N ova cl Vetera, E nglish E ditio n ,V o l. 11, N o .

3 (2013): 8 1 9 -4 8 819

The Beatitudes and Moral Theology:

A Virtue Ethics Approach

W i l l i a m C . M a t t i s o n II I
T h e Catholic University o f Amcrica
W ashington, D C

Blessed are the poor in spirit, f o r theirs is the kingdom o f heaven.

Blessed arc they who m ourn, fo r they will be comforted.
Blessed are the m eek, fo r they will inherit the land.
Blessed arc they who hunger and thirst fo r righteousness,
fo r they will be satisfied.
Blessed arc the merciful, fo r they will be shown mercy.
Blessed arc the clean o f heart, fo r they will sec God.
Blessed arc the peacemakers, fo r they will be called children o f G od.
Blessed are they who arc persecuted fo r the sake o f righteousness,
fo r theirs is the kingdom o f heaven.
Blessed arc you when they insult you and persecute you and utter every kin d
o f evil against you (falsely) because o f me. Rejoice
and be glad, for your reward will be great in heaven.
T hus they pcrsccutcd the prophets who were before y ou.1

T h e r e is a su rp risin g lack o f a tte n tio n to th e im p o rta n c e o f th e b e a t­

itu d es in c o n te m p o ra ry C h ristia n ethics an d m oral theology. T h e re are
n o ta b le e x c e p tio n s.2 Yet th e lacuna is real, an d it is especially su rp risin g

T h e a u th o r w o u ld like to th a n k several friends and colleagues w h o generously

provided critical c o m m e n ts o n this essay: Frank M atera, D avid C lo u tie r, J o h n
G rabow ski, and Jo sep h C apizzi.
1 M a tth e w 5 :3 -1 2 , N e w A m e ric an B ible translation, revised e d itio n (used
th ro u g h o u t this essay).
2 For tw o c o n te m p o ra ry ethicists w h o d o in d ee d give ex te n d ed a tte n tio n to the
im p o rta n ce o f the b eatitudes, see Servais Pinckaers, O .R , The Sources o f Christian
Ethics (W ashington, D C :T h e C ath o lic U niversity o f A m erica Press, 1995), as well
as his essays “A quinas’s P u rsu it o f B eatitude: F rom the Commentary on the Sentences
820 W illiam C. M attison, III

g iv e n th e re c e n t resu rg en c e in a tte n tio n to v irtu e , a te leo lo g ica l n o tio n

th a t req u ires a tte n tio n b o th to th e n a tu re o f th e h ap p in ess s o u g h t an d to
th e q ualities o f th e p e rso n (i.e., v irtues) re q u ire d to o b ta in it. T h e b e a ti­
tu d e s address exactly th ese c o n c e rn s.
A lth o u g h this essay represents an a tte m p t to c o n trib u te to an ex p a n d ed
place fo r th e b eatitu d es in m o ral th e o lo g y today, its m o re im m ed ia te goals
are far m o re lim ited. T h e y are threefold. First, I w ill arg u e th a t th e b eati­
tudes are ap p ro p riately u n d e rsto o d in th e c o n te x t o f classical ethical treat­
m e n ts o f happiness. In sh o rt, th e b eatitu d es are a b o u t happiness. T h is basic
claim p ro m p ts th e seco n d section an d m a in thesis o f this essay. G ra n tin g th e
b eatitu d es are a b o u t happiness, w h a t d o th ey tell us a b o u t th e relationship
b e tw e e n th e various characteristics o f th e p eo p le th ey describ e an d th e
rew ard received? T h e seco n d section o f this essay argues in su p p o rt o f this
essay s central thesis, nam ely, th a t th e re is an “ in trin sic ” relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n
th e qualities o f tho se called “ blessed” an d th e happiness o b ta in ed . It first
defines w h a t is m e a n t by intrin sic relationship, an d th e n su p p o rts this claim
th ro u g h an e x a m in a tio n o f each o f th e beatitudes. Finally, th o u g h th e
seco n d se ctio n o f this essay represents its m ain c o n trib u tio n , a th ird an d
final se ctio n briefly addresses th e ram ifications o f th e essay’s m a in thesis o n
tw o questions. First, “ w h e n ” does th e life d ep icte d in th e b eatitu d es o ccu r?
S eco n d , w h a t is th e rationale b e h in d this “ se t” o f beatitudes?
A t th e o u tse t it is a p p ro p ria te to address th e q u e s tio n o f th e stakes an d
sig nificance o f this essay. W h a t is th e p o in t o f lo o k in g at th e b e a titu d e s
th ro u g h th e lens o f happiness an d v irtu e , b e y o n d d o in g an in te re stin g
ac ad e m ic exercise? T w o q u e stio n s h elp f u rth e r specify this b ro a d e r q u es­
tio n . First, against w h o m is this essay arg u in g ? T h e r e is n o p ro m in e n t
a u th o rita tiv e a c c o u n t o f th e m o ra l im p o rta n c e o f th e b e a titu d e s th a t
serves as th e foil o f this essay. 1 am c o n c e r n e d to c o u n te ra c t a feasible
“ e v e ry d ay ” re a d in g o f th e b ea titu d es th a t sees th e m as p ro m ises o f a
sim ple reversal, as i f th e y claim ed th a t G o d sim ply reverses th e lo t in life
o f th o se w h o fin d th em selves in d esp erate c o n d itio n s .3 G o d d o es p ro m ­

to the Sum m a Theologiae" and “ B e atitu d e and th e B eatitudes in A q u in a s’s Sum m a

Theologiae,” in The Pinckaers Reader, ed. J o h n B e rk m a n and C ra ig Steven T itu s
(W ashington, D C :T h e C a th o lic U niversity o f A m erica Press, 2005), 9 3 -1 1 4 and
1 1 5 -2 9 , respectively. See also his m o re p o p u la r The Pursuit o f Happiness: C o d ’s
Way— Living the Beatitudes, trans. Sr. M ary T h o m a s N o b le , O.P. (N e w York: Alba
H o u se, 1998). See also G le n Stassen and D avid G ushee, Kingdom Ethics: Follow­
ing Jesus in Contemporary C ontext (D o w n ers G rove, IL: InterV arsity Press, 2003).
3 T h e re is evidence o f this view in th e scholarly literature o n the b eatitudes as well.
See for instance U lric h Luz, M atthew 1-7: A Commentary (M inneapolis, M N :
A ugsburg Fortress, 1989): “ For Jesus the u n c o n d itio n al, categorical bestow al o f
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 821

ise d eliverance, in d e e d happiness, b u t in th e w ords o f G le n Stassen (refer­

e n c in g B o n h o e ffe r) th e p ro m ise d d eliv eran ce is m ad e possible by “ p a rtic ­
ip ativ e” g race th a t vivifies th e ac tiv ity o f th o se re w a rd e d .4 T h e se co n d
se c tio n o f this essay explains h o w this is th e case. S eco n d , w h a t if a n y th in g
d o th e b e a titu d e s tell us a b o u t h o w w e m ig h t live n o w in a m a n n e r
d ire c te d to w ard th e esch ato lo g ical p ro m ise w h ic h th e b e a titu d e s are
universally re c o g n iz e d to address? T h e a rg u m e n t o f th e se c o n d se c tio n
enables us to answ er this q u e stio n .Y e t it is th e th ird an d final se c tio n th a t
addresses th e ram ific atio n s o f th a t a rg u m e n t fo r h o w th e b e a titu d e s m ay
b e said to c o n n e c t eth ics a n d eschatology, an d h o w th e y p a in t a p o rtra it
o f g ro w th in th e sp iritu a l life.

T h e B eatitu d es and H appiness

T h e straig h tfo rw ard claim o f this first se c tio n is th a t th e b e a titu d e s are
a b o u t happiness. T h is claim is su b stan tia te d in th re e ways, w h ic h are
tre a te d to g e th e r: (a) by th e linguistics o f th e te x t itself; (b) by th e te x t’s
c o n te x t a m o n g o th e r tex ts o f th e sam e g en re ; and, (c) by th e te x t’s in te r­
p re ta tio n by a u th o rita tiv e figures in th e C h ristia n tra d itio n .
F o r reasons d o c u m e n te d by re c e n t th in k e rs such as Servais P in ck aers,
O.P., th e to p ic o f happiness is to o fre q u en tly div o rced fro m m o d e rn
discussion o f m orality.5 H e n c e it is n o t su rp risin g th a t w e rarely h ear
“ h a p p y ” as th e o p e n in g w o rd o f each o f th e b eatitu d es, g iv en th a t th ey are
lo c ate d at th e start o f th e S e rm o n o n th e M o u n t, w h ic h A u g u stin e o n ce
called th e “ c h a rte r o f th e C h ristia n life.” 6 H o w ev er, th e G re e k makarios is
a p p ro p riately translated as e ith e r blessed o r happy. T h e m o st c o m m o n
E nglish tran slatio n is “ blessed.” In th e ir surveys o f E nglish translations,

grace o n p eople w h o are in a desperate situation is decisive. T h e three au th en tic

beatitudes have a paradoxical character. T h e y are n o t to be in te rp re te d from the
c o n n e c tio n o f d e ed and fate in th e w isd o m tradition, for they n e ith e r p u t h u m an
b e h av io r in th e fo reg ro u n d n o r is th e prom ise in any way the result o f b ehavior
o f those w h o are called blessed. . . . R a th e r the b a ck g ro u n d o f these three b eati­
tudes is th e apocalyptic h o p e for a total reversal o f the circum stances” (2 3 1 ).T h e
focus o n a certain few (“ th re e ” ) o f the b eatitudes m akes this claim actually n o t as
far from th e thesis o f this essay as it m ig h t seem . For a n o th e r c o n te m p o ra ry
u n d e rstan d in g o f th e beatitudes as p rom ising sim ple reversal, see W. D. D avies and
D ale C . A llison, The Gospel According to Matthew, V olum e I (E dinburgh: T & T
C lark, 1988), 443, 4 4 8 -4 9 (especially w ith regard to m o u rn in g ).
4 Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 35.
5 See his Sources o f Christian Ethics. See also Alasdair M a c In ty re s A fter Virtue (N o tre
D am e, IN : U niversity o f N o tre D a m e Press, 1981) for a parallel a rg u m e n t in
m oral philo so p h y c o n c e rn in g th e eclipse o f language o f v irtu e and happiness.
6 See A u g u stin e ’s The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount, trails. J o h n Jep so n (W estm inister,
M D : N e w m a n Press, 1956), i.1.1.
822 W illiam C. M attison, III

R o b e r t G u e lic h an d H an s D ie te r B e tz ac k n o w led g e th e p re p o n d e ra n c e
o f “ blessed” b u t also ex p lain w h y “ h a p p y ” is as accu rate a tran slatio n .7
R o b e r t L ouis W ilk e n ex am in es th e use in A risto tle o f b o th makarios an d
a n o th e r G re e k te rm fo r happiness— eudaimonia — a n d co n c lu d e s th a t th e
tw o te rm s are used sy n onym ously.8 In co n c lu sio n , th e o p e n in g w o rd o f
each b e a titu d e can be ap p ro p riately translated “ happy.”9
T h is co n c lu sio n is n o t surprising, given th e h isto rical c o n te x t o f th e
b eatitudes. C o n sid e r first th e c o n te x t o f classical cu ltu re. G re ek an d R o m a n
trea tm e n ts o f ethics are discussions o f w h a t co n stitu tes happiness; th ey
in c lu d e a tte n tio n to w h a t is so u g h t th a t procures happiness, an d w h a t so rt
o f qualities (i.e., virtues) an d activities o n th e p art o f p erso n s are involved
in th e seeking a n d possession o f happiness. T h a t th e n atu re o f happiness is
the q u e stio n fo r h o w to live a g o o d life is taken fo r g ra n te d in classical
cu lture, even i f w h a t constitu tes such happiness is c o n te ste d .10 F or e x a m ­
ple, b o th A risto tle an d C ic e ro focus im p o rta n t w o rk s o n ethics o n th e
q u estio n o f h ap p in ess.’ 1W ilk e n considers this classical c o n te x t in his w o rk
o n G re g o ry o f Nyssa:
7 See R o b e r t G u e lic h , The Sermon on the M oimt: A Foundation fo r Understanding
(W aco, T X : W ord B ooks, 1982), 66, fo r a b r ie f survey o f various translations in
E nglish. See also Wans D ie te r B etz, The Sermon on the M ount (M inneapolis, M N :
Fortress Press, 1995), 92. T h ese tw o im p o rta n t c o n te m p o ra ry w orks by biblical
scholars are th e p rim a ry source o f this essay’s inclusion o f c o n te m p o ra ry biblical
scholarship (w ith its im p o rta n t a tte n tio n to cultural and linguistic c o n te x t),
because o f th e m o n o g ra p h -le n g th focus oil th e S e rm o n o n th e M o u n t fo u n d in
each. O th e r biblical scholarship o n M a tth e w (particularly L uz’s M atthew 1—7 and
D avies and A llison’s The Gospel According to Matthew, V olum e 1, b o th c ited above)
is em p lo y ed w h e re a ppropriate.
8 R o b e r t L ouis W ilk e n , “ G re g o ry o f Nyssa, D e Bcatitndinibns, O ra tio VII I : ‘Blessed
are those w h o are p e rsec u ted fo r rig h te o u sn e ss’ sake, for theirs is th e k in g d o m o f
heaven (M t 5,10),” 2 4 3 -5 4 , in Gregory o f Nyssa: Homilies on the Beatitudes, ed.
H u b e rtu s D ro b n e r and A lb e rt V iciano (L eiden: B rill, 2000), 2 4 4 - 4 5 . See also
T erren ce Irw in ’s tre a tm e n t o f the to p ic in A ristotle, Nicomachcan Ethics, ed.
T erre n ce Irw in (Indianapolis, IN : H a ck e tt, 1999), 318. W ilk e n ’s c o n clu sio n is
c o rro b o ra te d by U lric h L uz (M atthew 1 -7 , 232).
9 T h e claim here is th at markarios is ap p ro p riately re n d ere d “ happy.” W h e th e r
“ blessed” is still preferable, given a c o m m o n superficial c o n n o ta tio n o f happiness
to m ea n “ feeling g o o d ,” is a leg itim a te q u estio n . O f course happiness, o r endai-
monia as used in th e c o n te x t o f v irtu e ethics, n e ed n o t c o n n o te such a superfi­
cial n o tio n o f happiness. As th e te r m is used in v irtu e ethics, th e b e atitu d es are
“ a b o u t happiness.” N evertheless for th e sake o f con sisten t usage o f th e N e w
A m e ric an B ible translation, “ blessed” is used here.
10 For a helpful tre a tm e n t o f classical ethics from the perspective o f happiness, see
Julia A nnas’s The Morality o f Happiness (O xford: O x fo rd U niversity Press, 1993).
11 See A risto tle ’s Nicomachean Ethics, B o o k s I & X . o n happiness. See also C ic e ro ’s
O n Moral Ends, ed. Julia A nnas (C am b rid g e: C a m b rid g e U niversity Press, 2001).
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 823

