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UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
Primary protection is the main protection provided for protecting the equipments. The
primary protection is the first to act and if the primary protection fails, then the backup
protection comes into action and removes the faulty part from the healthy system.
A fault in the equipment in the supply system leads to disconnection of supply to a large portion
of the system. If the faulty part is quickly disconnected, the damage caused by the fault is minimum
and the faulty part can be repaired quickly and the service can be restored without further delay.
Better service continuity has its own merits. Thus the protective relaying helps in improving service
continuity.
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15. What are the protective measures that taken against lightning over voltage?
The protective measures taken that against lightning over voltage are,
1. Use of overhead ground wires
2. Low tower footing resistance
3. Use of lightning arresters
16. State the difference between the nominal system voltage and highest system voltage.
The sinusoidal rms voltage is represented for single phase voltage supply as
V = Vmax sin
where V = Nominal system voltage
Vmax = Highest system voltage
Ground wires
17. What is shielding angle of an overhead ground wire? What are the values as per
American and European practices?
The shielding angle of the ground wire is defined as the angle between the vertical line
passing through the ground wire and the line passing through the outermost power conductor.
The shielding angle should be 30º on plain areas whereas the angle decreases on hilly areas
according to the slope of the hill.
American standard - 30º
European standard - 45º
18. What is surge absorber? How do they differ from surge diverter? (N/D-11)
The surge absorber acts like an air cored transformer which has a primary low value
inductor and the dissipater acts as a single turn short circuit secondary. Whenever the
travelling wave is incident on the surge absorber, a part of the energy contained in the wave is
dissipated as heat due to transformer action and eddy current flows. Because of this series
inductance, the steepness of the wave gets reduced. It is claimed that the stress in the end
turns is reduced by 15% with the help of the surge absorber.
Lightning arrester or surge diverter limits the duration and amplitude of the flow current
while a surge absorber reduces the steepness of the wave front for a particular surge
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19. What is the significance of the coefficient of earthing in the selection of voltage rating of a
surge arrester?
The coefficient of earthing is given as
The rated voltage of the surge arrester should be more than the phase to ground voltage on
unfaulted phase during a single line to ground fault on any other phase. During a single phase
to earth fault on one phase, the phase to ground voltage of other two healthy phases rises to
(Vm * Ce). The rated voltage of the surge arrester should be more than (Vm * Ce) kV rms
continuous across the terminals.
Va > Vm * Ce kV
where Va = Rated voltage of the surge arrester
Vm = Highest phase to phase voltage
Ce = Coefficient of earthing
Neutral Earthing
22. What is the difference between equipment earthing and neutral earthing?
Equipment earthing refers to the grounding of non-current carrying metal parts to earth. It is
used for safety of personnel.
Neutral earthing refers to the grounding of current carrying conductor to the earth. It is used
for the safety of equipment and to eliminate arching grounds.
3. The life of insulation is long due to prevention of voltage surges caused by arching
grounds. Thereby it has reduced maintenance, repairs, and breakdowns. It improves
continuity.
4. Stable neutral point.
5. The earth fault relaying is relatively simple. Sufficient quantity of earth fault current is
available to operate the earth fault relay.
6. The over voltages due to lightning are discharged to earth.
7. By employing resistance or reactance in earth connection, the earth fault current can be
controlled.
8. Improved service reliability due to limitation of arching grounds and prevention of
unnecessary tripping of the circuit breaker.
9. Greater safety to personnel and equipment due to operation of fuses or relays on earth
fault and limitation of voltages.
10. Life of equipments, machines, installation is improved due to limitation of voltage.
Hence overall economy increases.
Rated voltage of surge arrester is defined as the maximum permissible rms voltage between
the line terminal and the earth terminal of the arrester.
UNIT-II
Electromagnetic relays
Sensitivity of a relay refers to the smallest value of actuating quantity at which the
relay starts operating in relation with the minimum value of fault current in the protected
zone.
