Geoderma 95 Ž2000.

53–72

The role of soil-forming processes in the definition

of taxa in Soil Taxonomy and the World Soil
Reference Base
a,) b
J.G. Bockheim , A.N. Gennadiyev
a
Department of Soil Science, UniÕersity of Wisconsin, 1525 ObserÕatory DriÕe, Madison, WI
53706-1299, USA
b
Faculty of Geography, M.V. LomonosoÕ Moscow State UniÕersity, Moscow 119899, Russia
Received 10 March 1999; accepted 21 September 1999

Abstract

Modern soil taxonomic systems, including Soil Taxonomy ŽST. and the World Reference Base
ŽWRB. for Soil Resources, classify soils using diagnostic horizons, properties, and materials.
Although these systems are based on genetic principles, the approaches used have de-emphasized
the role of soil processes in soil taxonomic systems. Meanwhile, a consideration of soil processes
is important for understanding the genetic underpinnings of modern soil taxonomic systems and
developing quantitative models of pedogenic systems. Seventeen generalized soil-forming pro-
cesses are identified, briefly discussed, and linked to soil taxa and diagnostic horizons, properties,
and materials in ST and the WRB. The processes are illustrated in simple diagrams and include:
Ž1. argilluviation, Ž2. biological enrichment of base cations, Ž3. andisolization, Ž4. paludization,
Ž5. gleization, Ž6. melanization, Ž7. ferrallitization, Ž8. podzolization, Ž9. base cation leaching,
Ž10. vertization, Ž11. cryoturbation, Ž12. salinization, Ž13. calcification, Ž14., solonization, Ž15.
solodization, Ž16. silicification, and Ž17. anthrosolization. The implications of soil-forming
processes on present and future soil classification systems and pedogenic models are discussed.
q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: pedology; soil genesis; soil classification; soil processes; soil taxonomy; soil taxon-
omy; World Soil Reference Base

)
Corresponding author. Fax: q1-608-265-2595.
E-mail address: bockheim@facstaff.wise.edu ŽJ.G. Bockheim..

0016-7061r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 6 - 7 0 6 1 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 0 8 3 - X
54 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

1. Introduction

During the first half of the twentieth century, soil classification systems paid
considerable attention to soil-forming processes, beginning with the pioneering
efforts in 1903 of Dokuchaev Ž1948. and including soil classification systems
used in the USA from 1927 until the late 1950s Ž Marbut, 1927; Baldwin et al.,
1938. ŽFig. 1.. However, starting with the ‘‘Seventh Approximation’’ Ž Soil
Survey Staff, 1960. and culminating with Soil Taxonomy Ž ST. ŽSoil Survey
Staff, 1975. , soils in the USA and in countries adopting ST were classified with
quantitative properties, particularly morphological properties, delineated as diag-
nostic epipedons and horizons. Soil-forming processes were de-emphasized and
kept in the background.
A similar approach was used by the FAO-UNESCO Ž 1974. and more recently
in the World Reference Base ŽWRB. for Soil Resources ŽFAO, 1998. . In Russia,
soil taxonomic systems are converging with ST and the WRB as reflected in
schemes by Fridland Ž1982., Shishov and Sokolov Ž1990. and Shishov et al.
Ž1997. that emphasize soil properties Žsee Gennadiyev et al., 1995, 1996. .
However, some Russian, European Ž e.g., Aubert, 1968; Avery, 1973. and
Australian ŽIsbell, 1996. soil classifications continue to emphasize the soil-pro-
cess approach.
The movement away from an emphasis on soil processes was predicated on
the assumption that soil properties result from soil processes and are more
readily quantifiable than soil processes Ž Arnold, 1983. . Moreover, soil processes
were considered to be poorly understood, and specific pedogenic processes

Fig. 1. Historical development of global soil taxonomic systems. Note: soil classification in the
USA proceeded from a property approach to a soil-process approach and then back to a property
approach with the advent of the Seventh Approximation. Traditionally from a process approach,
soil classification in Russia has moved to a combined processrproperties approach ŽSibertsev,
1901; Whitney, 1909; Coffey, 1912; Gerasimov et al., 1939; Ivanova, 1956; Rozov and Ivanova,
1967; Glazovskaya, 1972..
 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72 55

