THE USE OF RICE HUSK ASH AS A PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT IN NORMAL CONCRETE

BY

Oyelade Akintoye Olumide

Matriculation Number: 010402104

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING, FACULTY OF
ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE B.Sc (Hons.) IN
CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

AUGUST, 2005
 Table of Contents
Title Page v
Certification vi
Dedication vii
Acknowledgment viii
Abstract x
Chapter
1. Introduction 1

1.1 Objectives of the Study 3

2. Literature Review 4

2.1. Concrete 4
2.2. Composition and Structure 5
2.2.1. Cement 5
2.2.2. Water 7
2.2.3. Aggregates 7
2.2.4. 2.2.3.1 Light Weight Aggregates 8
2.2.3.2 Normal Aggregates 8
2.2.3.3 Heavy Weight Aggregates 8
2.2.5. Admixtures 9
2.3. Rice Husk Ash 9
2.3.1. Classification of rice husk ash 11
2.3.2. The Effect of Burning Temperature 13
2.3.3 The Effect of Burning Time and Furnace
Environment 17

II
2.4. Analysis of the Quality of RHA 20
2.4.1 Different Sources 20
2.4.2 Different processes 21
2.4.2.1 Open Field Burning 21
2.4.2.2 Fluidized Bed Furnace Burning 21
2.4.2.3 Industrial Furnace 23
2.4.3 The Effect of Burning Time and Temperature
On the surface area and its reactivity 23
2.5 Hydration Mechanism of paste with RHA 24
2.5.1 Paste/RHA heat Evolution Curve 24
2.5.2 Hydration Mechanisms of Paste with RHA 27
2.6 Early Characteristics of Concrete with RHA 28
2.6.1 The Workability of Fresh Concrete with RHA 28
2.6.2 The Setting Time of Concrete with RHA 29
2.6.3 The Compressive Strength and Impermeability
of Concrete with RHA 35
3.0 Research Methodology 38
3.1 Collection and Burning of the rice husk 38
3.2 Laboratory test of the ash 38
3.3 Concrete Mix Design 38
3.4 Raw materials 39
3.5 Measuring and Mixing of Concrete 39
3.6 Concrete Test 40
3.6.1 Compression Test 40

III
4.0 Results and Analysis 42
4.1 Results 42
4.2 Discussions 59
5.0 Conclusions 61

References 62

IV
The Use of Rice Husk Ash as a partial replacement of
cement in normal concrete

Oyelade Akintoye Olumide

Matriculation Number: 010402104

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

BSc (Civil and Environmental Engineering) degree by
the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Lagos, Lagos

AUGUST, 2005

V
 Certification

This is to certify that the project entitled “the use of rice husk ash as a
partial replacement of cement in normal concrete” was carried out by
Oyelade Akintoye Olumide with Matriculation Number 010402104 in
the department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, under the supervision of Dr.G.L.Oyekan

Dr. G.L. Oyekan Date

Supervisor

Prof.M.A. Salau Date

Head of Department

VI
 Dedication

This project is dedicated to Him who saw me through the period of my

stay in University of Lagos-Jesus Christ

VII
 Acknowledgment

The Lord is thanked for His guidance, help and protection throughout my stay in
University of Lagos. He said to me ‘for brass I will bring gold, and for iron I will
bring silver, and for wood brass, and for stones iron: I will also make thy officers
peace, and thine exactors righteousness (Isaiah 60:17), which he did. Thank
you.
I heartily appreciate relentless assistance of my supervisor and timely pieces of
advice of my supervisor, Dr. G.L. Oyekan throughout the period of this project.
Pastor and Deaconess Yinka Sanni, you have contributed in a great measure in
making the programme a success, the spiritual covering you provided allowed
His grace to be sufficient for me. To all the members of Redeemed Christian
Church of God International Harvest Center, I say thank you. The Oyelowo’s
family accommodated me during my first two years in Lagos, thank you very
much.
I cannot but acknowledge the staff of Likusasa Nigeria Limited, you made
available the part of the cash for the project.
To all my senior colleagues in Unilag: Ayomide Oladiran, Clement, and Kola,
your advice assisted me when I started the degree course. My course mates I
say thanks to all of you especially, Olukoko, Ogbor, Rabiu, Lookman, Biola, Miss
Williams, Dare, Yinka (info).
My project mate work tirelessly with me during the course of this project-Nyembo
Sangwa Smith. Your effort are appreciated
At the inception of the course, the encouragement received from my cousins
Kayode Oyelade and Akinola Akinbola kept me focus during the programme. To

VIII
my cousin and friend Niyi Oyelade, you supplied my needs during your service
year. Thank you very much.
When I was without a shelter, Major Benjamin Etuk took me in, and protected me
from the scourge of the sun. I salute sir.
My able friends whom God used for me during the course of the programme;
Lekan Fatumbi, Bunmi Esho, Godwin Akpong, Rebecca Ajejevwe, Kemi Susu,
Pastor Tunde Ogunlana, Lanre Dina,
Also to my brothers and sisters, your love towards me during the seasons knows
no bounds. May God bless you.
Finally, to my dad and mum, for your love and care over me through these years.
I say a big thank you.

IX
 Abstract

Rice Husk is a natural by product obtained from the processing of paddy rice.
Rice husk contains a large percentage of silica (SiO2). Due to the increasing
amount of solid waste all over the globe, engineers and researchers are looking
for means to make use of such agricultural waste in concrete as an eco-friendly
measure to control pollution.

The present study deals with the use of rice husk ash (RHA) as a partial
replacement of cement in normal concrete. Experimental study was made on the
property of RHA in concrete by using it in concrete mixes.

A mix proportion of cement + RHA, sand and gravel of 1:2:4 and a constant
water cement ratio of 0.6 were used. The RHA content was varied from zero to
30 percent and at intervals of 5%. The effect of replacing cement partially with
RHA was investigated by assessing the compressive strength of the concrete
cube specimens.

The 86 cubes specimens were tested at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days. The results

showed a compressive strength of 25.13N/mm2 as control while an optimal
compressive strength of 29.35N/mm2 was obtained for 5% replacement of
cement with RHA at 28 days. This represented a differential increment of about
17% over the cube strength with zero RHA content in the mix.

X
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Increased agricultural production and the development of agro-based industries in

many countries of the world have brought about the production of large quantities
of agricultural wastes, most of which are not adequately managed and utilized.
Agricultural wastes have been used for animal feed, fertilizer and fuel for energy
production, but little work has been carried out to develop utilization of these
wastes in the production of building materials. The need to conserve the traditional
building materials which are facing depletion, have obliged engineers to look for
alternative materials. The rising cost of transportation encourages the use of
materials which are readily available within the region surrounding the construction
activity.

