LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER MEASUREMENTS

2. THERMOCOUPLE CHARACTERSTICS

3. RTD CHARACTERISTICS

4. TRANSDUCER MEASUREMENTS USING PHOTOCELLS

5. TRANSDUCER MEASUREMENTS USING STRAIN GAUGE

6. HALF BRIDGE AND FULL BRIDGE CONVERTERS

7. DC-DC CONVERTER

8. BOOST DC-DC CONVERTER

9. IGBT BASED SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER

10. DC-DC BUCK BOOST CONVERTER

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Exp. No:
Date:
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
MEASUREMENTS
AIM

Measuring voltage with displacement variation using Linear Variable Differential

Transformer (LVDT).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer is a position sensing device that provides
an AC output voltage proportional to the displacement of its core passing through its windings.
LVDTs provide linear output for small displacements where the core remains within the primary
coils. The exact distance is a function of the geometry of the LVDT. An LVDT is much like any
other transformer in that it consists of a primary coil, secondary coils, and a magnetic core. An
alternating current, known as the carrier signal, is produced in the primary coil. The changing
current in the primary coil produces a varying magnetic field around the core. This magnetic
field induces an alternating (AC) voltage in the secondary coils that are in proximity to the core.
As with any transformer, the voltage of the induced signal in the secondary coil is linearly
related to the number of coils. The basic transformer relation is

where,

Vout -is the voltage at the output,

Vin- is the voltage at the input,
Nout -is the number of windings of the output coil, and

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Nin- is the number of windings of the input coil.

As the core is displaced, the number of coils in the secondary coil exposed to the coil
changes linearly. Therefore the amplitude of the induced signal varies linearly with
displacement.
The LVDT indicates direction of displacement by having the two secondary coils whose outputs
are balanced against one another. The secondary coils in an LVDT are connected in the opposite
sense (one clockwise, the other counter clockwise). Thus when the same varying magnetic field
is applied to both secondary coils, their output voltages have the same amplitude but differ in
sign. The outputs from the two secondary coils are summed together, usually by simply
connecting the secondary coils together at a common center point. At an equilibrium position
(generally zero displacement) a zero output signal is produced. The induced AC signal is then
demodulated so that a DC voltage that is sensitive to the amplitude and phase of the AC signal is
produced.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

Connect the LVDT signal conditioner with the power supply of 110 Volts. Set the
position of LVDT such that a range of voltage from +10 to -10 volts can be achieved. Change the
LVDT displacement and record the voltmeter reading in the table. Plot the graph voltage versus
displacement.

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TABULAR COLUMN

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT
Measured voltage with displacement variation using linear variable differential
transformer.

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Exp. No:
Date:
THERMOCOUPLE CHARACTERSTICS
AIM

To study thermocouple characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY
Thermocouple consists of two dissimilar conductors in contact, which produces a voltage
when heated. The size of the voltage is dependent on the difference of temperature of the
junction to other parts of the circuit. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor
for measurement and control and can also be used to convert a temperature gradient into
electricity.
Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard
connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of
temperature measurement, thermocouples are self powered and require no external form of
excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than one
degree Celsius (°C) can be difficult to achieve. The input current is the same as the inductor
current. So it is not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the input
filter are relaxed compared to a buck converter.
Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature.
Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which
have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys
are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be

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important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far from the
measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires which are
less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually standardized
against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use electronic
methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument
terminals.
Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the
thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of measurements.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

Ensure that the power supply and sensor connections made properly and then switch ON
the instrument. The display glows to indicate the instrument is ON. Allow the instrument is ON
position for initial warm up. Pore around 3/4th full of water to kettle and place thermocouple
sensor inside the kettle. Note down the Initial water temperature from the thermometer. Relay
ON, which indicates the relay, is in ON status. Press the INCREMENT/DECREMENT KEY TO
SET THE CUTOFF temperature. When the temperature, relay will switch over it shows the LED
OFF.

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TABULAR COLUMN

RESULT
Measured the temperature using thermo couple method and plotted Temperature vs
%Error curve.