occur simultaneously in a given soil, reinforcing or contradicting one another

ŽSimonson, 1959. . It was also assumed that polygenesis likely has occurred in
most, if not all soils, making genetic interpretations difficult. As soil-forming
factors change, soil-forming processes change, resulting in a change in soil taxa.
An additional criticism of soil classification systems based on soil processes is
that they often contain insufficient taxa to satisfactorily delineate global soils.
One of the creators of ST, Smith Ž 1983, p. 43., emphasized: ‘‘The genesis per
se, cannot be used to define soil taxa and meet this objective. The processes that
go on can rarely be observed or measured. Nevertheless, the genesis of soils is
extremely important both to the taxonomy of soils and to the mapping in the
field. Genesis is important to the classification partly because it produces the
observable or measureable differences that can be used as differentiae. Genesis
does not appear in the definitions of the taxa but lies behind them.’’
Arnold Ž1983. viewed the terms podzolization, calcification, solodization,
laterization, and so forth, as ‘‘simplifications’’ of processes leading to horizon
differentiation. Simonson Ž 1959. proposed that these terms be replaced with the
terms additions, removals, translocations, and transformations. He postulated
that these generalized processes cause horizon differentiation in most if not all
soils. He suggested that it is the relative importance of the processes that
governs horizonation in soil profiles. In our opinion, these terms are too general
and are even more vague than the soil-forming processes and give little
soil-specific information on pedogenesis.
While the current approach in ST has some merit with regards to the applied
aspects of a classification system Ž i.e., soil survey, soil interpretations, etc.. , in
our opinion it has de-emphasized research and teaching of soil-forming pro-
cesses. Cline and Johnson Ž1963. described the ‘‘genetic threads’’ in ST,
suggesting that the choice of morphological characteristics for a category was
based on an understanding of how these characteristics represented specific
kinds or degrees of pedogenic processes. Despite these apparent ‘‘threads’’, few
efforts have been made to link soil-forming processes with soil taxa. Perhaps the
greatest criticism of the approach used in ST and the WRB is that diagnostic
epipedons and horizons within a profile are not linked, i.e., the soil taxonomic
systems are based on separate diagnostic horizons rather than the linkage of
horizons in a soil profile ŽDuchaufour, 1998. . For example, the ‘‘genetic signal’’
or driving variables enabling accumulation of organic matter or weathering
products in the diagnostic horizons are not identified.
The quantitative pedological approach, in which gains, losses, transfers, and
transformations of soil constitutents and the soil processes involved are eluciated
via chemical mass-balances Ž Chadwick et al., 1990; Brimhall et al., 1991; Jersak
et al., 1995. and the in situ solution chemistry approach ŽUgolini and Dahlgren,
1987. have enhanced our understanding of soil-forming processes.
Specific soil processes are determined by the soil-forming factors and are
expressed in diagnostic horizons, properties, and materials, which are then used
56 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

™ ™
to classify soils: soil-forming factors soil-forming processes diagnostic
horizons, properties, materials soil taxonomic system.
™
There are several advantages to a process-related emphasis in soil classifica-
tion. A process emphasis is useful as a framework for explaining the concepts of
soil classification, i.e., to show the genetic ‘‘threads’’ of diagnostic horizons and
taxa. Secondly, a process emphasis is consistent with modern quantitative
techniques in pedology, e.g., chemical mass balance and in situ solution
chemistry. Thirdly, a process emphasis enables forecasting of long-term bio-
spheric changes. For example, much of the current research in global earth
systems in which the pedosphere is recognized as a key part is process-oriented
ŽLevine et al., 1993; Lovelock, 1993; Kutzbach et al., 1996.. In addition,
mechanistic models of pedogenesis ŽLevine and Ciolkosz, 1986; Hoosbeek and
Bryant, 1992; Phillips, 1993. require an understanding of soil processes. Finally,
a process emphasis in soil classification is consistent with sustainable manage-
ment of soil resources. Accordingly, the objective of this paper is to identify the
key soil-forming processes and their relationship to soil taxa and diagnostic
horizons, properties, and materials and to illustrate these processes in simple
diagrams.