Low-cost building materials can be produced using inexpensive indigenous raw

materials. Agricultural wastes which are renewable and are found in abundance in
many countries, present an interesting alternative to the traditional and sometimes
imported building materials, particularly for low-cost construction. The types of
agricultural wastes available for use in each country need to be identified.
Utilization of these materials and the development of a domestic building materials
industry based on the available materials should be encouraged.
In Nigeria, the quantity of cement available is inadequate to meet the demand of
the construction industry. This has necessitated the need to import similar products
from almost all corners of the world. Usually, the locally manufactured cement
appears fresh when being batched at the jobsites. The imported cement would
normally have complied with the relevant specification in its country of origin but
due to long period of shipment and storage before arriving on site, they are usually
in an uncertain condition. Some would appear fresh and perform excellently well in
the mix while others would contain hardened nodules or lumps. When these
cement nodules or lumps are allowed in a concrete mix, they tend to behave like
aggregate thereby reducing the actual quantity of cement available in the mix for
hardening process. Since the nodules or lumps cannot withstand the stress which
real coarse aggregate would normally withstand they may disintegrate under
1
pressure thereby contributing to poor strength. Apart from aforementioned problem
associated with the imported cement, the high cost of cement arising from the
adverse economic conditions has made the material out of reach of a common
man.

2
1.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
BS 206-1, 6.1 states that the specifier of the concrete shall ensure that all the relevant
requirements for concrete properties are included in the specification given to the
producer. The specifier shall also specify any requirements for concrete properties that
are needed for transportation after delivery, placing, compaction, curing or further
treatment. The specification shall, if necessary, include any special requirements (e.g. for
obtaining an architectural finish).
The specifier shall take account of:
— the application of the fresh and hardened concrete;
— the curing conditions;
— the dimensions of the structure (the heat development);
— the environmental actions to which the structure is to be exposed;
— any requirements for exposed aggregate or tooled concrete finishes;
— any requirements related to the cover to reinforcement or minimum section width, e.g.
maximum nominal upper aggregate size;
— any restrictions on the use of constituent materials with established suitability, e.g.
resulting from exposure classes.

The objective of this research is to check the suitability of rice husk ash as a replacement
of cement in normal concrete.

3
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 CONCRETE.

The term concrete comes from the Latin word CONCRETUS which means something
grown together or compounded. Concrete is a composite material, consisting of a
hydraulic cementing substance, coarse aggregates which form the bulk of the mix, a fine
aggregate filling the voids between and water to bind the whole together. It begins as a
plastic mixture and gradually hardens into a stone-like mass.

The sand, or fine aggregate, and the cement may together be regarded as a mortar in
which the coarse aggregate is set. The properties of concrete depend primarily on the
quality and amount of this interstitial mortar and only secondary on the coarse aggregate.
The latter must be hard so as not to break under the pressure to which it is subjected
when the concrete is stressed, and sufficiently impermeable not to act as a channel by
which water may pass into the concrete.

Concrete is the most widely used material in Civil Engineering, and its production and use
are extremely important aspects of construction. Despite been widely used, it is suffice to
say that certain limitations to the use of concrete as a building material are recognized.
These relate mainly to its low tensile strength, low energy absorption, susceptibility to
crack with changes in temperature and moisture, tendency to deteriorate as a result of its
absorption capacity and its low resistance to chemical attack under adverse
environmental conditions.

In order to understand the techniques involved in producing and using concrete, it is

necessary to have a general appreciation of its composition and properties.

4
2.2 COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

Concrete consists basically of cement, water, aggregates and at times an admixture.

2.2.1 CEMENT

This is one of the components of concrete. It is a material with adhesive and cohesive
properties, which enables it to serve as a binding medium to mineral fragments.

Different cements used for making concrete are finely ground powders and all have
important properties that when mixed with water, a chemical reaction (Hydration) takes
place, which produces a binding medium for aggregate particles. During this chemical
reaction, three important physical processes also occur; these are setting, otherwise
known as STIFFENING, generation of heat and hardening, which is, gaining strength.
These all take place over a period of time, at rates which vary over that period.

Cement from which concrete is made fall into groups: Portland cement and High Alumina
cement. The grouping arises as a result of their origin, chemical composition and their
physical characteristics.

The most commonly used type of cement is Ordinary Portland cement whose properties
conformed to the requirement of BS12 (Portland cement- ordinary and rapid hardening)
Part 2 British Standard Institution (1971). It is an air and water hardening hydraulic binder
manufactured by pulverizing together clinker and gypsum. Clinker is formed from a raw
mix (clay and limestone) of preset composition ensuring a predominant content of calcium
Silicates at a very high temperature. It is suitable for use in general concrete construction
when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or ground water. Rapid hardening
Portland cement is used where there is a need for rapid strength development e.g. early
removal of formwork for reuse; sulphate- resisting cement is used for structures exposed
to acidic soils and saline water. High Alumina cement was developed to resist sulphate
attack.

5
Cement, chemically consist of:

-Lime CaO 64-67%

-Silica SiO2 19-24%

-Alumina Al203 4-7%

-Iron oxide Fe2O3 2-6%

-Magnesia MgO 5%

-Sulphur trioxide SO3 3%

The main chemical compounds of Portland cement are: Tri-Calcium Silicate

(3CaO.SiO2), Di-Calcium Silicate (2CaO.SiO2), Tri-Calcium Aluminates (3CaO.Al203) and
Tetra-Calcium-Alumino-Ferrite (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3).

Tri-Calcium Silicate contributes to the development of early strength particularly during

the 1st - 14 days. It generates considerable amount of heat.

Di-Calcium Silicate hydrates slowly and is mainly responsible for the development of
strength after 7 days. It remains active for a considerable period.

Tri-Calcium Aluminates produces little increase in strength after 24hours.

Tetra-Calcium-Alumino-Ferrite is of less importance to the strength development.

The two Silicates are the most stable of the compounds and together they form between
70% and 80% 0f the constituent in cement.

6
2.2.2 WATER

Water used in concrete, in addition to reacting with cement, causing it to set and harden,
thus producing the binding qualities of cement, also facilitates mixing, placing and
compacting of the fresh concrete (workability).

The quantity as well as the quality of water in a concrete mix is of vital influence on the
properties of the resulting concrete. Both could affect the strength and durability of
concrete. Water containing undesirable organic substances or inorganic constituents in
excessive proportions could interfere with the setting of the cement, cause surface
dampness, staining of the concrete surface, efflorescence and excessive corrosion of
steel reinforcement. It is expressed in kilogammes of water per cubic meter of concrete.