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Exp. No:
Date:
RTD CHARACTERISTICS
AIM

Measurement of temperature using RTD method and to plot Temperature vs %Error

curve.
A
PPARATUS REQUIRED

PRINCIPLE
Resistance temperature detectors, or RTDs, are highly accurate temperature sensors.
They are also known for their excellent stability characteristics. They are used to measure
temperature from 0°C to 450°C, although some can be used up to 800°C. Due to their low
resistance values, you must be careful with the RTD lead resistances.
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are made of coils or films of metals (usually
platinum). When heated, the resistance of the metal increases; when cooled, the resistance
decreases. Passing current through an RTD generates a voltage across the RTD. By measuring
this voltage, you determine its resistance, and thus its temperature.

PROCEDURE
Adjust the temperature of RTD to room temperature using initial key. Then pour water
into the jar attached to the RTD. Boil the water to 1000c. Adjust the final key of RTD to boiling

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temperature of water. Allow the water to cool. Again reheat the water to boiling temperature. Not
down the reading of thermometer and RTD for different temperature and plot the error curve.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TABULAR COLUMN

MODEL GRAPH

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RESULT
Measured the temperature using RTD method and plotted Temperature vs %Error curve

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Experiment No:
TRANSDUCER MEASUREMENTS USING PHOTOCELLS

AIM

To study the response of Distance versus Voltage in Light Dependent Resistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. ITB – 27 Unit

2. ITB – 27 setup

3. Multimeter

4. Power chord

THEORY

Electrical conduction in semiconductor materials occurs when free charge carriers, e.g. electrons, are
available in the material when an electric field is applied. In certain semiconductors, light energy falling
on them is of the correct order of magnitude to release charge carriers which increase flow of current
produced by an applied voltage. The increase of current with increase in light intensity with the applied
voltage remaining constant means that the resistance of semiconductors decreases with increase in light
intensity. Therefore, these semiconductors are called photoconductive cells or photo resistors or
sometimes Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), since incident light effectively varies their resistance.

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The two most commonly used photoconductive semiconductor materials are cadmium sulphide(CdS). On
account of the large energy bands, the material has a very high resistivity at ambient temperature which
gives a very high value of resistance for practical purposes. The
photoconductive cells use a special type of construction which minimises resistance while providing
maximum surface and enclosing them in a protective envelope of glass or plastic.

Figure 1
The electrodesare usually inter-digital i.e. in the form of interlocked fingers or combs as shown in Fig.1
PROCEDURE
1. Interfacing should be followed as per figure shown.
2. Position the pointer at 0 cm on the scale, when the bulb is at maximum distance away from the
sensors, light intensity at thelow level.
3. Switch ON the supply to the unit.
4. To set 8V across T1 & T2 terminals by adjusting the (0-12)V DC potentiometer.
5. To measure the voltage output across T5 & T6 terminals at that time the switch is in V position.
6. Gradually, move the bulb towards the sensor in steps of 5cm distance and note the corresponding
voltage.
7. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 for 10V and 12V adjustments.
8. Tabulate the readings and plot the graph between distance and voltage.

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 TABULATION

Sensor Output Voltage (V)

Distance (cm)
8V 10V 12V

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT
The response of distance versus voltage in Light Dependent Resistor was studied.

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Experiment No:
TRANSDUCER MEASUREMENTS USING STRAIN GAUGE

AIM

To study the characteristics between strain applied to the cantilever beam strain sensor and the bridge
voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

ITB-17-CE Trainer kit

Multimeter

Cantilever beam strain sensor setup

Weights

Power chord.

THEORY

The change in the value of resistance by straining the gauge may be partly explained by the normal
dimensional behaviour of elastic material. If a strip of elastic material is subjected to tension or in other
words positively strained, its longitudinal dimension will increase while ther will be a reduction in the
lateral dimension. So when a gauge is subjected to a positive strain,its length increase while its area of
cross-section decreses. Since the resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length and inversly
proportional to its area of cross-section, the resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain. The
change in the value resistance of strained conductor is more than what can be accounted for an increase in
resistance due to dimensional changes. The extra change in the value of resistance is attributed to a
change in the value of resistivity of a conductor when strained. This property is known as piezo-resistive
effect.
Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire. The wire has the dimensions: length=L, area=A,
diameter= D before being srained. The material of the wire has a resistivity ρ.
Resistance of unstrained gauge R= ρL/A
Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire. This produces apositive strain causing the length to
increase and area to decrease as shown in figure. Thus when the wire is strained there are changes in its
dimensions. Let ΔL= change in length, ΔA= change in area, ΔD= change in diameter and ΔR= change in
resistance.