2. Approach

We reviewed the published literature on soil-forming processes and examined

models of Rode Ž1947., Simonson Ž1959, 1975. , Gerasimov and Glazovskaya
Ž1960., Yaalon Ž1960, 1975., Arnold Ž 1965. , Dijkerman Ž 1974. , Huggett Ž 1975,
1998., Pedro Ž1983., Rozanov Ž 1983. , Smeck et al. Ž 1983. , Beckmann Ž 1984. ,
and Johnson and Watson-Stegner Ž1987. . In general, these models recognize
soil-forming processes at three levels. The highest level considers generalized
processes that delineate soils from other sub-systems of the biosphere Ž Rode,
1947; Furley and Newey, 1983.. The second level is dependent on inputs,
outputs, transfers Žor translocations. , and transformations of energy and matter
ŽSimonson, 1959., refers to specific soil-forming processes Ž macroprocesses. ,
and is the focus of this paper. The third level emphasizes soil ‘‘micro-processes’’
or specific processes such as N fixation, oxidation and reduction of Fe and Mn,
ionic substitutions, and other chemical, physical and biological processes and
reactions that are not considered in this paper.
We listed the 12 orders in ST and the 30 soil groups in the WRB, identified
the diagnostic horizonrmaterials used to delineate the orders or soil groups, and
listed specific soil-forming processes important to the formation of these hori-
zonsrmaterials using terminology of Byers et al. Ž 1938. , Gerasimov Ž 1975. ,
Duchaufour Ž 1982. , Zonn Ž1995., and Buol et al. Ž 1997. . Finally, we prepared
simplified diagrams to depict these processes using specific symbols for accu-
mulation, removal, and other special conditions.
 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72 57

3. Results

Of the 12 soil orders in ST, one ŽMollisols. is identified on the basis of an

epipedon and five are recognized by special materials or properties: Andisols
Žandic properties. , Histosols Ž histic materials. , Spodosols Ž spodic materials. ,
Vertisols Ž slickensides, wedge-shaped aggregates, cracks. , and Gelisols Ž gelic
materials. Ž Tables 1 and 2.. Four orders are identified on the basis of diagnostic
horizons: Oxisols Žoxic horizon. and Aridisols Žnatric, calcic or petrocalcic,
gypsic or petrogypsic, salic, argillic, or duripan.; Alfisols and Ultisols both have
argillic horizons, but the former is base-rich and the latter is base-depleted. Of
the remaining two orders in ST, Inceptisols may have a cambic horizon or a
histic, mollic, plaggen or umbric epipedon; Entisols have minimal soil develop-
ment but may have a diagnostic epipedon.
With the exception of the weakly developed Leptosols, Arenosols and
Regosols, soil groups in the WRB Ž FAO, 1998. also are defined by diagnostic
horizons, properties, or materials ŽTable 3..
Each of the soil taxonrdiagnostic horizonrpropertiesrmaterials in ST or the
WRB may be described by a dominant and specific soil-forming process that
can be defined so as to be reasonably well understood by users of these soil
taxonomic systems. For example, Spodosols must contain spodic materials that
are a manifestation of the podzolization process. This process involves ‘‘evi-
dence that organic materials and aluminum, with or without iron, have been
moved from an eluvial to an illuvial horizon’’ ŽSoil Survey Staff, 1998, p. 26..
Although the podzolization process is not completely understood, most pedolo-
gists agree on the key aspects of the process.
This approach is no different than that of establishing limits for diagnostic
horizons, materials, or properties. For example, a Spodosol may have andic-like
properties and Andisols may have spodic-like characteristics. However, the
criteria for spodic properties and andic properties and the sequence in which
they are keyed out place distinct limits on the boundaries of Spodosols and
Andisols. The same is true of soil processes Ž Table 2. . Andisolization is the
dominant process in Andisols, but it is a subsidiary process to podzolization in
the andic subgroup of Spodosols.
We identified 17 specific soil processes as related to thediagnostic
horizonrpropertyrmaterial used to delineate the 12 orders in ST and the 30 soil
groups in the WRB Ž Tables 1–3. . These processes are briefly described below
and are illustrated in Fig. 2.

3.1. ArgilluÕiation

Argilluviation, also known as lessivage Ž Duchaufour, 1998. , refers to the

movement of clay in the solum. The argillic horizon must contain a minimum
clay increase relative to the eluvial horizon or an underlying horizon and show
 58
Table 1
Soil-forming processes in relation to diagnostic horizons, properties, and materials by order in Soil Taxonomy
Soil order Diagnostic horizon, Soil-forming processes Representative
properties, material horizon sequence