2.2.3 AGGREGATES

Aggregates form bulk of the materials for the manufacturing of concrete. It usually
occupies about 70 to 75% of the total volume of a mass of concrete. They are obtained
by crushing quarried rock to the required size. The aggregates must be sufficiently strong
and well graded.

The aggregates performs the followings:

- provides a mass of particles which are suitable for resisting the action of applied
loads, abrasion, the percolation of moisture, and the action of weather;

- provides a relatively cheap filler for the cementing material;

- reduces the volume changes (Shrinkage) resulting from the setting and
hardening process and from moisture changes in the water-cement paste.

The classification of aggregates is as a result of its source, mineralogical composition,

mode of preparation and size.

Aggregates may be classified as fine aggregate and coarse aggregate with reference to
its size. Fine aggregate or sand are particles that pass through 5mm sieve, that is, grains

7
 not larger than 5mm while coarse aggregate comprise particles larger than 5mm in size,
that is, they do not pass through 5mm sieve but are retained.

2.2.3.1 LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATE

They are material used to obtain concrete weight usually below the weight of the normal
concrete (2200 to 2600kg/m3). Their bulk density normally ranges between 350 to
850kg/m3 for coarse aggregate and from 750 to 1100kg/m3 for fine aggregate. Concrete
made from lightweight aggregate usually have as higher drying shrinkage and moisture
movement than heavy concrete and are more prone to shrinkage cracking. They give
better thermal insulation and fire resistance, allows for construction on ground with low
bearing-capacity.

Lightweight aggregates can be divided into two main groups: natural and artificial. Pumice
and periwinkle shells belong to the natural while the artificial can be further sub-divided
into two classes, the first consist of waste products, furnace clinker. The second class
consists of material made by processing artificial or natural products and these are much
more uniform in quality. For example, foamed or expanded slag, shales and slates,
expanded palite etc.

2.2.3.2 NORMAL AGGREGATES

They may either be natural or artificial in origin and they are used to produce concrete
with density in the range of 2200 to 2600kg/m3. The natural ones are crushed rock
(granite, sand and gravels). The rock aggregates are obtained by crushing quarried rock
to the required particle size or sizes while sand and gravel are obtained as deposits at the
river, alluvial and glacial. The artificial normal aggregates are obtained from brick and air-
cooled blast furnace. Aggregates, in particular sands and gravels, should be washed to
remove impurities such as clay and silt.

2.2.3.3 HEAVY WEIGHT AGGREGATES

They are produced from scrap iron and lead shot. Its density ranges from 4000 to
8500kg/m3 and it depends on the aggregate type, the dimensions and the degree of
8
 compaction. Heavyweight aggregate provide an effective and economical use of concrete
for radiation shielding, and for coating of submerged pipelines. It is frequently difficult to
obtain a mix which is both workable and not prone to segregation with heavyweight
aggregates.

2.2.4 ADMIXTURES

This in the most general sense are materials that are added when mixing mortar or
concrete in order to modify the properties of the product either in its fresh or hardened
state. It is added to the concrete mix in quantities not larger than 5% by mass of cement
during mixing. They may be inorganic or organic in composition. Some types are used to
improve workability, to reduce the amount of water needed in mixing, to retard or
accelerate setting and to improve the frost resistance. Others are used to reduce the
permeability or to improve specific mechanical properties of the concrete such as
abrasion resistance. Others are used to improve chemical resistance as in POZZOLANIC
CEMENTS, to reduce alkali-aggregate expansion etc.

Examples of admixtures includes; air-entraining agents, accelerating agents, Retarders,

Water Reducers or Plasticizers, Super plasticizers, Binding admixtures, Water repelling
agents, Pigments, pore fillers and Pozzolanas.

2.3 RICE HUSK ASH

Rice husks are by-products of rice paddy milling industries. For rice growing countries,
rice husks have attracted more attention due to environmental pollution and an increasing
interest in conservation of energy and resources. (1, 2)
About 20% of a dried rice paddy is made up of the rice husks. The current world
production of rice paddy is around 500 million tons and hence 100 million tons of rice
husks are produced, as shown in Table 1 & 3. The rice husk has a large dry volume due
to its low bulk density (90-150 kg/m3), and possesses rouge and
abrasive surfaces that is highly resistant to natural degradation. Disposal has become a
challenging problem. It is recognized that only the cement and concrete industries can
consume such large quantities of solid pozzolanic wastes.

9
For developing countries where rice production is abundant, the use of rice husk ash
(RHA) to partially substitute for cement is attractive because of its high

Table 1. World Production Rate for Rice Paddy and Rice Husk (Million Metric
Tons).

COUNTRY RICE PADDY RICE HUSK

Bangladesh 27 5.4
Brazil 9 1.8
Burma 13 2.6
China 180 36.0
India 110 22.0
Indonesia 45 9.0
Japan 13 2.6
Korea 9 1.8
Philippines 9 1.8
Taiwan 14 2.8
Thailand 20 4.0
US 7 1.4
Vietnam 18 3.6
Others 26 5.2
Total 500 100

Rice Husk Ash is approximately 20% of the rice husk, i.e. the total world production
of RHA will be 20 million metric tons.

reactivity. As the production rate of rice husk ash is about 20% of the dried rice husk, the
amount of RHA generated yearly is about 20 million tons worldwide. Also, properly
treated ashes have been shown to be active within cement paste.

10
 Hence, the use of rice husk ash in concrete is important. In this chapter, the
characteristics, quality, hydration mechanism and influence of rice husk ashes on the
quality of concrete are discussed.

2.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RICE HUSK ASH

The chemical composition of rice husk is similar to that of many common organic fibers
and contains:
a) cellulose (C5H10O5), a polymer of glucose, bonded with B-1.4,
b) lignin (C7H10O3), a polymer of phenol,
c) hemicellulose, a polymer of xylose bonded with B-l.4 whose composition is like xylem
(C5H8O4,), and
d) SO2 the primary component of ash. (3)
The holocellulose (cellulose combined with hemicellulose) content in rice husk is about
54%, but the composition of ash and lignin differ slightly depending on the species, as
shown in Table 2. The critical composition of rice husks from different species also varies
slightly (Table 3) (4-7)
After burning, most evaporable components are slowly lost and the silicates are left. The
characteristics of the ash are dependent on the components, temperature and time of
burning. In order to obtain an ash with high pozzolanic activity, the silica should be held in
a non-crystalline state and in a highly microporous structure. (1-3)
Hence, the burning process should be controlled to remove the cellulose and lignin
portion while preserving the original cellular structure of rice husk. Traditional open-field
burning can create air pollution that is suspected to cause lung and eye diseases within
the human population, as well as damage to plant life (1-2). Mehta’s fluidized bed furnace
was designed in 1974 to produce energy and highly pozzolanic ash from incineration of
rice husks. Modern electric furnace has been used in order to maintain proper control of
the burning process and to produce better quality ash.