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The gauge factor can be written as

PROCEDURE

1.Install the cantilever strain sensor setup and interface 9 pin D connector with ITB-17-CE kit.

2.Connect the multimeter in millivolts mode across T2 and T3 for bridge voltage measurement.

3.Switch ON the module.

4.Initially,unload the beam and nullify the bridge voltage by using zero adjustment POT.

5.Now apply the load to the beam,strain will develop on the beam and measure the bridge voltage across
T2 and T3.

6.Gradually increase the load on the beam and note down the applied load and the bridge voltage.

7.Tabulate the values of applied load,theretical strain and bridge voltage.

8.Plot the graph between strain and bridge voltage.

TABULAR COLUMN

Applied load Theoretical strain Bridge voltage

(gram) (µs) (mV)

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MODEL GRAPH

The graph between theoretical strain and bridge voltage are drawn.

RESULT

Thus the characteristics between strain applied to the cantilever strain sensor and the bridge voltage was
studied and graph was plotted.

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Exp. No:
Date:
HALF BRIDGE AND FULL BRIDGE CONVERTERS
AIM

To design and set up half bridge and full bridge converters and to obtain output wave
forms.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE

1. Connecting the circuit on bread board as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the primary of the transformer to main supply i.e. 230V, 50Hz
3. Connect the decade resistance box and set the RL value to 100Ω
4. Connect the Multimeter at output terminals and vary the load resistance (DRB) from 100Ω to
1KΩ and note down the Vac and Vdc as per given tabular form
5. Disconnect load resistance (DRB) and note down no load voltage V dc (V no load)
6. Connect load resistance at 1KΩ and connect Channel – II of CRO at output terminals and CH1
of CRO at Secondary Input terminals observe and note down the Input and Output Wave form
on Graph Sheet.
7. Calculate ripple factor.
8. Calculate Percentage of Regulation.

TABULAR COLUMN

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MODEL GRAPH

RESULT
Designed and obtained half bridge and full bridge converters and obtained output wave
forms.

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Exp. No:
Date:
DC-DC CONVERTER

AIM

To design and set up a Step down MOSFET based chopper and to draw it’s output response.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY
The conceptual model of the buck converter is best understood in terms of the relation
between current and voltage of the inductor. Beginning with the switch open (off-state), the
current in the circuit is zero. When the switch is first closed (on-state), the current will begin to
increase, and the inductor will produce an opposing voltage across its terminals in response to
the changing current. This voltage drop counteracts the voltage of the source and therefore
reduces the net voltage across the load. Over time, the rate of change of current decreases, and
the voltage across the inductor also then decreases, increasing the voltage at the load. During this
time, the inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.
If the switch is opened while the current is still changing, then there will always be a
voltage drop across the inductor, so the net voltage at the load will always be less than the input
voltage source. When the switch is opened again (off-state), the voltage source will be removed
from the circuit, and the current will decrease. The decreasing current will produce a voltage
drop across the inductor (opposite to the drop at on-state), and now the inductor becomes a
Current Source. The stored energy in the inductor's magnetic field supports the current flow
through the load. This current, flowing while the input voltage source is disconnected, when
concatenated with the current flowing during on-state, totals to current greater than the average
input current (being zero during off-state). The "increase" in average current makes up for the
reduction in voltage, and ideally preserves the power provided to the load. During the off-state,
the inductor is discharging its stored energy into the rest of the circuit. If the switch is closed

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again before the inductor fully discharges (on-state), the voltage at the load will always be
greater than zero.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

1. Initially keep all the switches in the OFF position

2. Initially keep duty cycle POT in minimum position
3. Connect banana connector 24V DC source to 24V DC input.
4. Connect the driver pulse [output to MOSFET input
5. Switch on the main supply
6. Check the test point waveforms with respect to ground.
7. Vary the duty cycle POT and tabulate the Ton, Toff & output voltage
8. Trace the waveforms of Vo Vs & Io
9. Draw the graph for Vo Vs Duty cycle, K

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TABULAR COLUMN

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT
Designed and obtained the output response of MOSFET based chopper.