F o r i f o n e reads G re g o ry a fte r b e in g s c h o o le d in a n c ie n t w ritin g s th a t

add ress h o w o n e is to live, fo r e x a m p le A r is to tle ’s Nicontachean Ethics o r
S e n e c a ’s D c bcata vita, o r e v e n A u g u s tin e ’s e arly w o rk b y th e sam e n a m e ,
it is a p p a re n t th a t “ h a p p in e ss” w as a k e y t e r m in a n c ie n t m o ra l p h ilo s ­
ophy. Its a p p e a ra n c e in th e b e a titu d e s w o u ld h ave trig g e re d a sso c iatio n s
in th e m in d o f a n c ie n t re ad e rs th a t are fo re ig n to m o d e rn s u n s c h o o le d
in th e e u d a im o n is tic e th ic s o f th e a n c ie n t w o r l d .'2

As W ilk e n n o te s, fo r an y o n e sc h o o le d in classical cu ltu re, th e b e a titu d e s

w o u ld have b e e n u n d e rs to o d in th e c o n te x t o f th e e n d u r in g q u e s tio n o f
h o w to live a h ap p y life.
T h is w as precisely h o w th e te x t was u n d e rs to o d by early C h ristia n
th in k e rs. A u g u stin e b eg in s his se rm o n s o n th e b e a titu d e s w ith th e o b se r­
v atio n th a t “ clearly y o u c o u ld n ’t fin d an y o n e w h o d o e s n ’t w a n t to b e
happy,” ' 3 revealing th a t A u g u stin e u n d e rs to o d th e b e a titu d e s as re sp o n d ­
in g to th e universal h u m a n lo n g in g fo r h a p p in e s s .'4 In th e o p e n in g lines
o f his h o m ilies o n th e b e a titu d e s, G re g o ry o f N yssa d escrib es th e b e a ti­
tu d es in th e te rm in o lo g y used to d elin ea te h u m a n hap p in ess. G re g o ry
claim s: “ m a rk a rio s as I u n d e rsta n d it, is so m e th in g w h ic h in clu d es every
c o n c e p t o f g o o d n ess, an d fro m w h ic h n o th in g an sw e rin g to g o o d desire
is m issing.” ' 5 G re g o ry clearly u n d e rsta n d s th e b e a titu d e s in th e c o n te x t
o f th e p ere n n ial in q u iry in to th e n a tu re o f h u m a n h appiness.
Finally, c o n te m p o ra ry biblical scholars affirm n o t o n ly th a t th o se
sc h o o le d in classical th o u g h t w o u ld h e a r th e b e a titu d e s in this c o n te x t o f
th e q u e s tio n o f happiness, b u t also th a t th o se fo rm e d by th e S crip tu res
w o u ld sim ilarly h e a r th e b e a titu d e s in such a m a n n er. In th e w o rd s o f
G u e lic h , “Ju d a ism offers th e m o re im m e d ia te b a c k g ro u n d ” fo r th e lite r­
ary fo rm b ea titu d e.” 16 B e tz claim s th a t th e M a tth e a n b ea titu d es sta n d in
12 R o b e r t Louis W ilk en , "D c Beatitudinihus, O ra tio V III,” 243. For an excellent
tre a tm e n t o f th e b e atitu d es in n o t o nly G re g o ry b u t also A ug u stin e, see M ichael
D au p h in ais, “ G re g o ry o f N yssa a n d A u g u stin e o n th e B eatitudes,” Nova et Vetera
1 (2003): 1 4 1 -6 3 . ,
13 A ugustine, Sermons III (5 1 -9 4 ), trails. E d m u n d H ill, O.P. (N e w York: N e w C ity
Press, 1991), 53.1.
14 See also A u g u stin e ’s The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount, 1.1.3.
13 G re g o ry o f N yssa, Gregory o f Nyssa: Homilies on the Beatitudes, ed. H u b e rtu s D ro b -
n e r and A lb ert V iciano (L eiden: B rill, 2000), “ H o m ily I oil the B eatitudes,” 24.
(F u rth e r references to this te x t are given by h o m ily n u m b er, follow ed by section
n u m b er, w ith page in this v o lu m e in parentheses.) See also V I:2 (67) and IV:7
(5 5 -5 6 ).
16 See R o b e rt G uelich, The Sermon on the Mount, 63. H e gives fo rty -fo u r N e w Testa­
m en t citations o f beatitudes, and also notes that there are forty-five such uses in the
O ld T estam ent. For m ore o n the literary fo rm beatitude, see also B etz, The Sermon
on the M ount, 9 7 -1 0 5 ; Davies and Allison, The Gospel According to Matthew, 4 3 1 -3 4 .
824 W illiam C. M attison II I

th e tra d itio n o f W is d o m lite ra tu re .17 In regard to th e q u e s tio n o f th e rela­

tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e b e a titu d e s an d th e e n tire S e rm o n o n th e M o u n t,
B e tz n o te s th a t b e a titu d e s are c o m m o n ly p la ce d at th e start o f so m e
d id a ctic te x t, a d y n am ic h e finds n o t o n ly in th e w o rk o f E p ic u ru s b u t
also in P salm l . 18
In su m , th e b e a titu d e s are ap p ro p ria te ly u n d e rs to o d w ith in th e
c o n te x t o f eth ica l w ritin g s o n happiness. T h e ir o rig in a n d literary fo rm
reveal su ch a c o n te x t in Je w ish a n d classical sources. F u rth e rm o re , early
C h ristia n exegetes u n d e rs to o d th e b e a titu d e s in precisely this c o n te x t o f
th e q u e s tio n o f happiness.
I f th e b e a titu d e s are ap p ro p ria te ly u n d e rs to o d in th e c o n te x t o f classi­
cal eth ica l re fle c tio n o n happiness, this p ro m p ts p e re n n ia l q u estio n s
g e rm a n e to v irtu e ethics, w h ic h essentially c o n c e rn s th e q u alities (i.e.,
v irtues) a n d activities o f p erso n s th a t d ire c t th e m to w ard fu lfillm e n t o r
flo u rish in g (i.e., happiness). W h a t is u ltim a te h ap p in ess, a n d h o w is it
rela ted to th e c o m m o n w o rld ly u n d e rsta n d in g s o f happiness? Is it a tta in ­
able, an d i f so is it attain ab le in this life? H o w ca n o n e live to w ard a tta in ­
in g it? W h a t d o es Jesus C h ris t have to d o w ith u ltim a te h ap p in ess?19
T h e se are th e sorts o f q u e stio n s a v irtu e eth ics in q u iry in to th e b ea titu d es
asks. A lth o u g h a n sw e rin g all th ese q u estio n s is b e y o n d th e sco p e o f this
essay, th e fo llo w in g se c tio n addresses o n e su ch q u es tio n : w h a t is th e rela­
tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e p ro m ise d happiness, a n d th e ch a racteristics th e te x t
id en tifies o f th o se w h o receive this happiness?

T h e R elation sh ip b etw een the B eatitu d es’

Q ualifyin g C on d ition s and Rewards
E a c h o f th e b e a titu d e s posits so m e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n w h a t m ig h t m o re
precisely b u t also m o re d ry ly b e re fe rre d to as a “ q u alify in g c o n d itio n ”
(b ein g m e e k , b e in g m e rcifu l, h u n g e r in g an d th irstin g fo r ju stic e , etc.), a n d
so m e rew ard (in h e ritin g th e e a rth , b e in g sh o w n m ercy, b e in g satisfied,
etc.).20 T h e p rim a ry q u e s tio n fo r this se c tio n is: w h a t is th e n a tu re o f th e

17 B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 94. See also G erald F riedlander, The Jewish Sources
o f the Sermon on the M ount (N e w York: K tav P u b lish in g H o u se, 1969).
18 B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 104 a n d 59. See also Pope B e n e d ic t X V I,Jesus o f
N azareth (N e w York: D oubleday, 2007), 71 for th e b e atitu d e s’ ro o t in Jew ish
S criptures, in c lu d in g explicit reference to Psalm 1.
19 T h is q u e stio n a b o u t th e role o f Jesus C h rist in th e h u m a n q u est tow ard h a p p i­
ness, th o u g h n o t a focus o f this essay, is b o th absolutely crucial and consistently
addressed in th e c o m m e n ta ry trad itio n . Its neg lect in this essay sh o u ld n o t be
taken as any claim to the contrary.
20 T h ese term s are a d o p te d h e re for the sake o f precision, m ainly because th e te rm
“ b e a titu d e ” can be used to refer to each entirety, o r ju s t to w h a t is called here
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 825

rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n s o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d th e

rew ards o n th e o th e r? T h e te x t m akes it clear th a t th o se c h a ra c te riz e d by
c e rta in qualifications are o r w ill be happy, yet h o w o r w h y this is th e case
is n o t as e v id e n t.21 T h e a rg u m e n t o f this se c tio n is th a t th e b e a titu d e s
p rese n t an in trin sic c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n s an d
rew ards. T h is claim is th e c ru x o f this essay. In o rd e r to m ak e this a rg u ­
m e n t, I w ill first ex p lain w h a t is m e a n t by an “ in trin sic c o n n e c tio n .” T h e n
1 w ill e x a m in e ea ch o f th e b e a titu d e s to d e te rm in e h o w th e q u alify in g
c o n d itio n an d rew ard are u n d e rs to o d as in trin sically related .

D efin in g “Intrinsic R e la tio n ” and Ascribing I t to the Beatitudes

W h a t is th e n a tu re o f th e relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e q u alify in g co n d itio n s
an d th e ir rew ards? M y m a in thesis in this essay is th a t th e b ea titu d es, in
lin e w ith a p ro m in e n t tra d itio n in classical an d C h ristia n ethics, p rese n t an
in trin sic relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e ir q u alifying c o n d itio n s an d rew ards.
W h a t m arks an intrinsic relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e b e a titu d e s’ qualify in g
c o n d itio n s a n d rew ards can be su m m a riz e d by th e te rm “ co n tin u ity .”
M o re precisely, w h a t ch aracterizes an in trin sic relatio n sh ip is tw o fo ld : first,
th e q u alifying c o n d itio n entails so m e activity o n th e p a rt o f th e p e rso n
ra th e r th a n sim ply a state o n e finds o n e s e lf in; and, seco n d , th a t activ ity is
c o n tin u o u s w ith , in d e e d co n stitu tiv e o f o r a p a rtic ip a tio n in , th e rew ard
(w h ich th e re fo re also in clu d es activity o n th e p a rt o f th e rec ip ien t). In
o th e r w ords, th e state o f rew ard w o u ld b e at least partially c o n s titu te d by,
o r in clu d e, th e c o n d itio n s th a t qualify o n e fo r it.22 S u ch a relatio n sh ip is
d escrib ed by H e r b e r t M c C a b e , O .P., in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r: “ It is
th o u g h t p ro p e r to praise th o se actions an d d isposition s th a t lead to an d are
constitutive o f th a t h u m a n satisfaction in w h ic h hap p in ess consists. . . .
[H Jappiness is n o t ju s t th e result o f p raisew o rth y ac tio n ; it is constituted by
th e “ qualifying c o n d itio n .” In this essay, “ b e a titu d e ” refers to the w h o le, each
c onsisting o f a “ qualifying c o n d itio n ” and a “ rew ard.” T h e te rm “ rew ard ” can
have th e u n fo rtu n a te c o n n o ta tio n o f “ e arn e d o n o n e ’s o w n ,” as i f G o d ’s grace
w ere unnecessary. N o n e o f the c o m m e n ta to rs surveyed here w o u ld h o ld such a
view, n o r w o u ld this au th o r. T h is c o n n o ta tio n leads o n e c o n te m p o ra ry biblical
scholar, even w hile co nsistently using th e te rm rew ard, to say “ rew ard horribile
dictum . . (Luz, M atthew 1 -7 , 246).
21 F or an exam ple o f so m e o n e tu rn in g im m ed iately from th e re co g n itio n th a t the
b eatitu d es are a b o u t happiness to questions o f v irtu e and h o w to live to o b tain
such happiness, see G re g o ry o f Nyssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes 1:2 (24).
-- T h o se versed in the language o f m oral philosophy will recognize here the claim
th at happiness is an activity. For p ro m in e n t exam ples o f such a claim see A risto d e ’s
Nicomachean Ethics i.7 a n d T h o m a s A quinas, Summ a theologiae I—II, q. 3, a. 2. See also
W illiam C. M attison III,“B eatitude and the B eatitudes in the Summ a Theologiae o f
St. T h o m a s A quinas,” Josephinum Journal o f Theology 17.2 (2010): 2 3 3 -4 9 .
826 W illiam C. M attison I I I

p raisew o rth y ac tio n .” 23 B y co n trast, w h a t w o u ld m a rk an extrinsic rela­

tio n sh ip w o u ld b e e ith e r th e claim th a t th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n was n o t
c o n c e rn e d w ith a p e rs o n ’s activity o r th e claim th a t, ev en if it w ere, th a t
activity w o u ld in n o w ay c o n tin u e in th e state o f rew ard.
T o u n d e rsta n d b e tte r th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n an in trin sic an d an
ex trin sic rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n q u alify in g c o n d itio n an d rew ard, co n sid e r
th e fo llo w in g b e a titu d e : “ B lessed are th e y w h o m o u r n , fo r th e y w ill be
co m fo rte d .” 24 H e re it seem s th a t w h a t qualifies o n e fo r rew ard is sim ply
th e e x p e rie n c e o f su ffe rin g th a t p ro m p ts m o u rn in g ; in o th e r w o rd s, it is
a state in w h ic h o n e finds o n e s e lf ra th e r th a n an y activity.25 It also seem s
th a t w h a t ch aracterize s th e state o f rew ard (co m fo rt) is a cessation o f th e
q u alify in g c o n d itio n (m o u rn in g ). T h e r e is ce rta in ly a rela tio n sh ip
b e tw e e n th e tw o , since th e b e a titu d e rea d s,“ B lessed are th ey w h o m o u rn ,
fo r th e y w ill b e c o m fo rte d .” B u t it m ay a p p e a r to b e an e x trin sic rela­
tio n sh ip , since w h a t qualifies o n e fo r rew ard is a situ a tio n in w h ic h o n e
finds o n e s e lf ra th e r th a n so m e activ ity o n th e p a rt o f th e p e rso n , an d
since th e h ap piness p ro m ise d seem s to b e a reversal o r at least cessation,
o f th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n . D e sp ite this prima facie o r “ e v e ry d ay ” in te r­
p re ta tio n , th e a rg u m e n t o f this essay is th a t each b e a titu d e , in c lu d in g this
o n e , presents an in trin sic rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n q u alify in g c o n d itio n an d
rew ard. W h a t is rew ard ed is so m e activity d e sc rib e d in th e q u alify in g
c o n d itio n , a n d th a t activ ity c o n tin u e s in so m e im p o rta n t w ay in th e state
o f rew ard. T h e C h ristia n tra d itio n o f c o m m e n ta ry o n th e b ea titu d es,
a lth o u g h n o t u sin g this language, co n siste n tly reflects this u n d e rsta n d in g
o f th e b ea titu d es.