11
Table 2. Chemical Composition of Rice Husks.

Chemical Composition (%)

Rice Husk Extractives
Alcohol 1% Hot Holo- Ash Lignin Ref.
benzene NaOH Water cellulose
Japonica 1.8 32.3 5.4 53.9 13.6 24.8 [3]
Indica 2.1 30.6 5.1 54.3 11.7 25.8 [3]
Anhydrous - - 8-15 40-50 15-20 25-30 [1]
Rice Husk

Table 3. Ultimate Analysis of rice Husk, Hwang and Wu

Chemical Composition (Wt %)

C H O N S Cl Ash Ref
38.3 5.7 39.8 0.5 0.0 0.0 15.5 [5]
39.4 5.5 36.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 18.2 [6]
39.5 5.5 37.7 0.8 0.0 0.0 16.5 [7]

12
2.3.2 THE EFFECT OF BURNING TEMPERATURE
Reactions at different burning temperatures are summarized below, and the chemical
compositions of RHA produced are shown in Table 4. (3)
Table 4
Temperature ºC
<300 400 600 700 1000
Si 81.90 80.43 81.25 86.71 92.73
K 9.58 11.86 11.80 7.56 2.57
Ca 4.08 3.19 2.75 2.62 1.97
Element Na 0.9 0.92 1.33 1.21 0.91
% Mg 1.25 1.20 0.88 0.5 0.66
S 1.81 1.32 1.30 1.34 0.16
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.45
Fe 0.43 1.81 0.68 0.00 0.68
SiO2 88.01 88.05 88.67 92.15 95.48
MgO 1.17 1.13 0.84 0.51 0.59
SO3 1.12 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.09
Oxide
CaO 2.56 2.02 1.73 1.60 1.16
%
K 2O 5.26 6.48 6.41 3.94 1.28
Na2O 0.79 0.76 1.09 0.99 0.73
Fe2O3 0.29 0.74 0.46 0.00 0.43

a) At 400ºC, due to transglycosylation, polysaccharides begins to depolymerize,

producing levoglucosan, monosaccharide derivatives, and oligosaccharides.
b) Dehydration of the sugar units occurs above 400ºC producing 3-deoxyglucosene,
levoglucosenone, funicular and furan derivatives.
c) At 700ºC, sugar unit decomposes, producing some cabby compounds such as
acetaldehyde, glyoxal and acrolein.
d) At temperatures above 700ºC, these unsaturated products react and through free
radical reaction, form a highly reactive carbonic residue. (5,8-11)
Differential thermal analysis (DTA), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and TMA showed
the first peak at 95°C was caused by dehydration. Between 150°C and 250” C, a low
13
intensity endothermic reaction was followed by one extreme at about 300°C which may
have been due to oxidation reactions. The amount of char formed was about 60% of the
initial weight (Figure 1).

14
 Table 5.
Pore Analysis of RHA under Different Burning Temperatures, after Hwang and Wu
{3}
Burning Mercury Penetration Mean Pore (A) Median
Temperature (“C) Volume (cm3/gm) Pore(A)
Char 0.3567 5257 4585
400 0.3379 5954 6847
600 0.2912 6069 6847
700 0.0795 5867 5718
800 0.0643 5446 5250
900 0.0393 5150 4483
1000 0.0323 4972 3867
1100 0.0171 3900 9803

2.3.3 THE EFFECT OF BURNING TIME & FURNACE ENVIRONMENT

Above 8OO’C, an increase in the burning temperature, time, and environment tend to
cause a sintering effect (coalescing of fine particles) as was mentioned earlier, and, is
indicated by a dramatic reduction in the specific surface (Table 6). Combustion
environment also plays an important role. It should be noted that a change in the rate of
oxidation from moderately oxidizing conditions
(CO2 environment) to highly oxidizing conditions (oxygen environment) was responsible
for the steep drop in the microporosity (Table 5) and surface area (Table 6).
The diffusion process for obtaining a reactive cellular rice husk is shown in Figure 4 and
is based on the data presented in Tables 6 and 7. It shows that optimum incineration
condition is important to obtain reactive rice husk ash with microporous and cellular
structure. But, it is not suggested to burn rice husk above 800°C longer than one hour to
obtain suitable pozzolanic reactivity.
Also, it is believed that rapid cooling may increase the reactivity of RHA. (15)

17
 Table 6.
Effect of Burning Conditions on the Crystal Structure and Surface Area of Rice
Husk Ash. Adapted from Ankra.

Burning Hold Time Environment Properties of ASH

Temperature

Crystalline Surface
Area,m2
1 min moderately non 122
500-600°C 30 min oxidizing crystalline 97

700-800°C 15min-lhr 76
>l hr Highly 100
>8OO”C >l hr oxidizing partially 6-10
crystalline
crystalline <5

2.4 ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY OF RHA

The quality of RHA actually depends on the method of ash incineration and the degree of
grinding. It also depends upon the preservation of cellular structure and the extent of
amorphous material within the structure.

2.4.1 DIFFERENT SOURCES

The production of rice husk in the whole world is about 100 million metric tons a majority
of it coming from countries in Southeast Asia. Depending on growing conditions and the
variety of rice species, the quantity of straw also varies, but as indicated in Table 1, the
chemical composition of different sources is quite similar. Typical components of RHA, as
shown in Table 2 are (16):

20
 Cellulose 40-50%
Lignin 25-30%
Ash 15-20%
Moisture 8- 15%

After burning at a suitable temperature and time (- 600- 7OO”C, 2 hours), in an industrial
furnace, the rice husk is composed of 90-95% SiO2 l-3% K2O and < 5% unburnt carbon,
as shown in Table 7 {1,3 17-21}. The quality of ash from different sources after proper
burning varies only slightly. For use, the RHA should be amorphous and highly porous.
The pozzolanic reactivity is also dependent on the surface area of RHA. Rice husk ash
with a surface area of 50-100m2/gm is now available. The summary of the research
conducted from 1976 to 1991 is shown in Table 7. The pozzolanic activities for the RHA
when mixed with < 70% (by weight) cement is greater than 100%.