J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

Alfisol argillic horizon argilluviation ArErBtrC
Žhigh base status. biological enrichment of base cations
Andisol melanic epipedon andisolization ArBwrC
andic properties
Aridisol natric horizon solonization, solodization ArEgrBtnrBkrByrC
calcic, petrocalcic horizon calcification ArBkmrCk
gypsic, petrogypsic horizon calcification ArCymrCy
argillic horizon argilluviation ArErBtrCk
duripan silicification ArBrCqm
salic horizon waridic soil moisture regimex salinization AzrCz
Histosol histic materials paludization OirOarOe
Mollisol mollic epipedon melanization ArBtrC
Žhigh base status. biological enrichment of base cations
Oxisol oxic horizon ferrallitization ArBorCr
Spodosol spodic materials placic horizon podzolization OarErBhrBsrC
albic horizon base cation leaching
Ultisol argillic Žlow base status. argilluviation base cation leaching ErBtrC
Vertisol Žslickensides, cracks. vertization ArCss
Gelisol gelic materials cryoturbation OrBgjjrCf
Inceptisol cambic Žplus others. weak soil formation ArBwrC
Entisol Žnone. very weak soil formation ArC
All orders Žexcept reductimorphic features gleization ArBgrCg
Aridisols. waquic soil moisture regimex
ŽNone. anthropic, plaggen horizons anthrosolization AprBwrC
Table 2
Occurrence of 16 secondary soil macro-processes in taxa of Soil Taxonomy a
Process Generalized soil- Soil taxa
forming processb
Argilluviation 3 Alfisols; Ultisols; Aridisols ŽArgids.; argi- great groups of Aridisols,

J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

Mollisols; kandi- great groups of Oxisols, alfic subgroups of Spodosols
Biological enrichment of bases 3 Alfisols; Mollisols; eutric great groups of Inceptisols
Andisolization 4 Andisols; andic subgroups of Spodosols
Paludization 1, 4 Histisols; histic great groups of Gelisols
Gleization 4 Aqul-suborders of all orders except Aridisols and Gelisols;
Aqu- great groups of Aridisols and Gelisols
Melanization 3 Mollisols; Inceptisols ŽUmbrepts.; umbr- great groups of Alfisols and
Ultisols; hum- great groups of Inceptisols
Ferrallitization 4 Oxisols
Podzolization 3, 4 Spodosols; spodic subgroups of Entisols and Andisols
Base cation leaching 2 Spodosols; Ultisols; dystr- great groups of Inceptisols and Vertisols
Vertization 3 Vertisols; vertic subgroups of Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Mollisols and Ultisols
Cryoturbation 3 Gelisols
Salinization 3 Aridisols ŽSalids.; hal- great groups of Inceptisols; sal- great groups of
Aridisols and Vertisols
Calcification 3 Aridisols ŽCalcids, Gypsids.; calcic great groups of Aridisols, Mollisols, and
Vertisols; gypsic great groups of Aridisols and Vertisols
Solonization 3 natric great groups of Alfisols, Aridisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols
Solodization 3 natric great groups of Alfisols and Mollisols
Silicification 3, 4 Aridisols ŽDurids.; dur- great groups of Alfisols, Andisols, Inceptisols,
Mollisols, Spodosols, and Vertisols
Anthrosolization 1 Entisols ŽArents.; Inceptisols ŽAnthrepts.; anthropic subgroups of Aridisols,
Inceptisols
a
Bold face denotes primary occurrence of a soil-forming process.
b
1s Addition to soil; 2 s loss from soil; 3s translocation within soil; 4 s transformation of material within soil Žafter Simonson, 1959; Buol et al.,
1997..

59
 60
Table 3
Soil-forming processes in relation to diagnostic horizons, properties, and materials by soil group in WRB ŽFAO, 1998.
Number Soil group Diagnostic horizon, Soil-forming processes Representative
properties, material horizon sequence
1 Histosols histic or folic horizon paludization H1–H2–H3

J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

2 Cryosols cryic horizon cryoturbation O–Bg–Ci
3 Anthrosols hortic, irragric, plaggic, terric, or anthrosolization Ap–Bw–Ahb–Bwb
anthraquic horizon, or anthro-
pedogenic horizons, or anthro-
pogeomorphic soil materials
4 Leptosols mollic, ochric, yermic, or Žvery weak soil formation. O–Cck
vertic horizon
5 Ventisols vertic horizon vertization Ah–Bwck–Ck
6 Fluvisols fluvic soil materials Žfresh fluviatile, marine, or Ah–Bg–Cg–2Ahb
lacustrine sediments.
7 Solonchaks salic horizon salinization Ahz–Bzy–Czy
8 Gleysols gleyic properties gleization Ah–Bg–Cg
9 Andosols vitrandic or andic horizon andisolization Ah–Bw–C
10 Podzols spodic horizon podzolization Eh–Bs–BC–C
11 Plinthosols petroplinthic or plinthic horizon podzolization, gleization Ah–Bsg–BCg
12 Ferralsols ferralic horizon ferrallitization Ah–Bw–BC–C
13 Solonetz natric horizon solonization, solodization Ah–Btn–C
14 Planosols an eluvial horizon argilluviation, gleization Ah–Eg–2Btg
15 Chernozems mollic horizon melanization Ah–Bk–Ck
16 Kastanozems mollic horizon, calcic horizon melanization, calcification Ah–Bw–Ck
17 Phaeozems mollic horizon melanization Ah–Bw–C
18 Gypsisols gypsic or petrogypsic horizon, calcification Ah–Byk–Cyk
gypsic materials
19 Durisols duric or petroduric horizon silification A–Bw–Cqm
20 Calcisols calcic or hypercalcic horizon calcification Ah–Bwk–Ck
 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72 61