E x a m in in g Particular Beatitudes
H a v in g sta te d th e m a in thesis o f this essay, m y n e x t task is to e x a m in e
each b e a titu d e to d e te r m in e w h e th e r th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n s an d
rew ards are in d e e d in trin sically related . M y claim is th a t th e y are so
in trin sically related , a lth o u g h th e vario u s b e a titu d e s are am en a b le to this
analysis in v ary in g w ays, a to p ic addressed in th e th ird se ctio n .
B e fo re e x a m in in g each b e a titu d e , tw o p re lim in a ry p o in ts m u st b e
addressed. F irst, h o w is th e “ m e a n in g ” o f each b e a titu d e asce rta in e d here?

23 H e rb e rt M c C a b e , The Cood Life: Ethics and the Pursuit o f Happiness (N e w York:

C o n tin u u m , 2005), 5 - 6 , em phasis in original.
24 Pinckaers says o f this b e atitu d e: “ L et us b e honest. A m o n g all the beatitu d es there
is n o n e like this o n e for flying in th e face o f c o m m o n sense” (T he Pursuit o f
Happiness, 77).
25 M o re precisely, since m o u rn in g is an activity, th e qualifying c o n d itio n m ay seem
to b e a state o f afFairs in w h ic h o n e finds o n e se lf th a t pro m p ts m o u rn in g .
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 827

T h e m e th o d I w ill em p lo y is to read h o w a u th o rita tiv e voices in th e

C h ris tia n tra d itio n have u n d e rs to o d th e m e an in g s o f th e M a tth e a n b e a t­
itu d es. T h e a u th o rs c h o s e n h e re have w ritte n c o m m e n ta rie s o n th e b e a t­
itu d e s th a t m u st b e addressed in any h isto rical su rv ey o f in flu en tial
tre a tm e n ts o f th e b e a titu d e s.26 O th e r s co u ld b e a d d e d , a n d th u s th e
sam ple h ere is n o n -e x h a u stiv e . B u t it d oes re p re se n t a sa m p lin g o f
c o m m e n ta ry o n th e b e a titu d e s w h ic h e x ten d s across h isto rical p erio d s,
b e tw e e n E ast an d W est, an d b e tw e e n C a th o lic s an d P ro te sta n ts.27 M y
p o in t h ere is n o t th a t all these c o m m e n ta to rs th in k in th e sam e m a n n e r
a b o u t th e b ea titu d es. To th e co n trary , v ary in g c o m m e n ta rie s o n th e
S e rm o n o n th e M o u n t are fine places to see d ifferen ces in th e th o u g h t
o f th ese figures.28 M y claim is th a t d esp ite im p o rta n t d ifferen ces, these
v ario u s a u th o rs are co n siste n t in in te rp re tin g th e rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n
th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n s an d rew ards intrinsically.
S eco n d , h o w m an y b eatitu d es are there?29 T h e answ er to this seem ingly
sim ple q u estio n is n o t at all obvious. C o m m e n ta to rs treat th e n u m b e r o f

2f) All p re -c o n te m p o ra ry c o m m e n ta rie s m e n tio n e d by B e tz o r G u e lic h in th e ir

trea tm e n ts o f th e histo ry o f c o m m e n ta ry are addressed here. See G u e lic h , The
Sermon on the Mourn, 1 4 -2 1 , and B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 1 0 7 -9 .
27 T h e c o m m e n ta to rs relied u p o n here a re :Jo h n C h ry so sto m ,A m b ro se , G re g o ry o f
Nyssa, A ugustine, T h o m a s A quinas, M a rtin L uther, J o h n C a lv in , and D ie tric h
BonhoefFer. C o n te m p o ra ry theological treatm en ts in clu d e Pope B e n e d ic t X V I,
Servais Pinckaers, O.P., and G len Stassen a n d D avid G ushee. Finally, as represen­
tative o f c o n te m p o ra ry biblical scholarship, I e x am in e th e w o rk o f H ans D ie te r
B etz and R o b e r t G uelich. (See n o te 8 above. T h e w orks o f D avies and Allison
and o f U lric h Luz are also referenced o n occasion.) A lth o u g h additio n al figures
co u ld be add u ced in any o f these tim e perio d s, th e om ission o f any o f these
a u th o rs w o u ld b e at least as n o te w o rth y as om ission o f others.
28 For exam ples o f such treatm ents o f h o w varying figures in te rp ret th e S e rm o n on
the M o u n t distincdy,see Jaroslav Pelikan’s Divine Rhetoric.The Sermon on the Mount
A s Message and A s Model in Augustine, Chrysostom, and Luther (N ew York: St.V lad-
m ir’s Sem inary Press, 2000); The Scrinoti on the M ount Through the Centuries, ed.
Jeffrey G re e n m a il,T im o th y Larson, S tephen S pencer (G rand R apids, M I: Brazos
Press, 2007);T ore M eistad, Martin Luther and John Wesley on the Sermon on the M ount
(L anham , M D : Scarecrow Press, 1999).
29 T h e focus o f this essay is th e M a tth e a n b eatitudes. T h e re are tw o reasons for this
focus. First, this essay is in te n d e d to be p a rt o f a larger b o o k p ro jec t o n m oral
th eo lo g y (m ore particularly, v irtu e and happiness) and M a tth e w ’s S e rm o n o n the
M o u n t. S econd, th ere is a far g re ater a m o u n t o f c o m m e n ta ry available in the
C h ristia n trad itio n o n th e M a tth e a n beatitudes, and th a t fact— given the
m eth o d o lo g y ad o p te d here o f ascertaining th e m ea n in g o f each b e a titu d e —
pro m p ts a focus o n M atthew . N o claim s are m ade here a b o u t th e relationship
b e tw ee n M a tth e w ’s and L uke’s sets o f b eatitu d es, a lth o u g h occasional references
are m ade to L u k e’s beatitu d es w h e re c o m m e n ta to rs surveyed here c o n n e c t the
tw o sets. A lth o u g h 1 suspect th at the even th e starker language o f th e L uke 6
828 W illiam C. M attison II I

b eatitu d es as ra n g in g fro m 7 to 8 to 9 .30 N in e statem en ts (M t 5 :3 -1 2 )

b e g in w ith “B lessed a r e ... .’’Yet th e final o n e is no ticeab ly d istin ct in saying
“B lessed are you . . . ” (M t 5 :1 1 -1 2 ) an d h e n c e has consistently b e e n treated
distinctly. C o m m e n ta to rs ra n g in g fro m G re g o ry o f N yssa to J o h n C h ry so s­
to m to L u th e r to P o p e B e n e d ic t X V I have thus trea ted th e b eatitu d es as a
set o f eight. O f th e eig h t b eatitu d es b e g in n in g “B lessed are they . . .” (M t
5:3—10), th e rep e titio n o f th e rew ard “ theirs is th e K in g d o m o f h ea v en ” in
th e first an d eig h th has led m an y to also treat th e eig h th b ea titu d e distincdy.
H e n c e th e re is a trad itio n , starting w ith A u g u stin e a n d c o n tin u in g w ith
A quinas an d o th e r m edievals, th a t co u n ts th e b eatitu d es as seven, w ith th e
eig h th b ea titu d e as a so rt o f su m m ary an d rec ap itu latio n o f th e first
seven.31 T h e m a in a rg u m e n t given fo r this sevenfold c o u n t o f th e b eati­
tu des is th e rep e titio n o f th e sam e rew ard in b o th th e first an d th e e ig h th .32
T h e sevenfold in te rp re ta tio n is a d o p te d here, n o t o n ly because o f th e

b e atitu d es can be u n d e rsto o d via th e “ in trin sic rela tio n sh ip ” d escrib ed in this
essay, I d o n o t m ake th a t a rg u m e n t here.
30 As B etz notes, som e even break u p M a tth e w 5:11 a n d 12 to n u m b e r te n b e ati­
tudes. For his review o f a rg u m en ts for seven, eig h t, nine, o r te n b e atitu d e s in
biblical scholarship, see The Sermon on the M ount, 1 0 8 -9 .
31 As T h o m a s A quinas claim s, “ T h e e ig h th b e atitu d e is a c o n firm a tio n and declara­
tio n o f all those th a t precede. . . . T h e e ig h th b e atitu d e co rresp o n d s, in a way, to
all th e p re c e d in g seven” ( S T I—II, q. 69, a. 3, ad 5). F or this view in A u g u stin e see
The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.3.10 and 1.4.12. P inckaers affirm s this approach
in his Sources o f Christian Ethics, 1 4 5 -4 6 . N o te th a t n o n e o f these deny th at
M a tth e w 5:10 is a b e atitu d e. T h e claim is sim ply th at th e b e a titu d e serves a
different role th an th e o th e r seven serve. For an exam ple o f so m e o n e w h o c o u n ts
eig h t b e atitu d e s b u t treats th e e ig h th as ad d in g n o significant progression to the
first seven, see G re g o ry o f Nyssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes V III. F or re co g n itio n
in c o n te m p o ra ry biblical scholarship o f the distinctiveness o f th e e ig h th b e ati­
tu d e and th u s th e leg itim acy o f a tte n d in g to th e first seven as a set, D avies and
A llison claim : “ A n inclusio is thus fo rm e d b e tw e e n th e first and e ig h th b eatitude.
Its fu n c tio n is to m ark th e b e g in n in g and e n d o f th e form ally sim ilar b eatitudes,
th a t is b e atitu d es 1 -8 , w h ic h are th e n follow ed by a n in th th a t is d ifferent in
fo rm . T h e inclusio also im plies th a t the prom ises in b e atitu d e s 2 - 7 are all differ­
e n t ways o f saying the sam e th in g , n a m e ly ,‘theirs is th e k in g d o m o f heaven,’ the
prom ise o f th e first and e ig h th b e a titu d e s” ( The Gospel According to M atthew, 460).
See also G u elich , The Sermon on the M ount, 93; L uz, M a tth e w 1 -7 , 2 4 1 -4 2 ; and
B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 1 4 2 -4 6 .
32 See B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 1 0 9 -1 0 . A n o th e r a rg u m e n t is th a t this eighth
b e atitu d e describes th e suffering th at accom panies the p eo p le described in all the
previous beatitudes. T h u s th ere are arg u m en ts c o n c e rn in g b o th the qualifying
c o n d itio n and th e rew ard in su p p o rt o f n u m b e rin g seven beatitudes. For an ex am ­
ple o f a c o m m e n ta ry w h e re the rew ards o f th e first and e ig h th beatitu d es are
in te rp re te d as distinct, see A m brose, Treatise on the Gospel o f St. Luke, 6 1 .3 -5 (p.
205). C itatio n s to this tex t are from Traite sur I’Evangiie de S. Luc, Vol. I (Paris: C erf,
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 829

rew ard re p e titio n b u t also for reasons addressed b elo w h av in g to d o w ith

p rogression w ith in th e b eatitu d es an d th e ir a lig n m e n t as a set w ith o th e r
sets. As w ith th e m e th o d o lo g y fo r in te rp re tin g th e c o n te n t o f th e b eati­
tudes, this claim is n o t u n co n te ste d b u t certainly defensible.

i. “Blessed are the poor in spirit, fo r theirs is the kingdom o f heaven"

D e te rm in in g w h e th e r o r n o t any b ea titu d e offers an in trin sic relationship
b e tw e e n qualifying c o n d itio n an d rew ard requires specifying w h a t exactly
each o f these is. First, th e n , w h o are th e “ p o o r in sp irit?” T h is b ea titu d e has
consistently b e e n u n d e rsto o d to refer to th e h u m b le. J o h n C h ry so sto m is
a m o n g tho se w h o answ er this q u e stio n directly: “ W h a t is m e a n t by th e
‘p o o r in sp irit’? T h e h u m b le an d c o n trite o f m in d .” 33 A u g u stin e claims,
“ T h e p o o r in sp irit are rig h d y u n d e rsto o d h ere as th e h u m b le an d those
w h o fear G o d ,” an d th a t “ blessedness [beatitudo, i.e., happiness] starts w ith
hum ility.” 34 T h o u g h in te rp re ters consistently claim th a t this b ea titu d e is
n o t sim ply a reference to m aterial w an t, m any c o m m e n ta to rs claim m a te ­
rial possessions are q u ite relevant fo r b ea titu d e.35 Y et ev en w h e n c o m m e n ­
tato rs a tte n d to th e m aterial poverty, th ere is an em phasis o n so m e activity
o f th e p o o r in sp irit in th e ir state o f m aterial w an t, such as refusing to seek
u ltim ate c o m fo rt in tem p o ral possessions.36T h erefo re, w h ile th e qualifying
c o n d itio n o f th e first b ea titu d e sh o u ld n o t b e disassociated fro m m aterial
poverty, even w h e n it c o n c e rn s th e m aterially p o o r it is an activity o f th e

1956), w ith standardized n u m b e rin g from the Latin te x t follow ed by page n u m b e r

from this e d itio n .T h o u g h this is A m b ro se ’s c o m m e n ta ry o n L u k e ’s gospel, in treat­
ing th e beatitudes o f L uke 6, A m brose also exam ines the M a tth e an beatitudes.
33 J o h n C h ry so sto m , H o m ily XV.2 (41). R e fere n ce s to J o h n C h ry so s to m ’s H o m i­
lies o n M a tth e w given here are from The Preaching o f John Chrysostom, ed. Jaroslav
Pelikan (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967). T h e reference includes hom ily,
section, and in parentheses the page n u m b e r from this ed itio n .
34 See The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.1.3 and 1.3.10, respectively. See also A u g u s­
tine, Sermons III (51—94), 53A .2. See also: A m brose, Treatise on the Gospel o f St.
L uke 6 0.2 (205); T h o m a s A quinas S T I—II, q. 69, a. 3, a n d Super Evangelium S.
Matthaei Lectura, 415; Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 3 8 -3 9 ; P inckaers, The
Pursuit o f Happiness, 41; B e n e d ic t X V I, Jesus o f Nazareth, 75; a n d G u e lic h , The
Sermon on the M ount, 73.
35 See, e.g., Pope B e n e d ic t X V I, Jesus o f N azareth, 7 6 -7 7 and G u e lic h , The Sermon
on the M ount, 75.
36 M a rtin L uther, The Sermon on the M ount, trans. Jaroslav Pelikan, pp. 1 -2 9 4 in
Luther’s Works 21 (Saint Louis, M O : C o n c o rd ia P ublishing H o u se, 1956), pp. 12,
13, and 17. G iven th e absence o f in te rn a l te x t divisions, references to this te x t are
given by page n u m b e r in this e d itio n . D ie tric h B o n h o e ffer, The Cost o f Disciple-
sliip (N e w York: C o llie r B ooks, 1963), 1 2 0 .T h o m a s A quinas, S T I—II, q. 69, a. 3,
and Super Evangelium S. M atthaei Lectura, 416. Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics,
38. Pinckaers, 4 2 -4 6 . G u e lic h , The Sermon on the M ount, 01—17..
830 W illiam C. M attison I I I

p o o r in sp irit (such as relying o n G o d o r n o t clin g in g to te m p o ral riches)

th a t is in te rp re te d as th e qualifying c o n d itio n in this b eatitu d e. T h is q u ali­
fying c o n d itio n m ay o f co u rse be m o re prev alen t in th e m aterially p o o r,
an d th e c o n d itio n m ay even be m ad e m o re possible by m aterial poverty,
b u t th e qualifying c o n d itio n does n o t sim ply eq u a te to a state o f m aterial
poverty. F u rth e rm o re , th e re is c o n tin u ity o f activity b e tw e e n th e qualifying
c o n d itio n a n d th e state o f rew ard, since h u m ility ch aracterizes th o se w h o
en jo y etern al happiness.37 W ith o u t d en y in g im p o rta n t d isco n tin u ities
b e tw e e n th e p o o r in spirit an d those w h o possess th e k in g d o m o f heaven,
L u th e r illustrates this c o n tin u ity by saying th a t th e spiritually p o o r “ d ep e n d
u p o n an im perishable, etern al possession, th a t is, u p o n th e k in g d o m o f
heaven.”38 T h erefo re, b ein g h u m b le an d refusing to clin g to m aterial
possessions as th e source o f happiness are n o t sim ply prereq u isite co n d itio n s
for rew ard b u t e n d u rin g characteristics o f possession o f th e k in g d o m o f
heaven. T h u s th e rew ard here is n o t a sim ple reversal o f m aterial poverty. It
is a co n tin u a tio n , in d e e d c u lm in a tio n , o f a life o f h u m ility an d fre ed o m
fro m possession by possessions.