Over current, directional and non-directional, distance, negative sequence, differential and
under frequency relays
7. A relay is connected to 400/5 ratio current transformer with a current setting of 150%.
Calculate the plug setting multiplier when the circuit carries a fault current of 4000 A.
(N/D-11)
Given:
Current transformer turns ratio = 400/5
Current setting = 150%
Primary fault current = 4000 A
To find:
Plug setting multiplier (PSM)
Formula:
Solution:
PSM = 4000/(1.5*(400/5)) = 33.33.
The relay which responds to a fault current in a particular direction is called the
directional relay.
Three conditions must be satisfied for its operation. They are current magnitude, time
delay and directionality. The directionality of the current flow can be identified using the
voltage as a reference vector.
16. Explain the significance of the following terms in the distance protection:
Reach of a distance relay
The limiting distance covered by the relay. The faults beyond this distance are not
covered within the reach of the protection and it will be covered by other protective relay.
Under reach of a distance relay
Under reach of a distance relay is the failure of distance relay to operate within the set
protected transmission line distance.
17. Distinguish between circulating current differential protection and balanced voltage
differential protection with reference to the behaviour of CT.
In circulating current differential protection the principle of circulating current is used
where the balanced voltage differential protection works on the principle of balanced
opposing voltages.
22. State any two advantages of static relay over electromagnetic relay.
1. In static relays, there are no moving contacts and hence associated problems of
arising, erosion of contacts, replacement of contacts, as in the case of
electromagnetic relays, do not exist.
2. Static relays consume lesser power than the electromagnetic relays. i.e., static
relays have fewer burdens on CT’s and PT’s compared to electromagnetic relays.
Static relays power consumption is one mill watt whereas in electromagnetic
relay, the power consumption is 2 watts.
23. Draw the block diagram of a static relay indicating its basic elements.
For simple protective functions and for protection of simple low power equipment,
electromechanical relays are preferred.
For complex protective functions requiring accurate characteristics for various protective
functions and for protection of costly and large equipments, static relays are preferred. These
may be hard wired or programmable.
26. What are the merits and the demerits of a static relay over electromagnetic relay?
Merits and demerits of a static relay over electromagnetic relay are
1. Low power consumption as low as 1mW
2. No moving contacts; hence associated problems of arcing, contact bounce,
erosion, replacement of contacts are avoided.
3. No gravity effect on operation of static relays. Hence it can be used in ships,
aircrafts etc.
4. A single relay can perform several functions like over current, under voltage,
single phasing protection by incorporating respective functional blocks. This is
not possible in electromagnetic relays.
5. Static relay is compact.
6. Superior operating characteristics and its accuracy is more.
7. Programmable operation is possible with static relay.
8. Effect of vibration is negligible; hence it can be used in earthquake-prone areas.
9. Simplified testing and servicing. It can convert even non-electrical quantities to
electrical in conjunction with transducers.
UNIT – III
APPARATUS PROTECTION
PART – A
2. What are the main safety devices used for a transformer protection?
The main safety devices used for a transformer protection are
1. Buchholz relay
2. Pressure relief value
3. HRC fuses
4. Horn gaps
5. R-C surge suppressors
6. Surge arresters
7. Percentage differential protection
8. Over fluxing and over voltage protection
9. Over current protection
10. Earth fault protection
11. Thermal overload relay
the stator/rotor faults along with the operating range within the specified
temperature rise of the generator need to be accessed as per standard.
2. The excitation system, prime mover status, automatic voltage regulator status and
its cooling system is not single equipment but comprises of several equipments.
Therefore the protection of generator should be co-ordinated with these
equipments.
3. The continuity of power is the basic requirement since the sudden shut down of
the generator would result in power shortage and would affect the stability of the
power system.
6. What are the problems that arise in differential protection of a power transformer and
how are they overcome?
The problems that arise in differential protection of a power transformer are
1. Difference in lengths of pilot wires on either side of relays. This difficulty is
overcome by connecting adjustable resistors in the pilot wires.