Fig. 2. Diagrams illustrating 17 key soil processes as related to the 12 orders in Soil Taxonomy
Ž1998. and the 30 soil groups in the WRB Ž1998..

evidence of clay movement ŽBuol and Hole, 1961. . Argilluviation is a major

process in Alfisols Ž) 35% base saturation. and Ultisols Ž- 35% base satura-
tion. but also may occur in Mollisols, Aridisols ŽArgids., kandic great groups of
Oxisols, and alfic subgroups of Spodosols ŽTable 2.. Lesser degrees of this
process may occur in Gelisols, Inceptisols and other soil orders. Defined
similarly as the argillic horizon, argic horizons occur in several soil groups of
the WRB, including Albeluvisols, Nitisols, Luvisols, and Lixisols ŽTable 3. .
62 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

3.2. Biological enrichment of base cations

Vegetation plays an important role in maintaining the base-cation ŽCa, Mg, K,

and Na. content of Alfisols and Mollisols Ž Laudelot and Robert, 1994; Quideau
et al., 1996.. Grasses and temperate deciduous forest types are especially
effective in taking up and returning large amounts of base cations in litterfall,
throughfall, stemflow, and belowground processes such as root exudation and
fine-root turnover ŽDuvigneaud and Denaeyer-DeSmet, 1970. . Alfisols and
Mollisols require that the base-cation content be G 35% and G 50%, respec-
tively, in a defined portion of the solum. A weak version of biological
enrichment of base cations is evident in eutric great groups of Inceptisols Ž Table
3.. In the WRB, Luvisols and Lixisols are enriched in bases ŽTable 3..

3.3. Andisolization

Andisolization results in soils whose fine-earth fraction is dominated by

amorphous compounds. Andisols must have andic properties, which include
high amounts of acid-oxalate-extractable Al and Fe, a low bulk density, a high
phosphate retention, and in allophanic soils an abundance of volcanic glass.
These soils are referred to as Andisols in ST and Andosols in the WRB ŽTables
2 and 3.. The in situ solution chemistry approach has been especially effective
in distinguishing between andisolization and podzolization Ž Ugolini et al., 1988;
Dahlgren et al., 1991. . As mentioned previously, andisolization is a subsidiary
process in andic subgroups of Spodosols.

3.4. Paludization

This term pertains primarily to the deep Ž) 40 cm. accumulation of organic

matter Žhistic materials. on the landscape usually in marshy areas. Most soils
featuring paludization are in the Histosol order Ž ST. or soil group Ž WRB. , but
soils containing histic materials - 40 cm occur in the Gelisol and Inceptisol
orders of ST Ž Tables 2 and 3.. Ripening is a sub-process of paludization and
refers to chemical, physical and biological changes following drainage and
aeration of organic materials ŽPons and Van Der Molen, 1973. .

3.5. Gleization

Gleization Ž hydromorphism. refers to the presence of aquic conditions often

evidenced by reductimorphic or redoximorphic features such as mottles, gleying,
etc. ŽBouma, 1983; Blume and Schlichting, 1985. . The effect of reduction and
oxidation processes has focused on iron and mangenese compounds since these
result in visible morphological features that have been used for predicting
soil-moisture regimes. Gleization is recognized in aquic suborders of 10 of the
 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72 63

12 soil orders in ST and at the great group level in Aridisols and Gelisols Ž Table
2.. In the WRB, gleization occurs in Gleysols and in some Plinthosols and
Planosols ŽTable 3..

3.6. Melanization

Some soils are characterized by the accumulation of well-humified organic

matter within the upper mineral soil. In ST and the WRB, these soils often have
either a mollic or a umbric epipedon. In ST, these horizons have at least 0.6%
organic C and be G 18 cm in thickness Ž Soil Survey Staff, 1998. . Where soils
subject to melanization are base-enriched, the humus accumulation is reflective
of a mollic epipedon ŽMollisols.; where bases are depleted, the soils have an
umbric epipedon Ž Table 2. . Additional soils showing melanization include
umbric great groups of Alfisols and Ultisols and humic great groups of
Inceptisols. In the WRB, mollic horizons occur in Chernozems, Kastanozems,
and Phaeozems; and umbric horizons exist in Umbrisols Ž Table 3..