ii. “Blessed are they who mourn, fo r they will be comforted”

As n o te d above, this se c o n d 39 b e a titu d e appears m o st o b v io u sly to suggest
an e x trin sic rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n q u alify in g c o n d itio n an d rew ard , sin ce
it w o u ld se e m b o th th a t m o u r n in g is sim ply s o m e th in g th a t h ap p e n s to
so m e o n e a n d th a t it is a n tith e tic a l to c o m fo rt an d h ap p in ess.40 Yet
c o m m e n ta to rs m o st co n siste n tly in te r p re t this b e a titu d e as a stark recast­
in g o f w o rld ly u n d e rsta n d in g s o f h appiness ra th e r th a n sim p ly a d e p ic ­
tio n o f th e reversal o f a c o n d itio n a n tith e tic a l to h appiness. T h e re are tw o
p re d o m in a n t strains o f in te rp re ta tio n in th e c o m m e n ta to rs surv ey ed h ere
as to w h a t is m e a n t by “ th o se w h o m o u r n .” T h is first is th a t th e m o u r n ­
in g is ov er o n e ’s sins. T h o u g h affirm ed by nearly all th e c o m m e n ta to rs
tre a te d h ere, this in te rp re ta tio n is b ea u tifu lly d e s c rib e d by G re g o ry o f
N yssa, w h o contrasts th e blessed m o u r n in g o v er o n e ’s sins w ith th e

37 As n o te d below , th e “ k in g d o m o f h e av e n ” is th e m o st general te r m for the state

o f e te rn al rew ard, a destiny th a t is fu rth e r elucid ated in th e second th ro u g h
seventh beatitudes. See Luz, M atthew 1 -7 , 235; D avies and A llison, The Cospcl
According to M atthew, 460. F or m o re o n the M a tth e an sense o f k in g d o m o f
heaven, see G u e lic h , The Sermon on the M ount, 7 7 -7 9 .
38 L uther, The Sermon on the M ount, 16. See also Stassen and G ushee, 39.
39 T h e b e a titu d e c o n c e rn in g those w h o m o u rn com es third in som e m an u scrip t
traditions, after th e b e atitu d e c o n c e rn in g th e m ee k . For m o re o n this issue o f
o rd e rin g , see G u e lic h , The Sermon on the M ount, 8 0 -8 2 .
40 G u elich appears to offer such an in te rp reta tio n (The Sermon on the M ount, 8 0 -8 1 ).
See also above, n o te 3.
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 831

c o n te n te d in ab ility o f so m e to even be aw are o f th e ir o w n sinfulness. H e

likens th e o n e w h o m o u rn s to an in ju re d p e rso n w h o b e g in s.to feel pain
in his prev io u sly paralyzed lim b. “ W h e n th e soul b e c o m e s aw are o f w h a t
is b ad an d bew ails th e life o f evil,” it is a cru cial early step to w ard full
reco v ery.41 In this in te rp re ta tio n , a lth o u g h m o u r n in g is surely suffered, it
is a su fferin g m ad e possible by th e activity o f re p e n tin g fo r o n e ’s sin s.T h e
se c o n d co n siste n t lin e o f in te rp re ta tio n — an d o n e c o m m o n ly en d o rse d
by th e sam e p e o p le w h o e n d o rse th e first— is o f m o u r n in g as refu sin g to
fin d re lie f in w o rld ly co m fo rts. L u th e r distinguishes sim p le su ffe rin g fro m
th e “ m o u r n in g ” o f this b e a titu d e , saying, “ A m a n is said to m o u r n an d be
so rro w fu l— n o t if his h ea d is always d ro o p in g an d his face is always so u r
an d n ev e r sm iling; b u t i f h e d oes n o t d e p e n d o n h av in g a g o o d tim e an d
liv in g it up, th e w ay th e w o rld does.” 42 In d ic a tin g th a t o n e o f th e m ain
so u rces o f w o rld ly c o m fo rt is a refusal to face painful realities th a t e n g e n ­
d e r su ffering, P in ck a ers claim s this b e a titu d e “ invites us first o f all to b e
fully h u m a n : n o t c h ild re n , to be am u sed w ith p re tty sto ries an d sh ie ld e d
fro m p ainful an d d istu rb in g sights, b u t adults w h o dare to lo o k reality in
th e face.” 43 H o w e v e r o n e u n d e rsta n d s “ th o se w h o m o u rn ,” m o u r n in g is
an activity ra th e r th a n sim ply a state in w h ic h o n e finds oneself.
G iven these in terp retatio n s o f th e qualifying c o n d itio n as an activity
rath e r than sim ply a state in w h ich o n e finds oneself, h o w sh o u ld w e u n d e r­
stand th at c o n d itio n s relationship to th e reward? T h e rew ard “ th ey will be
c o m fo rte d ” indicates th a t there are im p o rta n t discontinuities b e tw e e n the
qualifying co n d itio n an d rew ard, since b ein g in a state o f m o u rn in g is differ­
e n t fro m b ein g in a state o f co m fo rt. Yet perhaps it is d u e to this seem ing
reversal that so m any c o m m e n ta to rs em phasize th e co n tin u ity b etw e en th e
tw o .T h e re is a consistent claim that those w h o m o u rn find c o m fo rt even in
this life.44 O f course, even if the rew ard o f c o m fo rt is ex p e rie n c e d in this
life, this does n o t necessarily entail its intrinsic relationship to th e qualifying

41 G re g o ry o f N yssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes 111:2 (40). See also: A ugustine,

Sermons III (5 1 -9 4 ), 53A .8; A m brose, Treatise on the Gospel o f St. Luke, 5 5 .1 -2
(203); J o h n C h ry so sto m , Homilies on M atthew XV.4 (4 3 -4 4 ); T h o m a s A quinas,
Super EvangeHunt S. Matlhaei Lcctnra, 422; Pinckaers, The Pursuit o f Happiness, 76;
Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 39
42 L uther, The Sermon on the M ount, 19. See also: A u g u stin e The Lord's Sermon on the
M ount I.2 .5 ;T h o m a s A quinas, S T I—II, q. 69, a. 3, and Super Emngclium S. Matlhaei
Lcctura, 422; B on h o effer, The Cost o f Discipleship, 121; and G u e lic h , The Sermon
on the M ount, 80.
4-1 Pinckaers, The Pursuit o f Happiness, 78.
44 J o h n C h ry so sto m , Homilies on M atthew XV.4 (4 4 );T h o m a s A quinas, S T I—II, q.
69, a. 2, ad 3; L uther, The Sermon on the M ount, 2 0 -2 2 ; B o n h o e ffer, The Cost o f
Discipleship, 122.
832 W illiam C. M altison II I

co n d itio n . A fter all, th e ex p e rien c e o f rew ard co u ld b e a reversal o r cessa­

tio n o f th a t c o n d itio n even in this life. Yet given th e tw o consistent in te r­
pretations o f w h a t constitutes th e qualifying c o n d itio n , in th e co m fo rt o f
etern al rew ard, w h e re presum ably th e re is n o m o u rn in g , w h a t ceases is n o t
th e qualifying c o n d itio n o f persons that en g e n d ered th e ir m o u rn in g b u t th e
circum stances w h e re in such m o u rn in g is activated. In o th e r w ords, even
th o u g h th ere is a g reat change b etw e en a state o f m o u rn in g an d a state o f
co m fo rt, w h a t changes is n o t w h a t c o m m e n ta to rs consistently identify as
th e qualifying c o n d itio n fo r th e rew ard .T h a t qualifying c o n d itio n is m o u r n ­
in g sinfulness, o r refusing to find solace in th e tran sien t co m fo rts o f this life.
B e in g a p erso n w h o p erfo rm s such activities, o f co u rse o n ly w ith th e assis­
tance o f G o d ’s grace, is precisely w h a t qualifies o n e to en joy th e tru e an d
lasting c o m fo rt o f th e k in g d o m o f heaven. O n e rem ains this so rt o f p erso n
even in th e co m fo rt o f etern al life w h e n th e occasion to m o u r n is n o lo n g er
present. J o h n C alv in speaks o f th e intrinsic relationship b e tw e e n qualifying
c o n d itio n an d rew ard w h e n h e says:

N o w n o th in g is su p p o s e d to b e m o re in c o n s is te n t w ith h a p p in e ss th a n
m o u r n in g . B u t C h r is t d o e s n o t m e re ly sh o w th a t m o u r n e r s are n o t
u n h a p p y . H e sh o w s th a t th e ir v e ry m o u r n in g c o n tr ib u te s to a h a p p y life
b y p re p a rin g th e m to re ce iv e e te rn a l j o y a n d b y fu rn is h in g th e m w ith
e x c ite m e n ts to se e k tr u e c o m f o r t in G o d a lo n e .45

C a lv in ’s claim th a t “ th e ir very m o u r n in g contributes to a h ap p y life”

d ep icts an in trin sic relatio n sh ip , even b e tw e e n m o u r n in g an d c o m fo rt,
since m o u r n in g is an activ ity th a t is n o t sim ply rev ersed b u t “ c o n trib u te s ”
to happiness.

i(i. “Blessed are the meek, fo r they will inherit the land"
W h o are th e m e ek ? T h e E n g lish te rm m e e k is o fte n asso ciated w ith
b e in g servile o r passive. Stassen ind icates th a t this is an e rro n e o u s assu m p ­
tio n w h e n h e claim s, “ A m e e k p e rso n is th o u g h t o f as a d o o r m a t o n
w h ic h o th e rs w ip e th e ir feet, a n d w h o is tim id a n d fears w h a t o th e rs w ill
th in k . ‘B u t n o th in g co u ld b e m o re fo re ig n to th e b ib lical use o f th e
w o rd .’ ” 46T h e G re e k praiais47 (a n d V u lg a te L atin mitis) w ere u n d e rs to o d

45 J o h n C alvin, Commentary on a Harmony o f the Evangelists Matthew, M ark, and Luke,

Vol. I (G ran d R a p id s, M I: E erdm ans, 1956), M t 5:4 (261). (Page n u m b e rs given
to this e d itio n in parentheses.)
46 Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 40, c itin g Jo rd a n , Sermon on the M ount,
2 4 -2 5 . See also P ope B e n e d ic t X V I ,Jesus o f N azareth, 80.
47 F or m o re o n th e H e b re w w o rd o r w ords th a t likely “ stand b e h in d ” th e G re ek
term s for “ p o o r” a n d “ m e e k ” in M t 5:3 and 5, see G u e lic h , The Sermon on the
M ount, 6 6 -7 5 .
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 833

to refer to, in th e w ords o f A u g u stin e , “ th o se w h o y ield b efo re o u tb u rsts

o f evil an d d o n o t resist evil, b u t o v e rc o m e evil w ith g o o d ,” w h ile “ th o se
w h o are n o t m e e k stru g g le an d c o n te n d fo r ea rth ly th in g s” 48 H e n c e th e
q u alify in g c o n d itio n p raised h ere is n o t b e in g su b ju g a te d o r passive, b u t
ra th e r b e in g m ild w ith regard to occasions o f an g e r.49
As to th e m e an in g o f “ they w ill in h e rit th e land,” th ere is divergence in
th e trad itio n as to w h a t is m e a n t by this rew ard, and in p articu lar w h e th e r
it refers to an earthly o r a heavenly rew ard.50 M o re im p o rta n tly fo r this
sectio n o n th e intrinsic relation b e tw e e n th e qualifying c o n d itio n an d
rew ard, it is clear that regardless o f w h e th e r th e land is u n d e rsto o d as te m p o ­
ral a n d /o r eternal, th e m e e k d o n o t in h e rit it as a reversal o f w h a t qualifies
th e m for it b u t as a co n tin u atio n , even intensification; o f th e ir m eekness.
T h is is especially ev id en t in those co m m en tato rs w h o in te rp re t th e land as
tem p o ral. L u th e r claim s th a t w h ile w orldly persons “ n e ith e r have th e K in g ­
d o m o f heaven nor enjoy temporal goods peacefully and quietly,” C hristians have
“ e n o u g h o f b o th th e te m p o ral an d eternal.” 5’ In d ee d it is o n e ’s very m e e k ­
ness, n o t a cessation o f it, th a t enables o n e to possess, as L u th e r explains: “ H e
[C hrist] teaches us that w h o e v e r w ants to rule and possess his property,
possessions, h o u se an d h o m e in peace m ust b e m eek , so th a t h e m ay over­
lo o k things an d act reasonably, p u ttin g u p w ith ju s t as m u c h as h e possibly
can.” 52 O n c e again w e see h o w a b e a titu d e ’s qualifying c o n d itio n is an
activity that persists in so m e fo rm in the prom ised rew ard.53
‘,8 A ugustine, The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.2.4. See also: G re g o ry o f Nyssa,
Homilies on the Beatitudes 11:2 (34); L uther, The Sermon on the M ount, 36. C alvin,
H a rm o n y o f th e E vangelists, M t 5:5 (2 6 1 -6 2 ); B o n h o e ffer, The Cost o f Disciple-
ship, 122.
49 T h o m a s A quinas claim s this b e a titu d e is an a n tid o te to b e in g led away by o n e ’s
irascible passions. See S T I—II, q. 69, a. 3. H e also equates mitis to mansueludo, the
latter b e in g the classical v irtu e th a t m o d erates a n g er (Super Evangelium S. Matthaei
Lectura, 419). See also A m brose, Treatise on the Gospel o f St. Luke, 54.5 (203), and
Pinckaers, Pursuit o f Happiness, 61, 6 5 -6 6 .
30 See A ugustine, The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.2.4 w h e re A u g u stin e understands
th e land to refer to th e “stability o f an u n d y in g in h e rita n c e ” and says it is the life
and rest o f th e saints, m ea n in g those in heaven. G re g o ry says use o f earth ly im age
given for o u r aid (Homilies on the Beatitudes II.2 [33], b u t clearly n o t earth ly land
th at is p rom ised [34]. Yet as seen b e lo w o th ers u n d e rstan d it to refer also to
possession in this life. For a tre a tm e n t o f the interplay b e tw e e n b o th senses, see
Pope B e n e d ic t X V I , Jesus o f N azareth, 8 2 -8 4 .
51 L uther, The Sermon on the M ount, 25, em phasis added.
52 Ibid., 24. See also C a lv in ’s claim regarding ferocious peo p le th at “ w h ile they
possess all, they possess n o th in g ” (Harmony o f the Evangelists, M t 5:5 [262]). See
also A ugustine, Sermons III (5 1 -9 4 ), 53.2.
33 See Pinckaers, Pursuit o f Happiness, 71, for a discussion o f h o w th e rew ard o f the
m ee k is also possession o f o n e ’s self.
834 W illiam C. M attison III