2.4.2 DIFFERENT PROCESSES

Burning process affects the quality of rice husk ash produced. Research studies have
shown the influence of processing on a variety of properties of the RHA, as shown in
Table 7. (7-12)

2.4.2.1 OPEN-FIELD BURNING

Open-field burning of rice husk not only produces poor quality of ash, but is banned in
many countries due to pollution problems. Uncontrolled burning results in a structure of
highly crystalline form that is of low reactivity.

2.4.2.2 FLUIDIZED-BED FURNACE BURNING

Fluidized-bed furnace is designed to control burning of rice husk {17}. In the process, the
heat from the combustion of rice husk was utilized to produce steam or electricity. A close
control of the time-temperature parameter in the burning operation is maintained. A highly
pozzolanic ash is produced. Highly pozzolanic RHA is created by maintaining husk
combustion temperatures between 500 and 700°C for a relatively long period to remove
most of the carbon , or at temperatures around 700-800°C for less than one minute.

21
 The chemical analysis of the ash samples produced by a fluidized-bed furnace showed
80-95% SiO2 l-2% I&, 0, and 3-18% unburned carbon. The ash was highly cellular, with
50-60 m2/g surface area measured by nitrogen adsorption. The fibrous texture of the
silica in ash results presumably from its deposition between cellulose fibrils in the
microvoids.

2.4.2.3 INDUSTRIAL FURNACE

A modern industrial furnace has been recently used due to environmental and economic
reasons (Table 7). Depending upon the efficiency of combustion, the silica content of
RHA may be in the range of 90-95% with residual carbon as the main remaining
ingredient. In addition to residual carbon, alkalis ranging from 1 to 3% form the other
impurity. By controlled combustion in the industrial furnace, it is simple to produce RHA
with silica in an amorphous and highly cellular form, with 50- 100 m2/g surface area. This
type of rice husk ash is highly pozzolanic.

2.4.3 THE EFFECT OF BURNING TIME AND TEMPERATURE ON THE

SURFACE AREA AND ITS REACTIVITY

The RHA must be burned for the correct time and temperature to achieve the requisite
pozzolanic activity, as indicated in Table 7 and illustrated in Figure 3. Table 6 clearly
indicates that not only the burning temperature, the burning time is equally important in
removing carbon while keeping the silica in an amorphous and highly cellular form. The
surface area of RHA burned at 500-600°C for 1 minute is as high as 122 m2/g without
causing crystallization, as shown in Table 6. Longer burning times will cause collapse of
the cellular form and also coalescence of the fine pores, which consequently causes a
reduction in surface area . At higher temperatures with longer burning times, a crystalline
structure is formed with a sharp reduction in surface area. This lowers the pozzolanic
activity. Figure 3 indicates the ideal time/temperature path to obtain optimum quality rice
husk ash with a microporous and cellular structure which is highly reactive.

23
2.5 HYDRATION MECHANISMS OF PASTE WITH RHA
Understanding the hydration of paste with RHA is important for using pozzolanic
materials and controlling the properties of the paste. The heat evolution curve,
microstructure development, and ultrasonic velocity are important for studying hydration
mechanisms in paste made with RHA.

2.5.1 PASTE/RHA HEAT EVOLUTION CURVE

The study of the rate of hydration can be used to predict strength development. However,
if the interior temperature is too high, cracks may develop in the cement paste. Figure 4
reveals that the heat evolution curve of cement paste with RHA is similar in shape to that
without RHA. It also shows the effect of water to cement ratio and the amount of
replacement by RHA on heat evolution. The first peak is higher than the second peak.
The larger the amount of RHA added, the lower the amount of heat evolved. At higher
RHA contents, K+ and SiO2 react with Ca2+ to lower both the first and second peaks. High
water to cement ratio may also lower the heat of hydration due to the diluting effect of
water. At the second stage of hydration (dormant period), the concentration of Ca2+
decreases, thereby increasing the saturation time of ion and thus delaying the second
peak. However, the pH value increases primarily due to the potassium content in RHA
dissolved in water, as shown in Table 8. This compensates for the alkali concentration
consumed by Ca2+ to nucleate earlier and to accelerate the second peak. The setting
time of ordinary cement paste occurs before the second peak of the calorimetric curve;
such a mechanism can be responsible for short setting time of cement paste containing
RHA. (Figure 5).

24
 Table 8.
The pH Values of RHA Dissolved in Water. Adapted from Hwang and Wu [3].
RHAIW T W/RHA pH Value
1 day 3days 7days
0.05 20 9.91 9.59 9.55
0.1 10 9.98 9.82 9.75
0.15 6.67 10.00 9.91 9.80
0.2 5 10.12 9.91 9.86
0.25 4 10.14 9.98 9.91
0.3 3.33 3.33 9.98 9.91

• Ash burned at 700°C

2.5.2 HYDRATION MECHANISMS OF PASTE WITH RHA

Figure 6 reveals the hydration behavior which includes the calorimetric curve, the
ultrasonic pulse velocity curve, the penetrative resistance curve, and the setting time of
paste with 20% RHA.
According to the hydration mechanism of ordinary Portland cement without RHA a
transition zone exists in the ultrasonic pulse velocity curve which corresponds to the
period between the dormant and deceleration periods in the calorimetric curve. The
transition zone occurs roughly at the points of inflection in both the calorimetric and the
penetrative resistance curves, with the setting time measured with a Vicat needle.
Moreover, the time of appearance of the second peak in the calorimetric curve
approximately coincides with the final setting time. Such a transition zone will be delayed
with the increase in water to solid ratio. The addition of RHA will cloud the transition zone,
but the hydration mechanism is similar to that of ordinary Portland cement. The final
setting of paste with 5% and 20% RHA added begins at the second peak as shown in
Figure 6b and 6c (22, 23). This implies that the addition of RHA will strengthen the matrix.
The hydration mechanism of paste with RHA can be hypothesized, may appear as shown
schematically in Figure 7, and may be described as follows:
The penetration resistance coincides with the growth of CH (Calcium hydroxide) up to 8
hours, and this is similar to the behavior of ordinary portland cement paste. The early
27
 resistance may be primarily due to the formation of CH crystal. From the pulse velocity
curve as shown in Figure 10, the pulse changes coincide with the early detection of
penetration resistance. The formation of CH at the surface of rice husk ash may be due to
the adsorption by cellular structure of RHA. In such case the bleeding water will be
significantly reduced. The adsorbed water enhances the pozzolanic reaction inside the
inner cellular spaces and gain significant strength.
The ultra-sonic velocity gain rapidly after the formation of CH and the contact of RHA
solid through the silica skeleton. This behavior is different from that of pure Portland
cement paste. After 40 hours, the pozzolanic reaction further binds Si in RHA with CH to
form C-S-H gel and solid structures. This means that RHA fills the finer pores and
reduces the permeability, which may be beneficial to the durability.

