed and accessed by the Scientific Board of the Danish National
Biobank. And finally, if the three steps above are all approved and the terms of the hand-out are
agreed upon, the samples are then retrieved and handed out [17].X
Opting out of the research participation by signing up in the “use-of-tissue-register”
[vævsanvendelsesregisteret] [18] is a possibility in Denmark; however, fewer than 500 people
(from a population of ~ 5.7 million) are currently in the “use-of-tissue-register” [19]. It is
unknown whether this is because people genuinely wish to participate in research based on their
tissue sample, or because they are simply unaware of the possible participation and the opt-out
option [20]. Moreover, the Danish NDBS samples can be linked to register data and to health
records through the Central Person Register (known as CPR) number, a unique 10-digit civil
registration number assigned to all the country’s residents [21, 22]. Similar to other Scandinavian
countries, this creates a unique setting for epidemiologic research. The continuing national
sampling and storage of NDBS from the whole of the Danish population thus makes a valuable
resource for existing and future genomic research projects.

Photos of bloodstain found in the crime scene

Process on how they preserve the blood

The clinical rationale for transfusing blood is to combat anemia or hypovolemia. When only
moderate volumes are administered, the reactions which may ensue are caused by such features
as immunologic incompatibility, allergenic factors, pyrogens, bacterial contamination, and late
transmission of disease.36,71 In instances where copious quantities of blood are employed, as for
massive replacement therapy, exchange transfusions, and priming of extracorporeal circuits,
additional complications may result. These include bleeding tendencies, air embolism,
pulmonary congestion from circulatory overload, transfusional siderosis, cardiac arrest or
dysrhythmias, hepatogenic encephalopathy, and acid-base imbalance. The latter 3 sequelae are
directly referable to the extracellular electrolyte moiety of the donor blood, and are also
contingent on the metabolic status of the recipient.56To the end that patients may receive blood
that is safe biochemically as well as in other properties, several techniques have been devised for
collection and preservation. This paper reviews and analyze
LEA3
Importance of protective lock

The Importance of Locks

For centuries locks have been part of our lives we all want to keep our
belonging save and our homes too. Door locks are used for security and
protection. No one wants to live in a house that does not have a door and
locks. It is important to have door locks so that we feel secure in our homes.

Digital door locks

Now that technology is so advanced for unique door locks are being
invented. Digital door locks are easy to install and they are a solution for
buildings that require reliable means of access. Electronic door locks are
commonly used in schools, buildings and hospitals for extra security. Digital
locks have their own benefits. Digital door locks are quick and easy fit as
they are completely self-contained, they do not require additional hardware
and they are ideally suited for small budget systems. Digital door locks can
be reprogrammed at any time so they are convenient to use.

Door locks buying guide

It is important to know which door locks to buy. You need to buy door locks
that will protect your belongings and that do not break easy. There is a wide
variety of door locks that you can purchase and they are all unique and they
come in different shapes and sizes. The two main categories of door locks
are rim locks and mortise locks, and they each provide varying levels of
security.Latch locks are commonly found on many doors throughout the
house, and they are ideal for basic locking needs. All these locks come with
different keys they might lock the same buy they all work differently and
they unlock only one door or lock..

What is Lock?

A lock is a variable associated with a data item that describes the status of the item
withrespect to possible operations that can be applied to it. Generally, there is one lock
for each data item in the database. Locks are used as a means of synchronizing the
access by concurrent transactions to the database item. 

Types of lock

Padlocks, Deadbolts,  Knob Locks, Lever Handle Locks, Cam Locks,  

Rim/Mortise Lock, Euro Profile, Cylinders,  Wall Mounted Locks,
Interchangeable Core (IC), Cylinders, Furniture Locks, Vending/T-Handle
Locks, Jimmy Proof Deadbolts, Rim Latch Locks
All these locks are designed in a unique way and all work differently. Some of
these locks are also used on different doors they all have a key that is
designed for a specific door.

4 general groups of lock and keys control

A lock is a mechanical or electronic fastening device that is released

by a physical object (such as a
key, keycard, fingerprint, RFID card, security token, coin, etc.), by
supplying secret information (such as a number or letter permutation
or password), or by a combination thereof or only being able to be
opened from one side such as a door chain.
A key is a device that is used to operate a lock (such as to lock or
unlock it). A typical key is a small piece of metal consisting of two
parts: the bit or blade, which slides into the keywayof the lock and
distinguishes between different keys, and the bow, which is left
protruding so that torque can be applied by the user. In its simplest
implementation, a key operates one lock or set of locks that are keyed
alike, a lock/key system where each similarly keyed lock requires the
same, unique key. The key serves as a security token for access to the
locked area; only persons having the correct key can open the lock
and gain access. In more complex mechanical lock/key systems, two
different keys, one of which is known as the master key, serve to open
the lock. Common metals include brass, plated brass, nickel silver,
and steel.

What is key?

a small piece of shaped metal with incisions cut to fit the wards of a particular lock,
which is inserted into a lock and turned to open or close it.

Types of key

There are five main types of keys: sunk, saddle, tangent, round, and spline.

Principle of key control