iu “Blessed are they who hunger and thirst fo r righteousness,

fo r they will be satisfied’’
T h e fo u rth b e a titu d e seem s to re q u ire th e least analysis here. It is m o re
e v id e n t th a t h u n g e r in g an d th irstin g is an activity, an d it is n o t su rp risin g
th a t th e re is c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n th e activ ity o f lo n g in g fo r rig h te o u sn ess
(o r literally “ju s tic e ”)54 a n d its a tta in m e n t. B u t w h y are th o se w h o h u n g e r
an d th irst fo r ju s tic e rew arded? As w ith th e m e e k , o n e m ig h t b e te m p te d
to read this b e a titu d e as e x e c u tin g a sim p le reversal, su ch th a t th o se w h o
are satisfied by ju s tic e are th o se w h o h u n g e re d an d th irste d fo r it sim ply
b ecau se th e y suffered in ju stic e.55 B u t again, this is n o t h o w th e qu alify ­
in g c o n d itio n is co n sisten tly u n d e rs to o d in th e tra d itio n . R a th e r, th e
h u n g e rin g an d th irstin g o f th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n is a lo n g in g fo r an d
p u rsu it o f ju s tic e ra th e r th a n a su ffe rin g o f in ju stice (th o u g h th e la tte r
w ill likely o c c u r b ecause o f th e fo rm e r).56
As for th e rew ard o f b ein g satisfied, this b ea titu d e is th e first a m o n g those
ex am in ed so far to have a less obvious discon tin u ity b etw e en th e qualifying
c o n d itio n an d the rew ard. T h e re is still discontinuity, as is ev id en t by the
co ntrast b e tw e e n h u n g e r/th irs t and satisfaction. H o w ev er, this is th e first
b eatitu d e w h ere th e rew ard is a c o m p le tio n o f w h a t is lo n g ed for in the
qualifying co n d itio n . T h u s th ere is clear co n tin u ity b etw e en th e perso n
striving fo r ju stic e and th e perso n enjoying ju stice in th e state o f eternal
rew ard. F u rth e rm o re , there is a consistent claim in th e co m m e n ta ry tradi­
tio n th a t h u n g e rin g an d th irsting for righteousness is actually th e b e g in n in g
o f its possession.57 G reg o ry o f Nyssa devotes th e m o st extensive trea tm e n t
to th e relationship b e tw e e n the lo n g in g for ju stice an d its satiation.58

54 D esp ite the c o m m o n E nglish translation “ righteousness,” this w ord is u n d e rsto o d

in b o th th e histo ry o f c o m m e n ta ry and in c o n te m p o ra ry biblical scholarship to
b e equally well translated as “ju stice.” See, e.g., G u e lic h , The Sermon on the M ount,
8 4 -8 7 . G re g o ry in fact expands th e sense o f this te rm to in clu d e all o f the
virtues, a n d says it even refers to a lo n g in g for th e L ord h im se lf (Homilies on Beat­
itudes 1V.6 [5 2 -5 5 ]).
55 Stassen and G ushee observe that those w h o have e x p erien c e d injustice m ay be
particularly a ttu n e d to the ju stice prom ised in this beatitude (Kingdom Ethics, 42).
See also C alvin, Harmony o f the Evangelists, M t 5:6 (263). As in the beatitude on the
p o o r in spirit, it is n o t th e ex p erien ce o f suffering injustice that is the qualifying
c o n d itio n here b u t (in this case) the h u n g e r and thirst for justice. See also G uelich,
The Sermon on the M ount, 87, and Pinckaers, The Pursuit o f Happiness, 9 1 -9 3 .
36 See B on h o effer, The Cost o f Disciplcship, 124; L u th er, The Sermon on the Mount,
2 8 ;T h o m a s A quinas, S T I—II, q. 69, a. 3.
57 See A ugustine, The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.2.6, and L uther, The Sermon on
the M ount, 28.
58 For a very helpful article o n precisely this topic, see Luis Francisco M a teo -S ec o ,
“ G re g o ry o f N yssa, D e beatitudinibus, O ra tio IV: ‘Blessed are those w h o h u n g e r
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 835

G re g o ry claims the term s “ h u n g e r and th irst” indicate th e earnestness o f the

craving; yet he also contrasts th e h u n g e r and thirst for ju stic e w ith th a t for
fo o d an d d rin k . H u n g e r and thirst for fo o d an d d rin k is d im in ish ed o n ce it
is satisfied. Yet satisfaction o f th e h u n g e r and thirst for ju stice leads n o t to a
cessation o f th e craving b u t to a fu rth e r sh a rp e n in g o f th e ap p etite.59
In d eed , to crave ju stice is in so m e sense already to possess it. G re g o ry says,
“ W e m ust still try to find th a t justice, w h ich is already enjoyed by th e o n e
th a t desires it in the anticipation o f w h a t is prom ised.”60 In a baldly in trin ­
sic claim a b o u t th e relationship b etw e en qualifying co n d itio n an d rew ard,
G re g o ry says “ its [v irtu e’s] happiness is coextensive w ith its o p eratio n .”61 In
these w ords w e see affirm ed th e consistent claim that th e qualifying c o n d i­
tio n is an activity, an d o n e that is c o n tin u o u s w ith th e state o f rew ard.
A lth o u g h G re g o ry is n o t c o m m itte d to claim ing th a t n o th in g fu rth e r is
attain ed in th e satisfaction o f the yearn in g for justice, this is a clearly in trin ­
sic relationship b etw e en qualifying co n d itio n and rew ard.

v. “Blessed are the merciful,for they will be shown mercy”

As in th e fo u rth b e a titu d e , th e c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n th e q u alify in g c o n d i­
tio n an d th e rew ard o f th e fifth b e a titu d e m ay se em readily ap p aren t.
T h o s e w h o are m ercifu l are rew ard ed w ith m ercy. C o u ld it b e in te r­
p re te d w ith a c o n n o ta tio n o f reversal, as if to suggest th a t th o se w h o
sh o w m ercy, a lth o u g h th e y d o n o t receive th a t m e rc y in th e p rese n t, w ill
in th e future? A n d c o u ld it im p ly a cessation o f th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n ,
such th a t if o n e show s m e rc y now , o n e w ill receive it later an d can sit
b ack an d stop h av in g to sh o w it?62 As fo r th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n b ein g
an activity, Stassen is p articu la rly helpful: “ M e rc y is a b o u t an ac tio n ;
specifically, g e n e ro u s a c tio n th a t delivers som eone fro m need or
b o n d ag e .”63 A lth o u g h it m ay be a c c o m p a n ie d by se n tim e n t (e .g .,“ p ity ”),
it is n o t p rim a rily so m e th in g th a t h ap p e n s to o n e b u t ra th e r s o m e th in g
w h ic h so m e o n e does, o r exercises.64 G re g o ry o f N yssa reco g n izes this
and th irst for righteousness for they will be satisfied’ (M t 5:6),” 1 4 6 -6 3 in Gregory
o f Nyssa: Homilies on the Beatitudes.
G reg o ry o f N yssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes IV.6 (5 3 -5 5 ).
w Ibid. 1V:2 (49). See also IV.6 (55).
Ibid. IV.6 (55).
For b o th in trin sic and ex trin sic ways to in te rp re t this b e atitu d e (w ith o u t using
these term s), see Pinckaers, Pursuit o f Happiness, 114.
Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 43. A ugustine also em phasizes th e active
n atu re o f m ercy in saying it is “ those w h o c o m e to the aid o f th e n e e d y ” ( The
Lord's Sermon on the M ount 1.2.7). G u elich claim s “ m erciful refers to th e act o f
ju d g in g ” (The Sermon on the M ount, 89, em phasis in original).
M For m o re o n the role o f se n tim e n t in m ercy, see Pinckaers, Pursuit o f Happiness,
1 1 6 -1 7 . '
836 W illiam C . M attison III

e m o tio n a l c o m p o n e n t by calling it a “ m isery,” b u t says it is a “voluntary

m ise ry ” p ro m p te d by o th e r p e o p le ’s ills, a “ lo v in g se lf-id e n tific a tio n w ith
th o se vexed by g riev o u s events.” 65
As to th e c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n q u alify in g c o n d itio n a n d rew ard, a ch a l­
le n g e to this essay’s thesis o f an in trin sic rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e m is th e
su g g e stio n th a t o n e can cease to sh o w m ercy, sin ce at th e tim e o f rew ard
o n e can sim ply receive it. A gain, G re g o ry is p articu la rly h elp fu l in
ex p la in in g th e co n tin u ity . First, G re g o ry claim s m e rc y is b o r n o f “ lo v in g
se lf-id e n tific a tio n ” w ith o th e rs, a n d th u s it is an activ ity th a t surely
co n tin u e s w h e n o n e is sh o w n m e rc y in e te rn a l rew ard. S eco n d , G re g o ry
describ es th e final ju d g m e n t in th e c o n te x t o f m e rc y a n d claim s th a t “ th e
p e rso n is his o w n ju d g e , g iv in g v erd ic t u p o n h im s e lf by his ju d g m e n t o f
in ferio rs.” 66 In o th e r w ords, th e sta n d ard w ith w h ic h o n e show s m e rc y
to o th e rs is th e stan d ard th a t o n e s u m m o n s fo r o n e ’s o w n ju d g m e n t.
G u e lic h observes, “ In this B e a titu d e G o d ’s m e rc y to b e e x p e rie n c e d at
th e final ju d g m e n t b elo n g s already to th e m e rcifu l a n d fu rn ish es th e basis
fo r th e ir b e h a v io r to w ard o th e rs.” 67 T h u s w h e n th e m e rcifu l are sh o w n
m ercy, th e y are e v id e n c e o f th e c o n tin u ity o f activ ity b e tw e e n th e stan ­
d ard o f ju s tic e a n d m e rc y th a t th e y rely u p o n w ith regard to o th e rs, an d
th a t w h ic h w ill b e sh o w n th e m .

vi. “Blessed are the clean o f heart, fo r they will see G o d ”

D e sp ite a c o m m o n c o n te m p o ra ry asso ciatio n o f “ p u r ity ” w ith an
ab sen ce o f d iso rd ere d sexual desire, th e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e “ clea n o f
h e a r t” (freq u e n tly tran slated “ p u re o f h e a r t” ) w ith d ire c t referen c e to
sexual desire is n o w h e re to b e fo u n d in th e c o m m e n ta to rs su rv ey ed
h e re .68 Stassen an d G u sh e e d efin e this q u alify in g c o n d itio n w ell as
“ g iv in g o n e ’s w h o le se lf ov er to G o d .” T h e y cite D avies an d A llison, w h o
say “ p u rity o f h e a rt m u st involve in te g rity , a c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n
o u tw a rd a c tio n a n d in w a rd th o u g h t. . . . M o re succinctly, p u rity o f h e a rt
is to w ill o n e th in g , G o d ’s w ill, w ith all o f o n e ’s b e in g a n d d o in g .”69 T h u s

63 G regory, Homilies on the Beatitudes V.3 (59), em phasis added. See B o n h o e ffer: “ As
if th e ir o w n needs a n d th e ir o w n distress w ere n o t e n o u g h , th ey take u p o n th e m ­
selves th e distress and h u m ilia tio n and sin o f o th e rs ” ( The Cost o f Discipleship,
124). See also C alv in , Harmony o f the Evangelists, M t 5:7 (263), a n d L uther, The
Sermon on the M ount, 30.
66 G re g o ry o f N yssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes V.7 (64).
67 G u elich , The Sermon on the M ount, 89.
68 D esp ite th e p re p o n d e ra n c e o f th e “ p u re in h e a rt” translation, the N A B “ clean o f
h e a rt” is retain ed here for th e sake o f consistency.
69 Stassen a n d G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 45, c itin g D avies and A llison, The Gospel
According to M atthew, 456.
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 837

b e in g clean o f h e a rt entails n o t o n ly th e in te g rity o f in te r io r an d e x te ­

r io r c o n tin u ity ,70 b u t an in te g rity th a t is d ire c te d to w ard G o d alo n e,
w h e re b y o n e ’s w ill is c o n fo rm e d to G o d ’s w ill.71 T h is is w h y th o se w h o
d o g o o d deeds “ to b e seen by o th e rs ” (M t 6:1—18) are a fav o rite e x a m ­
ple a m o n g c o m m e n ta to rs o f th o se w h o are n o t clean o f h e a rt.72 T h a t
b e in g clean o f h e a rt is an activ ity ra th e r th a n sim ply so m e state (as of, say,
ritu a l p u rity )73 is clear in th e c o m m e n ta ry tra d itio n .
T h e rew ard o f “ seeing G o d ” is so e n tre n c h e d in S crip tu re as a d e p ic tio n
o f etern al life as to req u ire little ex p lan atio n fro m th e co m m en tato rs.
P articularly relevant to th e thesis o f this essay are G re g o ry o f N yssa’s w ords
w h e re h e describes seeing G o d as “ possessing w h a t o n e b e h o ld s” an d says
th a t su ch a possession con stitu tes full happiness.74 E v en m o re in terestin g
for this essay is th e strik in g c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n b ein g clean o f h e a rt an d
seeing G o d . T h o u g h th e te x t is clear th a t th e clean o f h e a rt will see G o d
[future tense], c o m m e n ta to rs consistently explain th a t it is by way o f b ein g
clean o f h e a rt th a t o n e is able to see G o d . B e in g clean o f h e a rt is n o t sim ply
an activity th a t qualifies o n e for rew ard, b u t th e n ceases w h e n th e rew ard
is achieved. It is co n stitu tiv e o f th e rew ard as an activity th a t is necessary for
th e activity o f th e rew ard. A u g u stin e claim s th a t b e in g clean o f h e a rt gives
us “ h e a rt eyes”75 to see G o d , an d th a t b ein g clean o f h ea rt is w h a t enables
p eo p le to see G o d .76 B o n h o e ffe r w rites: “ T h e y shall see G o d w h o se hearts
have b e c o m e a reflectio n o f th e im age o f Jesus C h rist.”77 P in ck aers
describes p u rity as th e “ necessary c o n d itio n ” fo r seeing G o d ,78 an d P o p e
B e n e d ic t X V I claim s “ th e h e a rt— th e w ho len ess o f m an — m u st b e pure,
in te rio rly o p e n an d free, in o rd e r for m a n to be able to see G o d .” 79 T h a t
P in ck aers an d P o p e B e n e d ic t X V I b o th u n d e rsta n d th e relationship
b e tw e e n qualifying c o n d itio n an d rew ard intrinsically is e v id e n t w h e n