2.6 EARLY CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE WITH RHA

The early characteristic of concrete with RHA depends on the water to cement ratio, the
amount of paste used, the amount of RHA added, other admixtures used and mixture
proportion.
2.6.1 THE WORKABILITY OF FRESH CONCRETE WITH RHA
At a given water to cement ratio, small addition (less than 2 to 3 by weight of cement) of
RHA may be helpful for improving the stability and workability of concrete by reducing the
tendency towards bleeding and segregation. This is mainly due to the large surface area
of rice husk ash which is in the range of 50 to 60m2/g.
Large additions would produce dry or unworkable mixtures unless water-reducing
admixtures or superplastizers are used, as shown in Figure 8. Due to the adsorptive
character of cellular rice husk ash particles, concrete containing RHA require more water
for a given consistency. At high water-cement ratio, the workability tends to improve, as
shown in Figure 8. The addition of sand will significantly reduce the flow table spread.
For a given consistency, the reduction of water requirement can lead to an overall
improvement in many engineering properties. Granulometric characteristics of the coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate, and cement particles influence the volume of voids and water
requirement of a concrete mixture. The addition of fine particles of a mineral admixture,
typically in the order of 1 to 20 mm in size, would supplement the cement grains in further

28
 reducing the volume of voids in the concrete mixture. Consequently, it will require less
water to produce a concrete of a given consistency.
The workability of fresh concrete with RHA can be improved by densifying the mixture.
The process uses cement and rice husk ash with water to fill the pores and voids within
well-compacted aggregates. The density of concrete made by this process is higher than
that of conventional mixtures with more cement. Slump can be controlled to 250 ± 20mm
range with excellent rheological properties and with small reduction in slump after 45
minutes.

2.6.2 THE SETTING TIME OF CONCRETE WITH RHA

Unlike other pozzolanic materials, rice husk ash tends to shorten the setting time, as
shown in Figure 5. This may be due to the water adsorption ability of the cellular form of
rice husk ash and hence, the surrounding water-to-cement ratio is reduced. It is further
substantiated by the early detection of the ultrasonic pulse velocity, as shown in Figure 6,
reflects that the rigid silica cellular skeleton also plays an important role in setting time.
Higher water-to-cement ratio tends to increase the setting time because there is less
contact between the open matrix and the silica cellular structure causes a reduction in
early strength development.

29
2.6.3 THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND IMPERMEABILITY OF
CONCRETE WITH RHA

In normal concrete, the transition zone is generally less dense than the bulk paste and
contains a large amount of plate-like crystals of calcium hydroxide, with the c-axis
perpendicular to the aggregate surface. This is suspected to induce microcracks due to
the tensile stresses induced by thermal and humidity change. The structure of the
transition zone is the weakest phase in concrete and has a strong influence on the
properties of the concretes.
The addition of pozzolanic materials can affect both strength and permeability by
strengthening the aggregate-cement paste interface and by blocking the large voids in the
hydrated cement paste through pozzolanic reaction. This phenomenon is shown in Figure
9. It is known that the pozzolanic reaction modifies the pore-structure. Products formed
due to the pozzolanic reactions occupy the empty space in the pore-structure which thus
becomes densified. The porosity of cement paste is reduced, and subsequently, the
pores are refined. Mehta has shown significant reduction in the porosity of cement paste
with RI-IA additions and refinement in the porestructure.
Pozzolanic reaction is a slow process and proceeds with time. It is illustrated in Figure 10
that the pore refinement is in progress even after 28 days.
Rice husk ash adsorbs large amount of water due to its high specific surface area. This
reduces bleeding water. The high absorption of the RHA has been shown by Hwang
(Figure 11). It improves the weakest zone under the aggregate. However, adding the
correct amount of rice husk ash is important for achieving high strength. Large amounts
of rice husk ash have an adverse effect and reduce strength as shown in Figure 12. The
early strength of concrete is a function of water-to-binder ratio. As long as the water-to-
binder ratio is kept constant, the early strength of concrete will be similar, but the ultimate
strength will be enhanced due to pozzolanic reactions.
It is further seen that above 54 kg/m3 rice husk ash addition, there is no influence on the
strength. However, it decreases the permeability of concrete.
At a high water to cement ratio, the addition of RHA to cement paste will not only reveal a
significant effect on strength at early ages, but the strength at later ages also tend to be
higher than those with lower water to cement ratios. A higher water to cement ratio also
contributes to a lower heat of hydration.
35
The pore refining effect of rice husk ash has shown a surprising result in permeability of
concrete as shown in the last column of Table 9. Each percent of rice husk ash can
improve at least 0.6 times of permeability at 1 year. No admixtures or processing
techniques in concrete technology are known to yield a concrete product with such low
chloride permeability so far. The potential usefulness of rice husk ash, as a cement or
concrete additive, for applications where the corrosion of reinforcing steel is a major
concern is obvious. Hence, the use of rice husk ash is quite significant for those areas
that need water resistance, and good durability like in the marine environment.

36
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
84 cubes test were tested in the laboratory. In preparing these samples, few important
steps were taken into account, among others:

a) Collection and Burning of the Rice Husk

b) Laboratory test of the Ash

c) Concrete mix design

d) Raw materials

e) Measuring and mixing of concrete

3.1 COLLECTION AND BURNING OF THE RICE HUSK

The rice husk for this research was collected from Ofada a part in Ogun State. Four bags
collected for burning. The method of burning is important in this research. Although past
researchers in the department have used open burning. In this respect, we used furnace
burning in an industrial furnace at Clay Industry at Oregun. The husk was burnt at 900oC
for 30mins in the furnace.

3.2 LABORATORY TEST OF THE ASH

The chemical constituent of the ash was done in the laboratories. The elements tested
are Silica (SiO2), Carbon, Barium Oxide (BaO), Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3), Sulphite (SO32-),
Na2O,CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3.

3.3 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

The components of the mixes were by volume. The ratio of the mixes was 1:2:4:0.6. The
ratio of cement and husk ash varied as shown in table 9

38
Table 9

Test Cement % Rice Husk Ash %

1 100 0
2 95 5
3 90 10
4 85 15
5 80 20
6 75 25
7 70 30

3.4 RAW MATERIALS

i. Aggregate- The coarse aggregate was from crushed granite of igneous origin. The
particle size range used is 10 – 20mm. River sand with less than 5mm size was
used
ii. In preparation of concrete mix, tap water from the lab was used.
iii. The rice husk ash was obtained from burning the husk at Clay Industry Oregun
iv. Cement – Portland Cement type whose properties confirm to the requirement of
BS 18 was used.