3.7. Ferrallitization

Soils of the inter-tropical regions undergo a series of processes in which in Al

and Fe are concentrated and Si is lost in the profile as a result primary and
secondary mineral weathering Ž Righi et al., 1990. . Duchaufour Ž 1982. envi-
sioned this process as containing three phases, including fersiallitization, ferralli-
tizatiion, and ferrugination. These three phases are characterized by an increas-
ing degree of weathering of primary minerals, an increasing loss of Si, and an
increased dominance of secondary clays from incongruent dissolution. Ferralliti-
zation is preeminent in Oxisols but also occurs in Ultisols Ž Ferralsols and
Acrisols in the WRB. ŽTables 2 and 3..

3.8. Podzolization

Podzolization is a complex collection of processes that includes eluviation of

base cations, weathering transformation of Fe and Al compounds, mobilization
of Fe and Al in surface horizons, and transport of these compounds to the spodic
ŽBs. horizon as Fe and Al complexes with fulvic acids and other complex
polyaromatic compounds Ž Ugolini and Dahlgren, 1987; Ugolini et al., 1988;
Gustafsson et al., 1995. . Weaker degrees of podzolization occur in spodic
subgroups of Entisols and Andisols Ž Table 2. . In the WRB, podzolization occurs
in Podzols and in Plinthosols Ž Table 3. . Podzolization is distinguished from
ferrallitization in that the Fe and Al complexed with organic acids is transported
in the solum, whereas with ferrallitization, the Fe and Al are residual and are
accompanied by strong desilication.
64 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

3.9. Base-cation leaching

The process is the opposite of biological enrichment of base cations and

involves eluviation of Ca, Mg, K, and Na from the solum under extreme
leaching conditions Ž e.g., Homann et al., 1992. , primarily in Ultisols and
Spodosols and in dystric great groups of Inceptisols and Vertisols Ž Table 2. and
in Alisol and Lixisol soil groups in the WRB ŽTable 3..

3.10. Vertization

Vertization, or vertisolization Ž Duchaufour, 1998. , represents a collection of

sub-processes occurring in Vertisols in which the soil, comprised of at least 60%
smectitic clay, undergoes shrinking and swelling that is evident at the landscape,
pedon, and microscopic levels Ž Wilding and Tessier, 1988. . The shrinking and
swelling leads to cracking, wedge-shaped aggregates tilted 108 to 608 from the
horizontal, and slickensides that are reflective of the vertization process. Vertic
subgroups of Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Mollisols, and Ultisols feature vertiza-
tion ŽTable 2.. In the WRB Vertisols contain a vertic horizon ŽTable 3..

3.11. Cryoturbation

In permafrost-affected soils Ž Gelisols., cryoturbation or frost stirring is mani-

fested by irregular and broken horizons and textural bands, involutions, organic
matter accumulation on the permafrost table, oriented stones, silt caps and
accumulations, and deformed soil material associated with movements due to
ice- and sand-wedge growth Ž Bockheim and Tarnocai, 1997. . These features are
an integral component of gelic materials or a cryic horizon which must occur in
Gelisols ŽBockheim et al., 1997; Soil Survey Staff, 1998. and Cryosols Ž FAO,
1998., respectively ŽTables 2 and 3. .

3.12. Salinization

Nowadays, salinization is often used to describe human-caused increases in

soluble salts in soils and surface waters as a result of ‘‘desertification.’’ From a
soil genesis standpoint, salinization refers to the collection of sub-processes that
enable the accumulation of soluble salts of Na, Ca, Mg, and K as chlorides,
sulfates, carbonates, and bicarbonates. In general, these salts are more soluble
than gypsum in cold water, which may be concentrated in a salic horizon.
Salinization is a dominant process in Aridisols ŽSalids., halic great groups of
Inceptisols, and salic great groups of Aridisols, and Vertisols Ž Table 2. . Saliniza-
tion is a predominant process in Solonchaks in the WRB Ž Table 3. .
 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72 65

3.13. Calcification

Calcification refers to the accumulation of secondary carbonates and gypsum

in semi-arid and arid soils ŽHarper, 1957; Buol, 1964; Rabenhorst and Wilding,
1986. or the redistribution of carbonates in soils of more humid regions
ŽSchaetzl et al., 1996.. The CaCO 3 or CaSO4 P 2H 2 O initially fills micropores
but over millennia may result in a strongly cemented petrocalcic or petrogypsic
horizon ŽGile et al., 1965. . Calcification occurs in Calcids, calcic great groups of
Aridisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols, Gypsids, and gypsic great groups of Aridis-
ols and Vertisols ŽTable 2. . In the WRB, calcification occurs in Gypsisols,
Calcisols, and in some Kastanozems Ž Table 3..

