CHAPTER 1

THE COMPUTER
Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter student should be able:

 Course Overview
 Basic Computer concept & Its Types
 CPU & Its Functionality
 Operating System History & Its Types

An Overview of the computer system

What is Computer?
A computer generally means a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a
computer are: it responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a
prerecorded list of instructions (a program).

All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

 memory
 mass storage device
 input device:
 output device
 central processing unit (CPU

In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work
together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of
the computer to another.

Types of computers / 4 kinds of computer:

 Microcomputers
 Minicomputers
 Mainframe computers
  Supercomputers

Microcomputers
Microcomputers are least powerful computers and the most widely used them and fastest growing
type at computer. There are 2 categories of microcomputers desktop and portable.

Desktop computers
Desktop computers are small enough to fit on top or along the side of a desk and yet are too big to
carry around.

Personal computers
Personal computer is one type of desktop. These machines run comparatively easy-to-use application
software. They are used by a wide large of individuals, from clerical people to managers.

Workstations
Workstations are another type of desktop computer. Generally, these machines are more powerful.
They are designed to run more advanced application software. Workstations are used by engineers,
scientists, and others who process lots of data. The principal reason is that personal computers are
now nearly as powerful as workstations are able to run many of the same programs.

Portable computers
Portable computer are microcomputers that are small enough and light enough to move easily from
one place to another. There are 2 categories of portable computers:
a) Notebooks
b) Personal digital assistants

Notebooks

Weigh between 5 and 10 pounds and can fit into most briefcases. The user of a notebook personal
computer might be a students, salesperson or journalist who uses the locations where electrical
connections are not available. Notebook computers are the most popular portable computer today

Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)

Are much smaller than even the notebooks. Also known as palmtop computers and handheld PCs,
these devices combine pen input, writing recognition, personal organisational tools, and
communications capabilities in a very small package. A PDA user might be a worker at a warehouse
who records changes in inventory or a busy executive handling daily communications.

Minicomputers

Minicomputers also known as midrange computers are desk-sized machines. They fall between
microcomputers and mainframes in their processing speeds and data-storing capacities. Medium-size
companies or departments of large companies typically use them for specific purposes. Example,
they might use them to do research or to monitor a particular manufacturing process. Smaller-size
companies typically use minicomputers for their general data processing needs, such as accounting.
Mainframe Computers

Mainframes are large computers occupying specially wired,

air-conditioned rooms. They are capable of great processing
speeds and data storage. They are used by large organizations -
businesses, banks, universities, and government agencies - to
handle millions of transactions. Example, the insurance
companies use mainframes to process information about
millions of policyholders.

Supercomputers

The most powerful type of computer is the supercomputers. These machines are special, high-
capacity computers used by very large organizations. Example, National Semiconductor (NS) used
supercomputers to track and control spare explorations. Supercomputers are also used for oil
exploration, simulations, and worldwide weather forecasting.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU stands for Central processing unit. It is also known as microprocessor or processor. A CPU is
brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and processes. Regarding computing power, the
CPU is the most important element of a computer system. The CPU is consisted of thin layers of
thousands of transistors. Each transistor receives a set of inputs and produces output. Transistors hold
a key role in functioning of CPU as they make computer able to count and perform logical operations
which is called processing. It processes the instructions that it collects by decoding the code in
programs. Computers use two types of storage: Primary storage and secondary storage. The CPU
mainly interacts with primary storage or main memory, referring to it for both instructions and data.

There are four important functions of CPU,

1) Fetch
2) Decode
3) Execute
4) Write back

Fetch

All the instructions are stored in memory. Each instruction has is address. The processor takes this
address number from the program counter. Program counter is responsible for tracking what
instructions CPU should execute next. So fetching basically means taking the instruction from the
memory.

Decode

CPU understands instructions, that are written in Assembly programming language. All the programs,
that must be executed, are translated to Assembly instructions. Different CPUs understand different
instructions, so Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions which are understandable to
your CPU. This step is called decoding.

Execute

During the procedure of instruction execution, tree things can be done. Firstly, CPU can do some
calculations. To execute calculations ALU is used. Secondly, CPU can move data from one memory
location to another. And thirdly, CPU can jump to different address if it is
needed. So basically, one of those three options is executed during this step.

Store

CPU must give some feedback after executing the instruction. The output
data is written to the memory. In this phase program counter is incremented.

Main Components of CPU

The main components of CPU help it in performing various functions. The

components of a CPU work together, and their making / manufacturing determine the complexity of
operations as well as how fast they can be carried out.

The three components of the CPU are following,

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

2. Control Unit
3. Registers
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

There is electronic circuitry in arithmetic logic unit which executes all arithmetic and logical
operations. Its function is obvious from its name. It performs arithmetic calculations like as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division as well as comparisons. The unit can compare numbers,
letters, or special characters. There can be more than one Arithmetic logic unit in a CPU, and these
ALUs can also be used for the purpose of maintaining timers that help run the computer.

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the best known form of Computer Memory. The Read and write
(R/W) memory of a computer is called RAM. The User can write information to it and read
information from it. With Ram any location can be reached in a fixed ( and short) amount of time
after specifying its address.

The RAM is a volatile memory, it means information written to it can be accessed as long as power is
on. As soon as the power is off, it cannot be accessed. so this mean RAM computer memory
essentially empty. RAM holds data and processing instructions temporarily until the CPU needs it.