70 See C alvin, Harmony o f the Evangelists, M t 5:8 (264). See also G u elich , The Sermon
on the M ount, 90.
71 See L uther, The Sermon on the M ount, 34. See also B onhoeffer, The Cost o f Disaple-
ship, 125.
72 See, e.g., A u g u stin e ’s c o rre la tio n o f this b e atitu d e w ith M t 6 :1 -1 8 ( The Lord’s
Sermon on the M ount ii.1.1). See also Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 4 4 -4 5 ,
for this c o n n e c tio n .
73 C o n te m p o ra ry c o m m e n ta rie s freq u en tly co n trast b e in g clean o f h e a rt w ith
m erely ritu al purity. See, for exam ple, P inckaers, Pursuit o f Happiness, 131, and
Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 44.
74 See G re g o ry o f N yssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes V I.2 (67).
75 A ugustine, Sermons III (5 1 -9 4 ), 53.6.
76 A ugustine, The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.3.10.
77 B on h o effer, The Cost o f Discipleship, 126.
78 Pinckaers, Pursuit o f Happiness, 132.
7'J Pope B e n e d ic t X V I J e su s o f Nazareth, 93.
838 W illiam C. M attison III

P in ckaers says p u rity is th e “b ea rer o f lig h t” th a t enables us to see G o d ,80

an d P o p e B e n e d ic t w rites: “ T h e o rg an fo r seeing G o d is th e h eart.”81 In
sum , b e in g clean o f h e a rt n o t o n ly is rew arded by th e vision o f G o d b u t
also enables o n e to see G o d .82

vii. “Blessed are the peacemakers, fo r they will be called children o f G o d ”

It is c o m m o n fo r h earers o f th e b e a titu d e s tod ay to assum e th e “ p e a c e ­
m a k ers” are th o se w h o w o rk fo r re c o n c ilia tio n a m o n g fra ctu red parties,
p articu la rly in political co n te x ts. T h is in te rp re ta tio n is fo u n d th r o u g h o u t
th e c o m m e n ta ry tra d itio n . C h ry s o s to m em phasizes h o w th e p e a c e m a k ­
ers “ u n ite th e d iv id e d , re c o n c ile th e alien ated .” 83 A q u in as says it c o n c e rn s
o n e ’s relatio n s w ith o n e ’s n e ig h b o rs.84 L u th e r claim s th a t b e in g a p ea ce­
m a k er is b e in g “ a re c o n c ile r a n d m e d ia to r b e tw e e n y o u r n eig h b o rs.” 85
Y et equally c o m m o n a m o n g c o m m e n ta to rs is an u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e
p eace sp o k e n o f h e re as a c o n d itio n o f a p e r s o n ’s soul. A u g u stin e m o st
fo rcefully in te rp re ts p eace in this sense, claim in g th a t “ th ey are at p eace
w ith th em selves w h o q u ell all th e e m o tio n s o f th e ir soul an d su b je ct
th e m to reason.” 86 A u g u stin e is by n o m eans alo n e in u n d e rsta n d in g
p e a c e m a k in g in this sense.87 L ike o th e rs w h o re c o g n ize this m e a n in g o f
p e a c e m a k in g , h e claim s n o t o n ly th a t b o th senses are im p o rta n t b u t th a t
th e y are related to o n e a n o th e r.88 D e sp ite subtle differen ces o f em phasis
as to th e p rim a ry locus o f p e a c e m a k in g , all c o m m e n ta to rs insist th a t

80 Pinckaers, Pursuit o f Happiness, 139.

81 P ope B e n e d ic t X V I,Jcsns o f N azareth, 92. B e n e d ic t em phasizes th e im p o rta n ce
o f “ social e th ic s” (94) for b e c o m in g clean o f heart.
82 A fter claim ing th a t “ the cultic settin g o f b e in g accepted in to the presence o f G o d
b e co m es th e basis for th e eschatological h o p e o f ‘seeing G od,’ ” G u elich clearly
indicates c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n qualifying c o n d itio n a n d rew ard: “ T h e focal p o in t
o f o n e ’s life, the singleness o f p u rp o se , th e o b jec t o f o n e ’s loyalty and c o m m it­
m e n t— nam ely, G o d h im self and his claim u p o n th e individual— reach th e ir u lti­
m ate fulfillm ent by th e ultim ate accep tan ce in to G o d ’s p re sen c e ” ( The Sermon on
the M ount, 91).
83 J o h n C h ry so sto m , Homilies on M atthew, X V :7.
84 T h o m a s A quinas, S T I—II, q. 69, a. 3. See also Super Ei/angelinni S. Matthaei Lectura,
438. '
85 L uther, The Sermon on the M ount, 43. See also Stassen and G ushee, Kingdom Ethics,
45. ' ‘
86 A ugustine, The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.2.9.
87 See also: G re g o ry o f N yssa, Homilies on the BcatitndesVH .3 (7 8 );T h o m as A quinas,
S T I—II, q. 69, a. 4; L u th e r, The Sermon on the M ount, 39; Pope B e n e d ic t X V I Jesus
o f Nazareth, 85.
88 See A ug u stin e, Sermons III (5 1 -9 4 ), 5 3 A .12. T h o m a s A quinas m akes the sam e
claim at Super Evangclinm S. M atthaei Lectura, 438.
 Tliv Beatitudes and Moral Theology 839

p e a c e m a k in g is an activity, o r as B o n h o e ffe r describ es it, n o t sim ply

h av in g p ea ce b u t m a k in g it.S9
As in th e p rev io u s b e a titu d e , vve have a rew ard in b e in g “ called ch il­
d re n o f G o d ” th a t has ex tensive sc rip tu ra l basis as a d e p ic tio n o f etern al
life. M o re in te restin g , how ev er, is th e n e a r-c o n s ta n t em phasis in th e
c o m m e n ta ry tra d itio n o n c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n p e a c e m a k in g an d b e in g
called ch ild ren o f G o d , ev en w h e n ex p la in e d in d ifferen t ways. A u g u stin e
eq u ates b e in g a ch ild o f G o d w ith b e in g p eaceful w h e n h e says, “ T h e
c h ild re n o f G o d are p eaceful fo r th e reason th a t n o resistance to G o d is
p resen t.” 90 In te rm in o lo g y c o n s o n a n t w ith th a t o f this essay, G re g o ry o f
N yssa claim s, “ th e very w o rk fo r w h ic h h e p rom ises su ch a g rea t rew ard
is itself a n o th e r gift,” an d th a t “ th e c h ie f th in g th a t gives h ap p in ess is
peace.” 91 C a lv in speaks o f th e G o d o f p ea ce a c c o u n tin g us c h ild re n “while
w e cu ltiv ate peace,” 92 an d B o n h o e ffe r claim s w e are c h ild re n o f G o d as
p a rtn e rs in C h r is t’s w o rk o f re c o n c ilia tio n .93 P in ck a ers claim s th a t p e a c e ­
m ak ers “ w in th e n am e o f sons o f G o d b ecause th e y b rin g to th e w o rld
th e p eace an d re c o n c ilia tio n w h ic h can o n ly c o m e fro m H im — w e can
ev en say, th e peace w h ic h is G o d .” 94 Finally, as B e n e d ic t su m m arize s,
“ T h e seventh b e a titu d e invites us to be an d d o w h a t th e S o n does, so th a t
w e ou rselves m ay b e c o m e ‘sons o f G o d .’ ” 95 In all o f th ese ex p lan atio n s,
p e a c e m a k in g is n o t sim ply an activ ity th a t ex trin sically qualifies o n e to
b e c o m e ch ild ren ; it is s o m e th in g th a t in trin sically qualifies o n e fo r th e
rew ard as in fact co n stitu tiv e o f th a t rew ard.

Further R am ifications o f the Intrinsic Relationship betw een

the Rewards and Q ualifying C onditions in the Beatitudes
T h e tw o m o st basic claim s o f this essay have n o w b e e n established, nam ely,
th a t th e b ea titu d es are a b o u t happiness an d th a t th ey p rese n t an in trin sic

K'J B oh h o effer, The Cost o f Discipleship, 127. See also P inckaers, The Pursuit o f H appi­
ness, 1 4 5 -4 8 and 161. G u e lic h claim s, “[Pleacemaking, therefore, is m u ch m o re
than a passive suffering to m aintain peace . . .” (T he Sermon on the M ount, 92,
em phasis in o riginal). Luz says th a t p e ac em a k in g “ m eans so m e th in g active, n o t
ju st readiness for p e ac e ” (M atthew 1—7, 241).
A ugustine, The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.2.9. See also 1.3.10, w h e re A ugus­
tin e claim s th a t c o n te m p la tio n o f tru th w h ic h is w isdom , and w h ic h m arks a soul
at peace, “ effects a likeness to G o d .” For a sim ilar claim in T h o m a s A quinas see
Super Evangclium S. Matlhaei Lcctnra, 439.
'-,l G re g o ry o f N yssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes V11.2 (7 7 -7 8 ).
J o h n C alvin, Harmony o f the Evangelists, M t 5:9 (265), em phasis added.
(J-' B onhoeffer, The Cost o f Discipleship, 127.
lJ4 Pinckaers, Pursuit o f Happiness, 162.
9;> Pope B e n e d ic t X V I , Jesus o f Nazareth, 85.
840 W illiam C . M attison III

relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e ir q u alifying c o n d itio n s a n d th e ir rew ards. T h e

la tte r w as established th ro u g h e x a m in in g a u th o rita tiv e in te rp re ta tio n s o f
each o f th e b ea titu d es, an d p o in tin g o u t h o w in each case: (a) th e qualify­
in g c o n d itio n is u n d e rs to o d p re d o m in a n tly as so m e activity, an d (b) th a t
activity is c o n tin u o u s w ith , even c o n stitu tiv e of, th e h appiness p ro m ised
in th e rew ard. In this final se ctio n I offer so m e initial th o u g h ts o n h o w th e
co n c lu sio n s o f th e first tw o sections m ig h t c o n trib u te to tw o p eren n ial
q u estio n s a b o u t th e b eatitu d es. D o in g so w ill h elp illu m in a te h o w th e
b ea titu d es g u id e us in this life ev en as th e y p o in t to w ard th e nex t.

Eschatology and Ethics: " W h e n ” D o the Beatitudes Occur?

T h e first q u e stio n w h e re w e see th e im p a c t o f th e first tw o se ctio n s’
co n c lu sio n s c o n c e rn s th e “ w h e n ” o f th e b eatitu d es. W lien d o es th e life
d e p ic te d in th e b ea titu d es occu r? It is c o m m o n p la c e in tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry
biblical scholarship to d raw a d istin c tio n b e tw e e n th e b ea titu d es u n d e r­
s to o d eschatologically o r ethically.96 T h e b ea titu d es are u n d e rs to o d as
eschatological prom ises w h e n th ey are seen as prom ises o f G o d ’s fu tu re
deliverance, m a d e possible by G o d ’s grace, a n d particu larly ta rg e ted to w ard
th o se w h o are su ffering an d in n e e d o f deliverance. T h e y are u n d e rsto o d
eth ically w h e n th ey are seen as e x h o rtin g c e rta in activities in th e presen t,
o fte n u n d e rsto o d as paths to fu tu re rew ard a n d at tim es lab eled “ en tra n c e
re q u ire m e n ts” 97 to th e k in g d o m . T h is d istin c tio n is trac ed b ack to differ­
e n t O ld T estam e n t a n d in te rte sta m e n ta l uses o f th e literary fo rm b e a ti­
tu d e ,98 an d it is also a d o p te d by ethicists w h o rely o n c o n te m p o ra ry
biblical scholarship.99 B iblical scholarship, especially w ith findings g lean ed
fro m fo rm criticism an d re d a c tio n criticism , has im p o rta n t c o n trib u tio n s
to m ak e to th e q u e s tio n o f th e n a tu re o f th e relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n G o d ’s
eschatological prom ises a n d th e ethics o f discipleship in this life. W h a t
d o es th e analysis o f this essay have to c o n trib u te to this discussion?
In biblical scholarship it is c o m m o n ly assum ed th a t L u k e ’s (earlier) b e a t­
itu des are p ro p erly eschatological an d th a t M a tth e w has “ e th ic iz e d ” th e
b eatitudes th ro u g h re d a c tio n .100 E v en if th ey reco g n ize th e “ initial plausi-

96 See G u e lic h , The Sermon on the M ount, 6 4 - 6 6 and 1 0 9 -1 1 . T h o u g h G u e lic h is

p rim a rily relied u p o n here, see also B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 9 6 -9 7 , and
D avies and A llison, The Gospel According to M atthew, 4 3 9 -4 0 .
97 F or this te r m see G u e lic h , The Sermon on the M ount, 109; D avies a n d A llison, The
Gospel According to M atthew, 439.
98 See G u elich , The Sermon on the M ount, 6 4 -6 5 ; B etz, The Sermon on the M ount,
9 7 -1 0 5 ; D avies and A llison, The Gospel According to M atthew, 4 3 1 -3 4 .
99 See Stassen a n d G ushee, Kingdom Ethics, 33.
100 G u e lic h describes this assu m p tio n well (The Sermon on the M ount, 6 5 -6 6 and
109). See also D avies and A llison, The Gospel According to M atthew, 439.
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 841

b ility ” o f this view ,101 th e biblical scholars w h o se w o rk is used h ere d o n o t

c o n c u r w ith this read in g o f th e M a tth e a n b e a titu d e s.102 Yet th ey reject th a t
v iew o f th e M a tth e a n b ea titu d es in noticeab ly different ways, w h ic h may
b e seen in h o w th ey em p lo y th e esch a to lo g ic al/eth ical d istin ctio n .
S o m e biblical scholars su rveyed h ere d e n y M a tth e w ’s eth ica l su b v er­
sio n o f L u k e ’s esch ato lo g ical b ea titu d es; instead, th e y claim th a t th e
M a tth e a n , to o , are eschatalogical, n o t eth ical. In th e w o rd s o f G u elich ,
“ in stead o f ethics sw allow ing u p esch a to lo g y in M a tth e w w e have ju s t th e
reverse.” 103 T h o u g h th e o p p o site o f th e “ e th ic iz a tio n ” view , this read in g
sim ilarly assum es M a tth e w ’s b e a titu d e s are e ith e r eth ica l o r esc h a to lo g i­
cal. P a rt o f th e p ro b le m h ere m ay be a d ic h o to m iz a tio n o f c o m m a n d an d
g race, th e fo rm e r b e in g associated w ith eth ics an d th e la tte r w ith esch a­
tology. F o r instance, D avies a n d A llison claim th e b e a titu d e s are “ first o f
all blessings, n o t re q u ire m e n ts.” ' 0''T h e y p ro c e e d to o b se rv e th a t th e b e a t­
itu d e s are a b o u t G o d ’s g rac e ra th e r th a n G o d ’s c o m m a n d s, an d th e y claim
th a t th e tre a tm e n t o f c o m m a n d s b eg in s (at M t 5:17) o n ly after th e b e a t­
itu d es. S u ch a v ie w reveals a d ic h o to m iz a tio n b e tw e e n c o m m a n d an d
g race, a n d c o n s e q u e n tly ethics an d eschatology.
B u t o f co u rse ethics a n d eschatology n e e d n o t b e d ic h o to m iz e d , and
th u s th e universally affirm ed eschatological fu n c tio n o f th e b ea titu d es
n e e d n o t ex c lu d e th e ir ethical fu n c tio n as w ell. B e tz affirm s th a t th e b e a t­
itu d es have “ eschatological as w ell as th is-w o rld ly im p licatio n s,” and,
u n lik e G u elich , h e claim s th a t it is “ a fu n d am e n tal m istake to favor e ith e r
th e ir fu tu re aspect o f p ro m ise o r th e ir p rese n t p ro n o u n c e m e n t.” 105
R a th e r, h e says, “ th e b e a titu d e has a close relatio n sh ip to m o rality and
ethics. B y revealing a n e w w ay o f life, th e b e a titu d e affects m o ral b e h a v ­
io r an d d em an d s an ethical aw areness.” 106 A gain revealing th e c o n n e c tio n
b e tw e e n o n e ’s stance o n th e b ea titu d es as eth ical o r sim ply eschatological
o n th e o n e h a n d an d o n e ’s view o f th e relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n law an d grace
o n th e o th e r, B e tz rig h tly n o tes th a t th e activity e x h o rte d by th e b ea ti­
tudes m u st “ n o t be co n fu se d w ith ‘w o rk s o f th e law ’ in th e P au lin e sense.
T h e y d o n o t ‘e a r n ’ salvation.” 107 U lric h L uz reveals an accu rate u n d e r­
sta n d in g o f th e relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n g race o n th e o n e h an d , an d eth ics (or
co m m an d s, o r h u m a n activity) o n th e o th e r, w h e n h e claim s th a t th e