3.14. Solonization

Also referred to as alkalization, this process occurs when soils subject to

salinization are drained Ž Kovda et al. 1979; Munn and Boehm, 1984. . The
excess soluble salts are leached out, the colloids under the influence of Na
become dispersed, and a strongly alkaline reaction develops. Solonization is
dominant in natric great groups of Alfisols, Aridisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols of
ST ŽTable 2. and in Solonetzes of the WRB ŽTable 3..

3.15. Solodization

This process involves argilluviation of the dispersed colloids as manifested by

the development of an acid A horizon with very little colloidal material over a
clay-enriched Btn horizon. Solodization is evident in natric great groups of
Alfisols and Mollisols ŽTable 2. and in Solonetzes of the WRB ŽTable 3. .

3.16. Silicification

Silicification refers to the secondary accumulation of Si, often from a

seasonal high water table in arid to humid regions. The Si may be cemented into
a material called a duripan Ž Chadwick et al., 1987; Blank and Fosberg, 1991. ,
which is common in Durids, a suborder of Aridisols, and in duri-great groups of
Alfisols, Andisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Spodosols, and Vertisols Ž Table 2. .
Silification is recognized in Durisol soil group in the WRB Ž FAO, 1998. .

3.17. Anthrosolization

This process is a collection of geomorphic and pedologic processes resulting

from human activities that includes deep working, intensive fertilization, addi-
tions of extraneous materials, irrigation with sediment-rich waters, and wet
cultivation Ž Kosse, 1990. . In ST, anthrosolization is recognized in Entisols
ŽArent suborder., Inceptisols Ž Anthrept suborder. , and in anthropic subgroups of
66 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

Aridisols and Inceptisols Ž Table 2. . A separate soil group, the Anthrosols, is

recognized in the WRB ŽTable 3.; Anthrosols are recognized as a soil order in
the Australian system ŽIsbell, 1996.. In the WRB, Anthrosols must contain a
hortic, irragric, plaggic, terric, or anthraquic horizon, or anthrogeomorphic soil
materials.

4. Discussion

4.1. Soil processes in relation to soil classification

All of the major processes identified by Gerasimov Ž 1975. , Duchaufour

Ž1982., Zonn Ž1995. , and herein can be linked with taxa at the highest categories
in ST Žorder, suborder. and WRB Žsoil group. ŽTables 1 and 3.. Although five
processes, argilluviation, biological enrichment of bases, gleization, silicifica-
tion, and anthrosolization, are dominant in two or more ordersrsoil groups, the
other 12 processes are specific to a single high-level soil taxon.
In our analysis, we did not identify a process depicting primary mineral
weathering. In our view, primary mineral weathering occurs in most if not all
soils and is a byproduct of the 17 key soil-forming processes. Primary mineral
weathering is strongly associated with the processes of andisolization Ž weather-
ing of allophanic materials or production of nonallophanic secondary materials. ,
gleization Žproduction of reduced forms of Fe- and Mn-bearing minerals, e.g.,
lepidocrocite, maghemite, and goethite. , ferrallitization Ž intense weathering
characterized by production of gibbsite and kaolinitic minerals. , podzolization
Žrelease of Fe and Al from breakdown of Fe-bearing minerals. , and silicification
Žrelease and reordering of Si during weathering of silicate minerals. .
We examined the 17 key soil-forming processes in relation to Simonson’s
Ž1959. fourfold categorization of generalized soil-forming processes: additions,
losses, translocations, and transformations Ž Table 2. . Only two of the processes,
paludization and anthrosolization, are described partially on the basis of addi-
tions of material. With paludization the additions are in the form of organic
matter, but the process also includes the subprocess ‘‘ripening’’ Ž Pons and Van
Der Molen, 1973., which involves a chemical transformation or breakdown in
organic materials. Anthrosolization involves additions by humans of fertilizers,
sediment- and salt-rich irrigation water, as well as deep working or physical
transformation of materials.
Only one of the processes is strongly expressed by a loss from the soil,
base-cation leaching, which is pronounced in Spodosols, Ultisols, and dystric
great groups of Inceptisols and Vertisols Ž Table 2. . Ten of the processes involve
a translocation or transfer of soil materials such as clay Ž argilluviation. , base
cations Ž biological enrichment of bases. , Fe and Al oxides and hydroxides
 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72 67

Žpodzolization., and salts Ž salinization, calcification, solonization, and solodiza-

tion., or the formation of wedge-shaped aggregates during vertization.
Finally, six of the processes involve transformations, i.e., a change in
chemical form. The transformations include the formation of type A humic acids
Žandisolization., ripening of organic materials Žpaludization. , transformations of
Fe and Mn under reducing conditions Ž gleization. , formation of an oxic horizon
by breakdown of primary minerals into gibbsite and kaolinite Ž ferrallitization. ,
formation of spodic materials Ž podzolization. , and release of silica from silicate
weathering resulting in the formation of a duripan Ž silicification. .