2. Difference in CT ratios due to ratio and phase angle errors causes the relay
operation during through faults. This difficulty can be overcome by using biased
differential relay or percentage differential relay.
3. Tap changing alters the ratio of voltage between H.V. side and L.V. side in a
transformer. Differential protection should be provided with bias which prevents
the effect of variation in secondary current due to tap changing.
4. Magnetizing inrush current takes place during switching on the transformer. To
avoid this effect, the relay will be provided with a time lag of 0.2 second.
The short comings of Merz-price protection scheme applied to a power transformer are
10. What are the various faults to which a turbo alternator is likely to be subjected?
The various faults to which a turbo alternator is likely to be subjected are
1. Thermal overloading
2. Unbalanced loading
3. Stator winding faults
4. Field winding faults
5. Over voltages
6. Loss of synchronism
7. Over speeding
8. Vibration
9. Excessive bearing temperature
10. Wrong synchronization
11. What are the causes of over speed in an alternator and how is it prevented?
The causes of over speed in an alternator are
1. Sudden loss of electrical load
2. Tripping of circuit breaker before disconnection of prime mover
3. This can be prevented by over speed protection provided along with governing
mechanism.
13. What is the purpose of adding a neutral resistor between neutral and earth of an
alternator?
The capacitance ground current may not be large enough to demand reactance
grounding and also the ground fault current for solid grounding becomes excessive in 3.3 kV
and 33 kV transmission lines,. Hence it is needed to connect the neutral point through
resistance to ground to reduce its fault current.
Protection of busbars
16. What are the types of protections used for bus-bars? (A/M-07)
The types of protections used for bus-bars are
1. Over current protection
2. Differential protection
3. Earth fault protection
4. Over voltage protection
5. Surge voltage protection
17. What are the common methods used for line protection? (M/J-06)
The common methods used for line protection are
1. Over current protection
a) Time graded
b) Current graded
2. Distance protection
3. Earth fault protection
4. Differential protection
5. Carrier current protection
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Zones of protection
24. Why should not the secondary of a current transformer be open? (N/D-11)
If the secondary of a current transformer is opened, then the voltage across the
secondary rises to a high value since there is no back emf. This may cause danger to working
personnel. Also the flux increases and results in the saturation of the transformer core.
Therefore, the secondary of the current transformer should never be opened.
UNIT – IV
1. What are the factors on which the arc resistance depends? (M/J-06)
The factors on which the arc resistance depends are
1. Length of the arc
2. Voltage across the arc
2. What are the two theories used to describe the arc extinction phenomena?
(M/J-08)
The two theories used to describe the arc extinction phenomenon are
1. Slepian’s theory
2. Energy balance theory
4. What is an arc?
An electric arc is a self-sustained discharge of electricity between electrodes in
a gas or a vapour.
10. Which are the factors affecting the transient recovery voltage. (N/D-11)
The factors affecting the transient recovery voltage are
1. Effects of natural frequency of transient recovery voltage
2. Effect of Power factor on transient recovery voltage
3. Effect of Reactance drop on power frequency recovery voltage
4. Effect of Armature reaction on recovery voltage
5. Effect of circuit condition
extinction at current zero. In capacitor current breaking, a single restrike gives an overvoltage
of about 4 times and a second restrike gives an overvoltage of about 6 times of the normal
power frequency voltage resulting in internal and external flashovers between phase to phase
as well as phase to ground.
12. Explain, “successive restrikes” and current chopping as applied to the interruption
of capacitive and low inductive currents.
The energy stores in inductance during current interruption are diverted to the
capacitance at the moment of current interruption.
Also capacitor banks are connected in the network to provide reactive power at
leading power factor. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. The
currents supplied to the capacitor are generally of small order and the circuit breaker can
interrupt such currents invariably at the first current zero. Due to the 90º phase difference, the
voltage across the capacitor is at maximum value (ec) at this instant (t1) and the capacitor
remains charged at this voltage (ec). After half cycle (t2) the recovery voltage of approximate
magnitude of (ermax) appears across the circuit breakers and the total voltage across the circuit
breaker is the sum of the two voltages.
eTmax = ermax + ec
where eTmax = maximum voltage across breaker
ermax = maximum value of power frequency recovery voltage
ec = voltage across the capacitor
Thus the recovery voltage of the order of 2Emax, appears across the circuit breaker
pole at the instant t2, after ½ cycle of current zero. Therefore, a restrike is possible.