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Exp. No:
Date:
BOOST DC-DC CONVERTER

AIM

To design and set up a Step up MOSFET based chopper and to draw it’s output response.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In a boost converter, the output
voltage is always higher than the input voltage.
When the switch is closed, current flows through the inductor in clockwise direction and
the inductor stores some energy by generating a magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the
inductor is positive.
When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the impedance is higher. The
magnetic field previously created will be destroyed to maintain the current towards the load.
Thus the polarity will be reversed (means left side of inductor will be negative now). As a result,
two sources will be in series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through the diode
D.
The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states.

• In the On-state, the switch S is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor current;
• In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is through
the diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. These results in transferring the energy
accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.

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• The input current is the same as the inductor current. So it is not discontinuous as in the buck
converter and the requirements on the input filter are relaxed compared to a buck converter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

1. Initially keep all the switches in the OFF position

2. Initially keep duty cycle POT in minimum position
3. Connect banana connector 24V DC source to 24V DC input.
4. Connect the driver pulse [output to MOSFET input
5. Switch on the main supply
6. Check the test point waveforms with respect to ground.
7. Vary the duty cycle POT and tabulate the Ton, Toff & output voltage
8. Trace the waveforms of Vo Vs & Io
9. Draw the graph for Vo Vs Duty cycle, K

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TABULAR COLUMN

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT
Designed and obtained the output response of MOSFET based step up chopper.

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Exp. No:
Date:
IGBT BASED SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER
AIM

To design and set up an IGBT based PWM inverter and to obtain it’s Single phase output
wave forms.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

PROCEDURE
1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the gating signal from the inverter module.
3. Switch ON D.C 24 V.
4. Keep the frequency knob to particulars frequency.
5. Observe the rectangular and triangular carrier waveforms on the CRO.
6. Obtain the output waveform across the load Rheostat.
Formula used:
T = Ton + Toff
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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TABULAR COLUMN

MODEL GRAPH

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RESULT
Designed and obtained the output waveform for IGBT based PWM inverter was obtained.

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EXP NO.
DC-DC BUCK BOOST CONVERTER
AIM
The aim of this experiment is to study the operation of the Buck Boost Converter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. JSK-BUKBST-01 - 1
2. DC Power supply 12v/2A - 1
3. Patch Cords - As Required
4. Resistive Load - 1 ----200ohm/25W
THEORY
The Buck boost is a popular non-isolated power stage topology, sometimes called a step-up or
Step down power stage. Power supply designers choose the Buck boost power stage because the
required output is always higher than or Lower the input voltage. The input current for a buck
boost power stage is continuous, or non-pulsating, because the output diode conducts only during
a portion of the switching cycle. The output capacitor supplies the entire load current for the rest
of the switching cycle.
Inductor L and capacitor C make up the effective output filter. A power stage can operate in
continuous or discontinuous inductor current mode. In continuous inductor current mode, current
flows continuously in the inductor during the entire switching cycle in steady-state operation. In
discontinuous inductor current mode, inductor current is zero for a portion of the switching
cycle. It starts at zero, reaches peak value, and return to zero during each switching cycle.
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the DC source to the DC input connector of the module
2. Connect power cable from EB to Buck boost converter module.12dc
3. Connect the load to the Dc output of the converter module -200ohm/25W

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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TABULAR COLUMN

RESULT
Connections are made on the trainer kit and required output is obtained.

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EXP NO.
SWITCHED–MODE DC/DC CONVERSION
USING BUCK CONVERTER
AIM:
To design and setup DC-DC buck converter and obtain the required output.
APARATUS REQUIRED
DC voltage source
Mosfet
Inductor
Diode
Potentiometer
THEORY
A buck converter (step-down converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps down
voltage (while stepping up current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class of
switched-mode power supply (SMPS) typically containing at least two semiconductors (a diode
and a transistor, although modern buck converters frequently replace the diode with a second
transistor used for synchronous rectification) and at least one energy storage element, a
capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of
capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's
output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter Switching converters (such as buck
converters) provide much greater power efficiency as DC-to-DC converters than linear
regulators, which are simpler circuits that lower voltages by dissipating power as heat, but do not
step up output current
Procedure:
Wire the buck converter as in the circuit diagram .
Make the necessary connections and switch settings on the Resistive Load in order to obtain the
resistance value required.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

REQUIRED WAVFORM

RESULT
Wired the circuit and obtain the required output

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