4.2. Soil processes and soil eÕolution

Changes in soil-forming factors during soil evolution result in changes in

soil-forming processes that lead to new soil taxa. For example, Bockheim et al.
Ž1996. reported the following changes in soil-forming processes during soil
succession on tectonically uplifted marine terraces in coastal Oregon, USA.
Andisols formed under coastal grasslands were converted to Spodosols as the
terraces were uplifted, positioned further from the coast, and underwent succes-
sion to Picea sitchensis forest. The development of ortstein layers and placic
horizons during Spodosol formation resulted in restricted water movement
which led to ferrolysis Ž ferrallitization. . Finally, the ortstein layer was broken up
by windthrow of trees and other physicochemical processes, and the soil
materials underwent further transformations until Ultisols containing up to 50%
clay in the Bt horizon were formed. These findings confirm that soil processes
are dynamic and change in response to changes in environmental factors.
However, changes in soil-forming processes and soil taxa can occur during
soil development under conditions of environmental stability. For example,
dominant processes in mountain meadow and forest soils of the central Caucasus
Mountains in Russia during the first 1000 to 1500 years were successively
argilluviation, melanization, and podzolization ŽGennadiyev, 1990. . These dif-
ferent soil-forming regimes caused soil taxonomic differences.
In contrast to soil classification systems based on soil processes, those
systems based on soil properties are static and unable to accomodate changes
from environmental or human causes.

4.3. Soil processes and future soil classification systems

Global soil classifications systems such as ST and the WRB are becoming
increasingly complex and difficult for persons other than experts to use.
Soil-forming processes not only provide the ‘‘genetic signal’’ for these systems,
but also they are a simplification of these complex systems. A general knowl-
edge of the major soils and an appreciation for their diversity and relation to the
soil-forming factors can be gained through an understanding of the 17 key
soil-forming processes.
68 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72

As with any taxonomic system, it is important to classify the units according

to their properties. However, the linkages Ž ‘‘pedogenic organisation’’, Isbell,
1996. among diagnostic horizons, properties and materials within a soil profile
can only be understood in terms of soil-forming processes Ž Duchaufour, 1998. .
Perhaps the approaches used in developing ST and the WRB have moved too far
to the right ŽFig. 1. so that the genetic underpinnings of these systems are no
longer apparent. Future global soil classification systems could emulate the
French ŽAubert, 1968; Duchaufour, 1998. and Australian ŽIsbell, 1996. systems
that achieve more of a balance between the process and properties approaches.
For example, the French soil classification scheme recognizes 12 soil classes
each of which is characterized by a dominant process Ž Duchaufour, 1998. .

4.4. Soil processes and models

Early pedogenic models were basically either based on soil-forming factors

ŽHuggett, 1975; Yaalon, 1975. or generalized soil-process, i.e., additions, re-
movals, transfers, and transformations ŽSimonson, 1959; Runge, 1973. . Com-
puter simulation models of pedogenic systems treat the soil as a single compart-
ment and use equations to describe micro-processes influencing the soil Ž Kline,
1973.. For example, Levine and Ciolkosz Ž 1986. developed a two-horizon
computer model to simulate leaching and acidification processes occurring in the
solid phase of soils of humid, temperate climates. Gennadiyev and Svetlosanov
Ž1994. proposed a logistic equation for describing changes in soilforming
processes during soil evolution.

5. Summary

We identified 17 soil-forming processes and linked them with diagnostic

horizons, properties, and materials at the highest categories in ST Ž soil order,
suborder. and the WRB Ž soil group. . The processes are depicted in simple
diagrams that not only illustrate the diversity of global soils but also show the
‘‘genetic underpinnings’’ and enhance the understanding of complex soil taxo-
nomic systems.

Acknowledgements

This manuscript benefitted from discussions with R.D. Hammer, K. Mc-

Sweeney, and R.W. Arnold and insightful reviews by R.J. Huggett and A.E.
Hartemink.
 J.G. Bockheim, A.N. GennadiyeÕr Geoderma 95 (2000) 53–72 69

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