13. How can restriking transients be damped by connecting a resistance across the
contacts of a circuit breaker?
In resistance switching, a resistance is connected in parallel with the contacts of the
circuit breaker. With the arc so shunted by the resistance a part of an arc current flows
through the resistance. This results in a decrease in arc current and an increase in the rate of
deionization of the arc path and the resistance of the arc. This leads to a further increase in
the current through the shunt resistances. This built up process continues until the current
path through the arc is substituted by that through the resistance either wholly or in greater
part. In the later case, the small value of the current remaining in the arc path becomes so
instable that it gets easily extinguished.
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15. An OCB is rated for 1000 MVA, 2 kA, 66 kV, 3 phase, 3 second. Determine the
following:
a. Rated operating voltage
b. Rated operating current
c. Rated symmetrical breaking current
Given data:
Rating of OCB = 1000 MVA
Rated current = 2 kA
Rated voltage = 66 kV
No. of phase = 3
Time period = 3 second
To find:
a) Rated operating voltage
b) Rated operating current
c) Rated symmetrical breaking current
Formula required:
Rated symmetrical breaking current = Rating of the circuit breaker / ( 3 x
Rated voltage)
Solution:
Rated operating voltage = Rated voltage = 66 kV
Rated operating current = Rated current = 2 kA
Rated symmetrical breaking current = (1000 x 106) / ( 3 x 66 x 103)
= 8750 A
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2. List out the classification of circuit breakers based on the medium used for arc
extinction.
The classifications of circuit breakers based on the medium used for arc extinction are
1. Air break circuit breaker or Miniature circuit breaker
2. Oil circuit breaker
3. Minimum oil circuit breaker
4. Air blast circuit breaker
5. Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker
6. Vacuum circuit breaker
Zero sequence component is defined as a component which has three vectors of equal
magnitude and also are in phase with each other.
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11. A circuit breaker is rated at 1500 amps, 2000 MVA, 33 kV, 3 sec, 3-phase, oil circuit
breaker. Determine the rated normal current, breaking current, making current and
short time rating (current).
Given data:
Rated current of circuit breaker = 1500 A
Rating of the circuit breaker = 2000 MVA
Rated voltage = 33 kV
No. of phase = 3
Time = 3 second
To find:
Rated normal current
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Breaking current
Making current
Short time rating
Formula required:
Rated normal current = Rated current of the circuit breaker
Breaking current = Rating of the circuit breaker / ( 3 x Rated voltage)
Making current = 2.55 x Breaking current
Short time rating = Breaking current
Solution:
The rated normal current is 1500 amps.
Breaking current =2000/ ( 3 33) =34.99kA
Making current =2.55 34.99 =89.22kA
Short time rating =34.99 kA for 3 sec.
12. A circuit breaker is rated at 1200 amps, 1500 MVA, 33 kV, 3 sec, 3-phase, oil circuit
breaker. Determine the rated normal current, breaking current, making current and
short time rating (current).
Given data:
Rated current of circuit breaker = 1200 A
Rating of the circuit breaker = 1500 MVA
Rated voltage = 33 kV
No. of phase = 3
Time = 3 second
To find:
Rated normal current
Breaking current
Making current
Short time rating
Formula required:
Rated normal current = Rated current of the circuit breaker
Breaking current = Rating of the circuit breaker / ( 3 x Rated voltage)
Making current = 2.55 x Breaking current
Short time rating = Breaking current
Solution:
The rated normal current is 1200 amps.
Breaking current =1500/ ( 3 33) = 26.25 kA
Making current =2.55 26.25 = 67 kA
Short time rating = 26.25 kA for 3 sec