101 See for instance, D avies and A llison, The Gospel According to M atthew , 439.
102 Luz m ay be the e x c e p tio n . See M atthew 1 -7 , 243.
103 G uelich , The Sermon on the M ount, 111.
104 D avies and A llison, The Gospel According to M atthew, 4 4 0 (see also 466).
105 B e tZj 77,e Sermon on the M ount, 96 (see also 97 and 110).
IOfl Ibid., 97.
107 Ibid.
842 W illiam C. M attison III

c o m m a n d m e n ts (and h ere he m e n tio n s b e in g p o o r in sp irit, m e ek , m e rc i­

ful, etc.) are in an im p o rta n t sense gifts o f th e g o sp e l.108 In su m , th e g ra tu ­
ito u s eschatological pro m ise offered in th e b ea titu d es n e e d n o t p rec lu d e
an initial p artic ip a tio n in th a t prom ise— o f co u rse possible o n ly th ro u g h
G o d ’s grace— in th e w ay o n e lives in this life.109
W h a t d o es th e analysis o f th e b e a titu d e s o ffered in this essay have to
c o n trib u te to this discussion? C lea rly it affirm s th e la tte r p o sitio n , th a t th e
b e a titu d e s are best u n d e rs to o d as both eth ical e x h o rta tio n s th a t g u id e
a c tio n in this life p re c e d in g full e n tra n c e in to th e k in g d o m and d e s c rip ­
tio n s o f th e esch ato lo g ical d eliv eran c e o ffered by G o d an d fully k n o w n
o n ly in th e e n d tim e s .110 I f th e esch a to n as e te rn a l hap p in ess is m a rk e d
by activ ity th a t is c o n tin u o u s w ith , o r in trin sica lly related to, activ ity in
this life, th e n th e re can b e n o d ic h o to m iz a tio n b e tw e e n esch a to lo g y an d
ethics. E th ic s is esch ato lo g ical to th e e x te n t th a t it is o r ie n te d to w ard th e
telos/h a p p in e s s o f th e esc h a to n , an d it en jo in s activ ity th a t is already in a
lim ite d sense a p a rtic ip a tio n in th a t destiny. E sch a to lo g y is also eth ical, to
th e d e g re e th a t its u ltim a te happiness an d d eliv eran c e en tail h u m a n
(o bviously g ra c e -e n a b le d ) activity, ac tiv ity th a t is c o n tin u o u s w ith th e
(also g ra c e -e n a b le d ) activ ity o f this life th a t is a lim ite d alb eit co n stitu tiv e
fo retaste o f th a t u ltim a te destiny. O n c e th e b ea titu d es are u n d e rs to o d in
th e c o n te x t o f happiness, an d th e rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e ir q u alify in g
c o n d itio n s a n d rew ards is u n d e rs to o d intrinsically, it is easier to see h o w
th e h appiness th e y p rese n t is th o ro u g h ly esch ato lo g ical (b o th already an d
n o t yet) and th o ro u g h ly e th ic a l.111

W h y a “S e t" o f Beatitudes?
It is h o p e d that th e p rec ed in g p art o f this essay, o n eschatology an d ethics,
can help th e beatitudes play a m o re p ro m in e n t role in m oral theology. In
th e p resent p art w e tu rn to a n o th e r perennial q u estio n in th e study o f th e
b eatitudes in o rd er to see h o w th e conclusions o f th e first tw o sections
m ig h t c o n trib u te to answ ering th a t q u estio n an d to fu rth e r identify h o w th e

l,JR Luz, M atthew 1 -7 , 2 4 5 -4 6 .

Itw D u e to som e u n fo rtu n a te negative associations B e tz has w ith th e te rm v irtu e, he
w ill n o t associate th e b e atitu d es w ith virtues, b u t he does say “ taken to g e th e r the
B eatitu d es circ u m scrib e a way o f life o f th e faithful disciple o fje s u s ” (The Sermon
oil the M ount, 97).
1,0 T h is in te rp re ta tio n is even suggested by th e verb tense o f the b eatitu d es, w hich
is b o th presen t tense in th e first and e ig h th (a n o th e r a rg u m e n t for inclusio and
c o u n tin g seven b eatitudes) and future tense in th e seco n d th ro u g h seventh.
111 See B e n e d ic t X V I , Jesus o f N azareth, o n h o w the b e atitu d es are b o th e schatolog­
ical prom ises (7 1 -7 2 ) and also a “ road m ap for th e C h u rc h ” and “ d irections for
discipleship” (74).
 The Beatitudes mid Moral Theology 843

b eatitu des can be m o re p ro m in e n tly featured in m oral theology. T h e ques­

tio n for this p art is: w hy is there a “se t” o f beatitudes? C o m m e n ta rie s o n the
b eatitu des have consistently stressed that th e rew ard d escrib ed in th e m is
o n e, despite the fact th a t it is d escribed in different ways. In o th e r w ords, th e
b eatitu des d o n o t describe different destinies fo r seven (or eight, o r nine)
different groups o f p e o p le .T h e y offer m any im ages o f th e o n e rew ard (i.e.,
etern al happiness) and m any d escriptions o f the peo p le w h o qualify for that
r e w a r d .'12 In th e w ords o fT h o m a s A quinas, referencin g C h ry so sto m :

A s C h r y s o s to m says, all th e se rew ard s are o n e in reality, e te rn a l h a p p i­

ness, w h ic h th e h u m a n in te lle c t d o e s n o t grasp. H e n c e it w as fittin g to
d e s c rib e it b y m e a n s o f v a rio u s g o o d s k n o w n to us, a n d fittin g ly
p r o p o r tio n e d to th e m e rits [i.e., q u a lify in g c o n d itio n s j to w h ic h th o se
rew ard s are a s s i g n e d .'13

T h o m a s assures us th a t h av in g a set o f b e a titu d e s helps us to u n d e rsta n d

w h a t are called h ere th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n s a n d rew ards. S urely w e can
affirm this claim , an d ap p re cia te w h y th e re is a set o f b e a titu d e s ra th e r
th an sim ply o n e. B u t this still leaves u n ad d re ssed th e q u e stio n : w h y these
b ea titu d es, in this n u m b e r a n d in this o r d e r ? " 4

/. Traditional Explanations o f the Set o f Beatitudes

R eg ardless o f w h e th e r o r n o t w e see th e b ea titu d es as a b o u t happiness,
an d ev en regardless o f h o w m any b ea titu d es w e c o u n t, th e sim p le fact th a t
th e re are n u m e ro u s b ea titu d es p ro m p ts th e q u e stio n “ w h y ?” C o m m e n ta ­
to rs have offered th re e c o m m o n answ ers to this q u estio n . First, th e b e a ti­
tu d es offer a progression in th e h u m a n jo u r n e y to w ard G o d . T h e sem inal
P atristic c o m m e n ta rie s ap p ro ach th e b ea titu d es precisely in this way. In
th e w ords o f G re g o ry o f N y ssa ,“ I th in k th e a rra n g e m e n t o f th e B e atitu d es
is like a series o f [ladder] ru n g s, a n d it m akes it possible for th e m in d to
ascend by c lim b in g fro m o n e to a n o th er.” " 3

112 See A ugustine, The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.4.12: “ the o n e rew ard, th e k in g ­
d o m o f heaven, is designated variously.” See also Sermons III (5 1 -9 4 ), 53.9, w h ere
A u g u stin e says o f the different beatitu d es th a t “all these are in fact th e sam e
p e o p le ” (70). See also J o h n C h ry so sto m , H o m ily XV.7 (4 8 -4 9 ) and D avies and
A llison, The Gospel According to M atthew, 460.
113 S T I - I I ,q . 69, a. 4, ad 1, trans. m ine. See also Super Evangelium S. Matthaei Lectura, 420.
114 As A m brose claim s, “ C o m e Lord Jesus, teach us th e o rd e r o f y o u r beatitudes, for
it is n o t w ith o u t o rd e r th a t you have tau g h t [th e m ]” (Treatise on the Gospel o f St.
Luke, 5 2 .1 -2 [202]). '
G re g o ry o f Nyssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes 11.1 (32). See also A ugustine, The
Lord’s Sermon on the M ount 1.4.11, and A m brose, Treatise on the Gospel o f St. Luke,
6 0 .1 -1 2 (2 0 4 -5 ).J o h n C h ry so sto m does n o t focus o n progression in g reat detail,
844 W illiam C . M attison II I

A n o th e r strategy fo r addressing this q u estio n is to align th e b eatitu d es

w ith so m e o th e r g ro u p in g . T h e basic in sig h t h ere is, i f th ese b ea titu d es are
Je su s’ o w n synopsis o f happiness a n d fullness o f life, th e n it is fittin g th a t
th e re sh o u ld b e c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n this set a n d o th e r sets rec o g ­
n iz ed in th e C h ristia n trad itio n . A m b ro se aligns th e m w ith th e fo u r cardi­
nal v irtu e s .116 F o r his p art, A u g u stin e sees th e b ea titu d es as alig n ed w ith
n o t o n e b u t tw o o th e r g ro u p in g s fro m th e tra d itio n , nam ely, th e seven
gifts o f th e H o ly S p irit a n d th e seven p etitio n s o f th e L o rd ’s P ray er.117
Finally, th e re is also p re c e d e n t in th e trad itio n for in te rp re tin g th e set o f
b eatitu d es as co n ta in in g su b -g ro u p in g s. A m brose c o u n te d eig h t M a tth e a n
b eatitu d es an d saw th e m as c o m p o se d o f fo u r g ro u p s o f tw o , each g ro u p
co rre sp o n d in g to o n e o f th e fo u r cardinal v irtu e s.118 A qu in as references
A m b ro se’s g ro u p in g b u t posits a g ro u p in g o f his o w n . A q u in as reflects clas­
sical ethical th in k in g o n happiness w h e n h e observes th a t candidates for
happiness are threefold: sensual pleasures an d ex tern al goods; th e active life;
and, c o n te m p la tio n . T h e b eatitu d es m ay be su b -g ro u p e d in to th e first
three, th e n e x t tw o, an d th e final tw o beatitudes; th ese g ro u p in g s c o rre ­
sp o n d respectively to sensual pleasures a n d earthly goods; th e active life; an d
th e co n tem p lativ e life.119 D iv isio n o f th e set o f b eatitu d es in to su b -g ro u p s
co n tin u es today, th o u g h generally o n d ifferent g ro u n d s.120

b u t he does m e n tio n h o w th ere is o rd e r to th e set and h o w o n e m akes way for

the n e x t (H o m ily XV.9, 52). F or m o re in -d e p th in q u iry in to this th em e o f
ascent, see M ich ael D au p h in ais, “ G re g o ry o fN y s s a and A u g u stin e o n the B e ati­
tudes.” See also B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 108, o n this th e m e a n d even its
w a rra n t by c o n te m p o ra ry biblical scholarship.
116 A m brose aligns L u k e ’s fo u r beatitu d es w ith th e fo u r cardinal virtues, and he
claim s th at M a tth e w ’s e ig h t b e atitu d es (four o f w h ic h he sees as the sam e as
L u k e ’s) m ay be g ro u p e d in to fo u r sets o f tw o, w ith each g ro u p c o rre sp o n d in g to
a cardinal v irtue. See Treatise on the Gospel o f St. Luke, 6 2 .1 -6 8 .3 (2 0 6 -7 ).
1,7 A ugustine, The Lord’s Sermon on the M ount, i. 4.11. It is n o te w o rth y th a t A u g u s­
tin e does n o t m e n tio n these alignm ents in his later S e rm o n s 53 and 53A o n the
beatitu d es, even th o u g h h e co n clu d es th e latter by saying, “ To the best o f m y
ability I have e x p o u n d e d all th e b e atitu d e s” (Sermons III (5 1 -9 4 ), 53A .14). For
m o re o n strategies o f a lig n m en t, in c lu d in g these tw o m e n tio n e d , see B etz, The
Sermon on the M ount, 1 0 6 -7 .
118 A m brose, Treatise on the Gospel o f St. Luke, 6 2 .1 -6 8 .3 (2 0 6 -7 ).
119 See T h o m a s A quinas, S T I—II, q. 69, aa. 3 and 4. See also his Super Evatigelium S.
M atthaei Lectura, 414.
120 See Luz, M atthew 1—7 ,2 26 and 230 (as well as G u elich , The Sermon on the M ount,
93, and B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 110) for a division o f th e e ig h t beatitu d es
o f M t 5 :3 -1 0 in to tw o gro u p s o f four. D avies and A llison also recognize this divi­
sion in to tw o gro u p s o f fo u r ( The Gospel According to M atthew, 429), b u t argue
th a t th e b e atitu d e s are best u n d e rsto o d as to ta llin g nine, a n d th ey are c o m p o sed
o f th ree gro u p s o f th ree (431).
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 845