RAM is considered “random access” because you can access any memory cell directly if you know
the row and column that intersect at that cell. RAM is made in electronic chips made of so called
semiconductor material, just like processors and many other types of chips. In RAM, transistors make
up the individual storage cells which can each “remember” an amount of data, for example, 1 or 4 bits
– as long as the PC is switched on. Physically, RAM consists of small electronic chips which are
mounted in modules (small printed circuit boards). The modules are installed in the PC’s motherboard
using sockets – there are typically 2, 3 or 4 of these.

There are two basic types of RAM:

(i) Dynamic Ram

(ii) Static RAM

Dynamic RAM loses its stored information in a very short time (for milli sec.) even when power
supply is on. D-RAM’s are cheaper & lower. Similar to a microprocessor chip is an Integrated Circuit
(IC) made of millions of transistors and capacitors.

In the most common form of computer memory, Dynamic Memory Cell, represents a single bit of
data. The capacitor holds the bit of information – a 0 or a 1. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the
control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state. A capacitor is like a small
bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with
electrons.

To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitor’s bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of
a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the
CPU or the Memory Controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors holding it before
they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This
refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.
This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically
refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it
takes time and slows down the memory.

Static RAM uses a completely different technology. S-RAM retains stored information only as long
as the power supply is on. Static RAM’s are costlier and consume more power. They have higher
speed than D-RAMs. They store information in Hip-Hope.

In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell
takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. This makes static
RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM. However, because it has more parts, a static memory
cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, you get less memory
per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive. Static RAM is fast and expensive, and
dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. Static RAM is used to create the CPU’s speed sensitive
cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger system RAM space.

Some other RAMS are:

EDO (Extended Data Output) RAM: In an EDO RAMs, any memory location can be accessed.
Stores 256 bytes of data information into latches. The latches hold next 256 bytes of information so
that in most programs, which are sequentially executed, the data are available without wait states.

SDRAM (Synchronous DRAMS), SGRAMs (Synchronous Graphic RAMs) These RAM chips use
the same clock rate as CPU uses. They transfer data when the CPU expects them to be ready.

DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate – SDRAM): This RAM transfers data on both edges of the clock.
Therefore the transfer rate of the data becomes doubles.

ROM : Read only memory: Its nonvolatile memory, i.e., the information stored in it, is not lost even
if the power supply goes off. It’s used for the permanent storage of information. It also possess
random access property. Information cannot be written into a ROM by the users/programmers. In
other words the contents of ROMs are decided by the manufactures.

The following types of ROMs a listed below:

PROM: It’s programmable ROM. Its contents are decided by the user. The user can store permanent
programs, data etc. in a PROM. The data is fed into it using a PROM programs.

EPROM: An EPROM is an erasable PROM. The stored data in EPROM’s can be erased by exposing
it to UV light for about 20 min. It’s not easy to erase it because the EPROM IC has to be removed
from the computer and exposed to UV light. The entire data is erased and not selected portions by the
user. EPROM’s are cheap and reliable.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM): The chip can be erased & reprogrammed on the board
easily byte by byte. It can be erased within a few milliseconds. There is a limit on the number of times
the EEPROM’s can be reprogrammed, i.e.; usually around 10,000 times.
Flash Memory: It’s an electrically erasable & programmable permanent type memory. It uses one
transistor memory all resulting in high packing density, low power consumption, lower cost & higher
reliability. It’s used in all power, digital cameras, MP3 players etc.

Control Unit (CU)

There is circuitry in the control unit which uses electrical signals to instruct the whole computer
system for carrying out or executing, already stored program instructions. Its name clearly shows that
it controls and co-ordinates computer components. It extracts instructions from memory and decodes
and executes them. In fact it regulates the flow of information through the processor. In short, it can
be said, this component receives, decodes, stores results and manages execution of data that flows
through the CPU. Its communication with both arithmetic unit and memory is inevitable.
Registers/The Memory Unit

Registers are temporary storage areas which are responsible for holding the data that is to be
processed. They store the instructions and data in a processor. This data is further used by Control
Unit. There are some registers that are set aside for specific tasks; these generally include a program
counter, stack, and flags.

DEFINITION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system is a set of programs that schedule tasks, allocates storage and presents a default
interface to the user between applications. Many of the first operating systems were device-dependent
and proprietary.

The functions of the operating systems are:

 starting a computer
 providing a user interface
 managing data and programs
 managing memory
 configuring devices

A History of Operating Systems

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a
great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.
Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in
1951.
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor
was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor
was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still
generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over
the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts
for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from
a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed
for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run
many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in
the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computer from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas
of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though
there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel
processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum
computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years
to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Types of Operating system

As computers have progressed and developed so have the operating systems. Below is a basic list of
the different operating systems and a few examples of operating systems that fall into each of the
categories. Many computer operating systems will fall into more than one of the below categories.

GUI
Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics and icons and is
commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. See the GUI definition for a complete definition.
Below are some examples of GUI Operating Systems.

System 7.x, Windows 98, Windows CE

Multi-user
A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the same time
and different times. See the multi-user definition for a complete definition for a complete definition.
Below are some examples of multi-user operating systems.

Linux, Unix, Windows 2000

Multiprocessing
An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer processor. Below
are some examples of multiprocessing operating systems.

Linux, Unix, Windows 2000

Multitasking
An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the same time.
Below are some examples of multitasking operating systems.

Linux, Unix, Windows 2000

Multithreading
Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently. Operating
systems that would fall into this category are:

Linux, Unix, Windows 2000