3.5 MEASURING AND MIXING OF CONCRETE

The prescribed mixes of cement + RHA, sand and gravel (1:2:4) for general reinforced
concrete work with water cement ratio of 0.6 were considered. Concrete was mixed using
concrete mixer. The raw materials were weighed and placed into the machine. The
machine was rotated until the materials were completely mixed.

39
3.6 CONCRETE TEST

The 84 cubes were tested at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days. Three specimens were tested at each
age and the value of the crushing load were averaged and used to calculate the mean
strength for each group.

3.6.1 COMPRESSION TEST

The concrete mix was placed into the moulds, which has been applied with mould oil to
ease opening. Concrete was compacted into three layers using steel rods 25mm in size
with 35 blows per layer and the surface was leveled using trovel.

After 24 hours, the mould was opened and the cubes were treated in a pond. All tests
shall comply with the requirements of BS: 1881, Part 4, and MS 26: 1971.

Prior to the test, the cubes/specimens were weighed to obtain weight and the specimen
placed onto the lower steel platen plate with both smooth surfaces facing the top and
bottom platen plates (Fig 3.1).

40
Figure 13 – Cube Test

41
4.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 RESULTS

The chemical analysis of the rice husk ash from Najco Laboratories Limited is shown in
Table 10

Table 10

Test Performed Result

Silica (SiO2) 79.92 %
Carbon 4.02%
Barium Oxide (BaO) 0.01%
Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) 8.25%
Sulphite (SO32-) 9.27%

The other result conducted at Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi (FIIRO)
gives the following result for the ash.(Table 11)

Table 11
Parameters Results
Na2O 0.26%
PbO Not detected
CaO 0.112%
MgO 0.17%
Fe2O3 0.45%

Table 12 to Table 18 shows the result of varying the percentage of ash with cement from
0% to 30%.

42
0% Ash Cast on 18/05/05

Table 12
Weight Strength(Ton Strength (kN) Compressive Average kN/mm2
Force Strength kN/mm2
9.2 22.6 226 10.04 3 Days
9.4 28.8 288 12.80
9.2 41.2 412 18.31 13.72 21/05/05
9.7 32.8 328 14.58 7 Days
9.8 23.6 236 10.49
9.2 33.6 336 14.93 13.33 25/05/05
9.7 24.4 244 10.84 14 Days
9.4 49.8 498 22.13
9.3 31.6 316 14.13 15.70 01/06/05
10.3 51.8 518 23.02 28 Days
8.8 63.4 634 28.18
8.7 54.4 544 24.18 25.13 15/06/05

5% Ash Cast on 18/05/05

Table 13
Weight Strength(Ton Strength (kN) Compressive Average kN/mm2
Force Strength kN/mm2
9.5 43.4 434 19.29 3 Days
10.2 48.8 488 21.69
10.8 35.8 358 15.91 18.96 21/05/05
9.1 32.2 322 14.31 7 Days
9.1 25.2 252 11.20
9.2 32.2 322 14.31 13.27 25/05/05
8.8 68.6 386 30.49 14 Days
10.4 69.8 698 31.02
8.9 60.6 606 26.93 29.48 01/06/05
9.6 60.9 609 27.07 28 Days
8.4 70.5 705 31.33
8.6 66.7 667 29.64 29.35 15/06/05

43
10% Ash Cast on 18/05/05

Table 14
Weight Strength(Ton Strength (kN) Compressive Average kN/mm2
Force Strength kN/mm2
10.4 32.4 324 14.40 3 Days
9.1 16.2 162 7.20
8.7 23.2 232 10.31 10.64 21/05/05
8.8 17.2 172 7.64 7 Days
9.2 23.8 238 10.58
8.9 25.8 258 11.47 9.90 25/05/05
8.3 35.8 358 15.91 14 Days
8.7 36.6 366 16.27
9.0 45.2 452 20.09 17.42 01/06/05
8.5 15.6 156 6.93 28 Days
9.9 48.6 486 21.60
8.8 50.2 502 22.31 16.95 15/06/05

15% Ash Cast on 20/05/05

Table 15
Weight Strength(Ton Strength (kN) Compressive Average
Force Strength kN/mm2 kN/mm2
8.4 28.2 282 12.53 3 Days
8.8 17.8 178 7.91
8.4 18.2 182 8.09 9.51 24/05/05
8.3 24.4 244 10.84 7 Days
8.7 46.6 466 20.71
8.0 37.8 378 16.80 16.12 27/05/05
8.5 39.6 396 17.60 14 Days
8.8 41.8 418 18.58
8.8 43.6 436 19.38 18.52 03/06/05
9.5 40.2 402 17.87 28 Days
8.7 45.2 452 20.09
10.1 42.6 426 18.93 18.96 17/06/05

44
20% Ash Cast on 24/05/05

Table 16
Weight Strength(Ton Strength (kN) Compressive Average
Force Strength kN/mm2 kN/mm2
8.8 23.4 234 10.40 3 Days
8.3 32.6 326 14.49 14.19
8.7 39.8 398 17.69 27/05/05
8.9 28.6 286 12.71 7 Days
9.1 40.8 408 18.13
8.7 33.4 334 14.84 15.23 31/05/05
8.3 48.6 486 21.60 14 Days
9.4 35.8 358 15.91
8.7 36.2 362 16.09 17.87 07/06/05
8.4 39.4 394 17.51 28 Days
8.6 32.9 329 14.62
9.1 49 490 21.78 17.97 21/06/05

25% Ash Cast on 24/05/05

Table 17
Weight Strength(Ton Strength (kN) Compressive Average
Force Strength kN/mm2 kN/mm2
8.2 21.7 217 9.64 3 Days
8.0 30.5 305 13.56
8.5 35.4 354 15.73 12.98 27/05/05
8.8 25.0 250 11.11 7 Days
8.9 35.0 350 15.56
8.1 34.5 345 15.33 14.00 31/05/05
9.9 45.5 455 20.22 14 Days
9.2 40.2 402 17.87
9.1 37.5 375 16.67 18.25 07/06/05
10.3 41.2 412 18.31 28 Days
9.5 43.0 430 19.11
8.9 42.5 425 18.89 18.77 21/06/05

45
30% Ash Cast on 24/05/05

Table 18
Weight Strength(Ton Strength (kN) Compressive Average
Force Strength kN/mm2 kN/mm2
9.0 18.6 186 8.27 3 Days
8.7 28.4 284 12.62
8.4 27.7 277 12.31 11.07 27/05/05
9.5 24.7 247 10.98 7 Days
8.3 32.8 328 14.58
8.7 30.2 302 13.42 12.99 31/05/05
8.9 37.9 379 16.84 14 Days
8.8 30.2 302 13.42
9.1 35.5 355 15.78 15.35 07/06/05
9.2 35.0 350 15.56 28 Days
8.9 37.4 374 16.62
10.1 38.5 385 17.11 16.43 21/06/05