ii. Contribution o f This Essay to Explanations o f the Beatitudes as a Set

W h a t c o n trib u tio n does this essay offer to th e q u estio n o f w h y this set o f
these beatitudes? W e n o te d in section tw o that, a lth o u g h all seven b eatitu d es
p resen t an intrin sic relationship b e tw e e n qualifying c o n d itio n an d rew ard,
how th ey d o so differs w ith d ifferent b eatitudes. T h a t claim m ay n o w be
fu rth e r explained. T h e b eatitu d es m ay be placed in to th ree su b -g ro u p s th a t
d escrib e h o w th e qualifying c o n d itio n s are variously (alth o u g h always
intrinsically) related to th e rew ards. T h e su b -g ro u p s are treated h ere in
reverse order.
C o n s id e r th e final tw o beatitudes: “B lessed are th e clean o f h eart, for
th ey w ill see G o d ” an d “B lessed are th e peacem akers, for th ey w ill b e called
ch ild ren o f G od.” In seeing G o d an d b ein g ch ild ren o f G o d , w e have
clim actic rew ards th a t seem , m o re th a n any o th e rs in th e b eatitu d es, to fully
rep resent etern al happiness. “ S eein g G o d ” is so em b e d d e d in S crip tu re an d
tra d itio n as c o n stitu tin g etern al life th a t c o m m e n ta to rs w h o see th e b eati­
tudes as a progression have stru g g led to explain h o w any b ea titu d e co u ld
follow this one. B e in g ch ild ren o f G o d suggests precisely th e so rt o f a d o p ­
tio n , kinship, an d c o m m u n io n th a t co n stitu tes etern al u n io n w ith G o d .
G re g o ry o f N yssa u nderstands this rew ard to m e an th e very d eificatio n th a t
is th e u ltim ate destiny o f th e h u m a n p e rs o n .121 In sum , th o u g h th e rew ards
o f all th e b eatitu d es refer ultim ately to th e sam e rew ard, th e rew ards o f th e
last tw o beatitudes stand o u t as clim actic in th e ir d e p ic tio n o f th a t rew ard.
W h a t o f th e q u alifying c o n d itio n s fo r these final tw o b eatitu d es? M o re
specifically, are th e y o r th e ir relatio n sh ip to th e ir rew ards d istin ct fro m
qualify ing c o n d itio n s offered in earlier b eatitudes? T h e an sw er is yes. In
b o th cases w h a t qualifies o n e fo r rew ard is a c o n d itio n th a t n o t o n ly w ill
rem a in in th a t state o f rew ard b u t w ill rem a in m o st closely to its current form
in th a t state o f rew ard. I f p eace is u n d e rsto o d as a p e rs o n ’s in te rio r in te ­
g ra tio n an d h a rm o n y as w ell as h a rm o n io u s relation s w ith o th e rs, w h ic h
to g e th e r c o n stitu te tru e an d u ltim a te peace, th e k in g d o m o f h eav en is
in d e e d m a rk e d by precisely this p eace in a n d a m o n g its citizens as ch il­
d re n o f G o d . I f cleanness o f h e a rt is rig h tly u n d e rs to o d as sin g le -m in d e d
focus o n G o d , in c lu d in g seeing all else in tru th as it is o rd e re d to G o d (and
actin g accordingly), th e n cleanness o f h e a rt is a m o st c o n tin u o u s foretaste
o f w h a t it m eans to see G o d as d escrib ed in th e rew ard. In b o th instances,
th ere is an in trin sic relatio n sh ip (i.e., c o n tin u ity o f activity) b e tw e e n q u al­
ifying c o n d itio n an d rew ard a n d a “ least la ck in g ” c o n tin u ity .122 H o w such

121 G re g o ry o f N yssa, Homilies on the Beatitudes 1.2 (25) a n d V U .l (77). See also B etz,
The Sermon on the M ount, 110.
122 In m ak in g a p o in t very different from the o n e b e in g m ade in this essay, D avies
and A llison recognize th a t th e sixth and seventh beatitu d es stand o u t in relation
846 W illiam C. M alfison I I I

c o n tin u ity m ay b e p rese n t b u t m o re lack in g in d ifferen t ways is e v id e n t in

th e re m a in in g b eatitu d es.
N e x t c o n s id e r th e fo u rth an d fifth b ea titu d es: “ B lessed are th ey w h o
h u n g e r a n d th irst fo r rig h te o u sn ess, fo r th e y w ill b e satisfied,” an d
“ blessed are th e m e rc ifu l, fo r th e y w ill be sh o w n m ercy.” In th ese b e a ti­
tu d e s (as in all o th e rs) th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n s are in trin sically related to
th e rew ards. T h e c o n tin u ity h ere is e v id e n t since th e ju s tic e an d m e rc y
lo n g e d fo r an d sh o w n is p rese n t in th e k in g d o m o f h eav en . Yet th e re is
also in th ese tw o b e a titu d e s m o re e v id e n t d isc o n tin u ity b e tw e e n th e
activity o f th o se w h o qualify fo r rew ard a n d th e ac tiv ity o f th e rew ard
itself. T h o s e w h o h u n g e r an d th irst fo r ju s tic e are n o t n o w satisfied .’23
T h e y h u n g e r a n d th irst fo r w h a t th e y lack. T h e sam e h o ld s tru e for
m e rc y .T h o u g h th e m e rc y la u d e d as th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n is p rese n t in
th e state o f rew ard, th e occasions p re se n tin g a n e e d fo r th e exercise o f
su ch m e rc y — to w ard o th e rs a n d in d e e d to w ard th em selv es— are p rese n t
n o w in a m a n n e r th e y w ill n o t b e in th e full arrival o f th e k in g d o m . In
b o th o f th ese b e a titu d e s, th e n , th e re is c o n tin u ity as w ell as g re a te r
d isc o n tin u ity b e tw e e n th e activity o f th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n an d th e
activ ity o f th e rew ard.
Finally, c o n s id e r th e first th re e b ea titu d es. In th ese b e a titu d e s th e
rew ard p ro m ise d seem s least c o n tin u o u s w ith th e c u r r e n t state o f th o se
w h o qualify fo r it. In d e e d , th ese are th e b e a titu d e s th a t p ro m p t th e afo re­
m e n tio n e d “ e v e ry d ay ” u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e b e a titu d e s as sim p le rev er­
sals. E v e n g ra n tin g th e co n siste n t in te rp re ta tio n o f “ p o o r in s p irit” as
re fe rrin g to h um ility, th e co n tra st b e tw e e n th e te rm s “ p o o r ” an d “ k in g ­
d o m ” is o b v io u s. T h e sam e c o n tra st is e v id e n t b e tw e e n m o u r n in g and
c o m fo rt, a n d b e in g m e e k an d in h e ritin g th e land. T h e r e is in d e e d a so rt
o f reversal h ere, in th a t th o se possessing th e q u alify in g c o n d itio n s
e v id e n c e a lack th a t is a d ire c t result o f possessing th o se q u alify in g c o n d i­
tio n s, a lack th a t w ill b e rectified at th e tim e o f rew ard. N ev e rth ele ss th e re
is c o n tin u ity in th e p eo p le, even w h e n th e ir state o f affairs ch an g es
m arkedly. So th e h u m b le (o ften th e m a teria l p o o r) w h o fo rg o se cu rity
o th e r th a n G o d u ltim ately have th e k in g d o m o f h eav en . T h o s e w h o
m o u r n th e ir sin a n d refuse to take solace in w o rld ly c o m fo rts a ttain th e
c o m fo rt o f e te rn a l jo y in u n io n w ith G o d . T h o s e w h o are m e e k in refus­

to th e o th e r b e atitu d es by h o w easily th e qualifying c o n d itio n s can b e tu rn e d

in to im peratives: “ b e clean o f heart,” and “ b e p e acem ak ers” ( The Gospel According
to M atthew, 439).
123 See T h o m a s A q u in a s’s Super Evangelium S. M atthaei Lectura, 423, w h e re he distin ­
guishes th e fullness o f ju stic e available o nly in th e n e x t life from tru e b u t in c o m ­
p lete ju stic e in this life.
 The Beatitudes and Moral Theology 847

in g to self-assertively p ro te c t o r seize u ltim a te ly o b ta in tru e in h e rita n c e .

W h o th ey are rem ain s c o n tin u o u s in b o th states, ev en in th ese b e a titu d e s
o f e v id e n t co n trast. Y et th e re is in d e e d a reversal as to th e ir c o n d itio n .
W h a t co n c lu sio n s can be d raw n fro m this as to w h y th e re is a set o f
b eatitu des? As in d ic ated in th e q u o te fro m T h o m a s A q u in as above, it is
reasonable to assum e so m e p u rp o se in th e re b e in g a set o f v ario u s b e a ti­
tudes. T h e a rg u m e n t o f this essay suggests th a t o n e such p u rp o se is
p rese n tin g th e v arious ways th a t th e qualify in g c o n d itio n s are intrinsically
related to etern al rew ard. T h e re are th re e identifiable su b -g ro u p s w ith in
th e set o f seven b ea titu d es, each o f w h ic h suggests a d istin ct so rt o f in tr in ­
sic relationship. T h e first th ree b ea titu d es suggest ways in w h ic h th e lacks
e n d u re d by tho se possessing th e q u alifying c o n d itio n s, lacks th a t exist
precisely bccause o f tho se q u alifying co n d itio n s, w ill b e reversed. T h is is
tru e even as th e q u alifying c o n d itio n s rem ain c o n tin u o u s .124 T h e seco n d
tw o b ea titu d es sh o w g rea ter co n tin u ity , b u t th ey still ev id en c e lacks,
nam ely, th e n e e d for full ju stic e an d th e occasions to exercise mercy. Yet
th ese lacks are d escrib ed as in c o m p le te, ra th e r th a n so m e th in g n e e d in g to
b e reversed. Finally, th e last tw o b ea titu d es sh o w th e g reatest c o n tin u ity
b e tw e e n q u alifying c o n d itio n an d rew ard. O f course, th ese last tw o b e a t­
itu d es d o n o t claim th a t th e p eacem ak ers an d clean o f h e a rt have o b ta in e d
etern al re w a rd .123 Y et th e re is n o se p aratio n b e tw e e n b e in g clean o f
h e a rt/p e a c e m a k in g a n d etern al rew ard in th o se very activities them selves.
In sum , this essays a rg u m e n t does su p p o rt su b -g ro u p in g th e seven
M a tth e a n beatitudes o f 5:3—9 .126 As sh o u ld be ev id en t from th e d ep ictio n
o f those groups, th e sam e a rg u m e n t su p p o rts an u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e b ea t­
itudes as a progression, since th e th ree g roups offer d ep ictio n s o f qualifying
c o n d itio n s an d rew ards th at— w h ile all intrinsically related— are increas­
ingly c o n tin u o u s. T h o u g h these c o n c e rn s w ith g ro u p in g s an d progression
are less c o m m o n in c o n te m p o ra ry readings o f th e b eatitu d es th an th ey
w ere in p re -m o d e rn c o m m en taries, biblical scholar B e tz claim s, “ T h e re is

124 T h is thesis is distinct from , th o u g h re m in isc en t of, the claim th ro u g h o u t th e

C h ristia n trad itio n th a t th e cardinal virtu es rem ain in heaven, th o u g h in a differ­
e n t m a n n e r d u e to differences in th a t state. See A u g u stin e ’s Oil the Trinity, xiv. 12
and th e e x te n d ed m edieval discussion th a t arose o u t o f P eter L om bard s trea t­
m e n t o f this q u e stio n in his Sentences III, d. 33, q. 1, a. 4.
125 T h o m a s em phasizes the future tense o f th e rew ards in these tw o beatitudes. See
Super Eimngclium S. Matthaei Lectura, 407.
I2fl Since the su b -g ro u p in g affirm ed here so closely approxim ates th at o f S t.T h o m as,
it is h o p e d that fu rth e r research will b e tte r articulate th a t c o n n ec tio n . T h e re may
also be resources here fo r aligning th e classic “ purgative, illum inative, and u n itiv e ”
stages in the spiritual life to the beatitudes o n the basis o f the a rg u m e n t o f this
essay. T h ese pro m isin g lines o f research are b ey o n d the scope o f this essay.
848 W illiam C . M attison I I I

g o o d reason to lo o k fu rth e r in this d irectio n .” 127 T h is essay’s a rg u m e n t is

an a tte m p t at ju s t th a t.128 It is h o p e d th a t this analysis o f th e b e a titu d e s’
progressive d escrip tio n o f h o w w e can live in a m a n n e r m o re fully c o n tin ­
u o u s w ith etern al happiness m ig h t aid th e larger task o f m a k in g th e b ea t­
itudes m o re p ro m in e n t in th e m o ral an d spiritual lives o f believers.

C on clu sion
M u c h w o rk rem ains to be d o n e in ex a m in in g h o w th e co n clu sio n s o f th e
first tw o sections o f this essay b o th in fo rm discussions o ver th e esch ato lo g -
ical a n d ethical ch a racter o f th e b eatitu d es an d c o n trib u te to ex p lan atio n s
in th e tra d itio n as to w h y th e re is a set o f beatitudes. F u rth e rm o re , crucial
q u estions raised by th e b ea titu d es th a t are also cen tral to v irtu e ethics have
n o t even b e e n b ro ac h ed here. T h e se in clu d e th e relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e
happiness prom ised in th e b eatitu d es a n d m o re “w o rld ly ” happiness, as w ell
as th e ch risto lo g ic al129 character o f th e b eatitudes. Yet I h o p e th a t this essay
w ill c o n trib u te to th e m o re p ro m in e n t in c o rp o ra tio n o f th e b eatitu d es in to
c o n te m p o ra ry C h ristia n ethics an d m oral th e o lo g y by id e n tify in g h o w
th ey are ap p ro p riately u n d e rsto o d in th e c o n te x t o f classical ethical reflec­
tio n o n happiness an d h o w th ey easily c o n trib u te to discussions th a t are
e n d e m ic to v irtu e approaches to ethics. I also h o p e th a t th e analysis offered
h ere can ultim ately help p eo p le m o re easily im a g in e h o w exactly to live
o u t th e beatitu d es, an d th u s to k n o w th e g e n u in e happiness th ey prom ise,
b o th in this life an d m o st fully in th e n ex t. Nv

127 B etz, The Sermon on the M ount, 1 0 5 -8 .

128 As for a lig n m en t o f th e b e atitu d es w ith a n o th e r group, any such a rg u m e n t is
b ey o n d the scope o f this essay. Yet I u n d e rstan d th ere to b e such an a lig n m en t, in
p a rticu la r w ith th e th ree theo lo g ical and fo u r cardinal virtues. T h a t a rg u m e n t is
b e in g d ev elo p ed in an u p c o m in g b o o k tentatively titled Virtue, Happiness, and the
Sermon on the M ount. A com p arab le a rg u m e n t can be seen in W illiam C . M a tti­
son III, “ T h e L o rd ’s Prayer and an E thics o f V irtu e: C o n tin u in g a H isto ry o f
C o m m e n tary ,” The Thomist 7 3.2 (2009): 2 7 9 -3 1 2 .
129 Stassen and G ushee use the helpful te rm “ C h ris to m o rp h ic ” (Kingdom Ethics, 37).
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