46
 30

25 25.13
compressive strength(N/mm2)

20

15.7
15
13.72
13.33

10

0
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
age (days)
Figure 14: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Age (Days) for 0% RHA Content in the Mix

- 47 -
 35

30
29.48 29.35

25
compressive strength (N/mm2)

20
18.96

15
13.27

10

0
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
Age (days)

Figure 15: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Age (Days) for 5% RHA Content in the Mix

- 48 -
 20

18
17.42
16.95

16
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

14

12

10.64
10

8
7.05

0
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
Age (days)

Figure 16: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Age (Days) for 10% RHA Content in the Mix

- 49 -
 20
18.96
18.52
18

16 16.12

14
compressive strength (N/mm2)

12

10
9.51

0
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
Age (days)

Figure 17: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Age (Days) for 15% RHA Content in the Mix

- 50 -
 20

18 17.87 17.97

16
15.23

14.19
compressive strength(N/mm2)

14

12

10

0
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
Age (days)

Figure 18: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Age (Days) for 20% RHA Content in the Mix

- 51 -
 20

18.77
18 17.87

16
15.23

14.19
14
compressive strength (N/mm2)

12

10

0
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
Age (days)

Figure 19: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Age (Days) for 25% RHA Content in the Mix
- 52 -
 18

16.43
16
15.35

14

12.99
compressive strength (N/mm2)

12
11.07

10

0
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
Age (days)

Figure 20: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Age (Days) for 30% RHA Content in the Mix

- 53 -
 20
18.96

18

16

14 14.19
Compressive Strength(N/mm2)

13.72
12.98

12
11.07
10.64
10
9.51

0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Various Percentages of RHA Contents in the Mix at 3rd Day

Figure 21: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Various Percentages of RHA content in the Mix at 3rd Day

- 54 -
 18

16 16.12

15.23

14 14.00
13.33 13.27
12.99
Compressive Strength(N/mm2)

12

10 9.90

0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Various Percentages of RHA Contents in the Mix at 7th Day

Figure 22: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Various Percentages of RHA content in the Mix at 7th Day

- 55 -
 35

30
29.48

25
Compressive Strength(N/mm2)

20
18.52 18.25
17.87
17.42

15.70 15.35
15

10

0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Various Percentages of RHA Contents in the Mix at 14th Day

Figure 23: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Various Percentages of RHA content in the Mix at 14th Day

- 56 -
 35.00

30.00
29.35

25.00 25.13
Compressive Strength9N/mm2)

20.00
18.96 18.77
17.97
16.95
16.43

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Various Percentages of RHA Contents in the Mix at 28th Day

Figure 24: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Various Percentages of RHA content in the Mix at 28th Day

- 57 -
 35

30

25
Compressive Strength(N/mm2)

0%
20 5%
10%
15%
20%
15 25%
30%

10

0
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
Age(days)

Figure 25: Relationship Between Compressive Strength (N/mm2) and Age for Various Percentage RHA Contents in the Mix

- 58 -
4.2 Discussions

The relationship between compressive strength and ages of various percentages of RHA
contents in the mix are shown in Figures 14 – 20.

In the control, there is a gradual increase of strength from 13.72N/mm2 at 3 days to

25.13N/mm2 at 28 days – 83% increment from the initial strength.

Unlike Di-calcium Silicate which hydrate slowly and is responsible for the development of
the strength after 7 days. The effect of the RHA in the cement was noticed in the first 3
days. A difference of 5.24N/mm2 in strength was observed in the control and the 5%
replacement of the cement with RHA. (Figure 25).

Figures 21, 23, and 24; reveal that 5 percentage replacement of cement with RHA gives
maximum values of 18.96N/mm2,29.48N/mm2, and 29.35N/mm2 at 3, 14 and 28 days
respectively. But at 14 days a maximum value of 16.12N/mm2 was obtained at 20%
replacement of cement by RHA. (Figure 22)

Chong (25) indicates that high silica content if present in an amorphous chemically
reactive form, enable pozzolan to exhibit pozzolanic properties. Pozzolanic materials
chemically react with calcium hydroxide (CH). In the presence of moisture lime and Silica
(Sio2) react to produce tricalcium Silicate (C3S) and dicalcium Silicate (C2S). The
hydration products of the two compounds are tobermorite gel and calcium hydroxide. The
tobermorite particles are responsible for the cementing properties as well as other
important engineering properties such as strength and shrinkage while the calcium
hydroxide provides the alkaline medium which is beneficial for the protection against
corrosion of reinforcing steel.

At 5% replacement of cement with RHA, RHA exhibits its pozzolanic property by

increasing the compressive strength. However, further increase in the percentage of RHA
content in the cement leads to a reduction in the compressive strength of the concrete.
This could be attributed to the reduction in the quantity of cement available for hydration
process thus a reduction in the formation of stable strength producing cementitous
compound.

- 59 -
A reduction of compressive strength was noticed at 7 days testing for 5% and 10%
replacement of cement with RHA. This may be due to the hand compaction used in the
preparation of the cubes. For other percentages replacement of cement with RHA (15% -
30%) there is a gradual increase from 3 days to 28 days (Figure 17 -20).

There is no increase in the strength of 5% replacement of cement with RHA at 14 days

and 28 days. At 14 days the compressive strength was 29.48N/mm2 and at 28days
29.35N/mm2. So, the optimum compressive strength of the 5% replacement was attained
at 14 days.

- 60 -
5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the discussion above, the following conclusions can be made

o The maximum compressive strength of 29.35N/mm2 was obtained at 5% RHA

content.
o The compressive strength decreases as the content of the RHA in the mix
matrixes increases above 5%
o Siliceous agriculture wastes such as rice husk ash should therefore be carefully
utilized as important source of durable concrete. Obviously, the rice crop residues
have a great role in social economic development of areas where rice is being
produced.

- 61 -
REFERENCES

1. Mehta, P. K., Rice Husk Ash-A Unique Supplementary Cement Material, Advances in
Concrete Technology, Ed.
by Malhotra, CANMET, Ottawa, Canada (1992).
2. Mehta, P. K., and Pitt, N., Energy and Industrial Materials from Crop Residues, Journal
Resource Recovery and Conservation, No. 2, pp. 23-38, Elsevier Scientific Publishing
Company (1976).
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