A Project Report on

DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER IN ACTIVE

PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRTY

A Report submitted in partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

By
J. BHARATH KUMAR (15331A0820)
P. JEEVAN KUMAR(15331A0837)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Mr. G.SANTHOSH KUMAR (M.Tech)

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

MAHARAJ VIJAYARAM GAJAPATHI RAJ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(A)

VIZIANAGARAM

2018-2019
 MAHARAJ VIJAYARAM GAJAPATHI RAJ
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (A),VIZIANAGARAM
(Affiliated to JNTU Kakinada)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled “DESIGN OF HEAT

EXCHANGER IN ACTIVE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY” is a
bonafide record of work carried out by “J.BHARATH KUMAR (15331A0820),
P.JEEVAN KUMAR (15331A0837)”, submitted to the faculty of “Department Of
Chemical Engineering”, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
the degree of Bachelor of Technology in “Chemical Engineering” at MAHARAJ
VIJAYARAM GAJAPATHI RAJ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING during the
academic year (2018-19).

Mr.G.Santhosh Kumar Dr.CH.V.Subba Rao

Assistant Professor Head of Department
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We feel so privileged to thank Mr. P. Ravi Teja Reddy, Plant head, ADMIRON LIFE
SCIENCES PRIVATE LTD., Visakhapatnam for providing us a great opportunity to do our
project work. We also thank them for providing us the necessary technical support required for
our project.

We express our gratitude to our project supervisor, Mr. G. SANTHOSH KUMAR, Assistant
Professor, M.V.G.R College Of Engineering, Vizianagaram, for his wholehearted co-operation,
unfailing inspiration and valuable guidance. We are very much indebted to him for suggesting
this project and for his valuable advice, encouragement and guidance at every stage of this
project report.

We wish to express our thanks to Dr. Ch. V. SUBBARAO, Head of the department, for giving
us an opportunity to do internship in ADMIRON LIFE SCIENCES and his valuable
suggestions for the successful completion of the project.

We are thankful to our beloved principal Dr. K.V.L.RAJU for providing the necessary
infrastructure to carry out our project.

We are very grateful to all the faculty members of the Chemical Department for their valuable
suggestions and support during our project work.

Finally, we would especially like to thank our parents for their encouragement and moral
support.

Project Associates

J. BHARATH KUMAR (15331A0820)

P. JEEVAN KUMAR (15331A0837)

 CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO.

CERTIFICATE -

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT -

CONTENTS i

LIST OF FIGURES iii

LIST OF TABLES iv

NOMENCLATURE v

ABSTRACT vii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 PLANT INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 PRODUCTS 5

CHAPTER 2

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

2.1 FLOW DIAGRAM 6

2.2 MATERIAL BALANCES 18

2.3 ENERGY BALANCES 19

i
CHAPTER 3

EQUIPMENT DESIGN

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER 21

3.2 THERMAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 25

3.2.1 SHELL 25

3.2.2 TUBE 25

3.2.3 TUBE PITCH, TUBE-LAYOUT & TUBE-COUNT 26

3.2.4 TUBE PASSES 26

3.2.5 TUBE SHEET 26

3.2.6 BAFFLES 27

3.2.7 FOULING CONSIDERATIONS 27

3.2.8 SELECTION OF FLUID FOR TUBE & SHELL SIDE 29

3.3 PROCESS DESIGN PROCEDURE 30

3.4 DESIGN PROBLEM 32

CHAPTER 4

4.1 SAFETY CONDITIONS 41

4.2 PROCESS TROUBLE SHOOTING 45

CHAPTER 5

5.1 CONCLUSION 47

5.2 REFERENCES 49

ii
 LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO.

Fig 1.1 SITE LAYOUT 3

Fig 2.0 FLOW DIAGRAM 6

Fig 2.1 STAINLESS STEEL REACTOR 7

Fig 2.2 GLASS LINED REACTOR 8

Fig 2.3 REACTOR AND IT’S PARTS 10

Fig 2.4 CENTRIFUGE FILTER 12

Fig 2.5 TRAY DRYER 14

Fig 2.6 ROTOCONE VACUUM DRYER 15

Fig 2.7 MULTI MILLER 16

Fig 2.8 SHIFTER 17

Fig 3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER 22

Fig 3.2 FIXED-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 24

Fig 3.3 FLOATING-HEAD HEAT EXCHANGER 24

Fig 3.4 REMOVABLE U-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 24

Fig 3.5 HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE LAYOUTS 27

Fig 3.6 BAFFLES 28

Fig 3.7 CORRECTION FACTOR GRAPH 33

Fig 3.8 2-4 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 34

iii
 LIST OF TABLES PAGE NO.

Table 1.1 CLEANING SOLUTIONS FOR EQUIPMENTS 4

Table 1.2 COLOR CODING OF PIPES 5

Table 3.1 FEATURES OF SHELL AND TUBE TYPE EXCHANGERS 23

Table 3.2 COMMON TUBE LAYOUTS 26

Table 3.3 TYPICAL VALUES OF FOULING CO EFFICIENTS AND

RESISTANCES 29

Table 3.4 GUIDELINES FOR PLACING THE FLUID IN ORDER OF

PRIORITY 29

iv
 NOMENCLATURE

A Heat transfer area ft2

ΔT Temperature Difference ºF

CP Specific Heat Capacity KJ/Kg

Q Energy balance BTU/hr

FT Correction Factor -

NT Number of tubes -

UD overall heat transfer coefficient BTU/h-ft2-ºF

UC Clean overall coefficient BTU/h-ft2-ºF

L Length of tube ft

at Surface area of tube ft2

Gt Mass velocity of tube lb/ft2-h

Tavg Average temperature ºF

Ret Reynold’s number -

D0 outer diameter of tube ft

Di inner diameter of tube ft

µ Viscosity lb/ft-s

jH J factor -

k Thermal conductivity BTU/h-ft2-ºF

v
hi Tube side heat transfer coefficient BTU/h-ft2-ºF

ho Shell side heat transfer coefficient BTU/h-ft2-ºF

f friction factor -

S Specific gravity -

ΔPT Pressure drop in tube psi

ΔPs Pressure drop in shell psi

ρ Density of fluid lb/ft3

as flow area of shell ft2

B Baffle spacing ft

C’ Clearance ft

PT Tube pitch ft

Gs mass velocity of shell side lb/ft2-h

De Equivalent diameter ft

Res Reynolds number -

Rd Dirt factor h-ft2-ºF/BTU

vi
 ABSTRACT

The Project Report presents the “Design of Heat Exchanger in Active Pharmaceutical Industry”
and with various steps involved in the process of API manufacturing which relates all the
operations involved.

Admiron Life Sciences Pvt. Ltd. is engaged in production of drugs (API’s). Process Equipment
means Equipment required when using physical or chemical methods for mechanical and
thermal treatment and processing of a raw material or product. In Chemical Engineering,
process design is the choice and sequencing of units for desired physical and/or chemical
transformation of materials. Process design is central to chemical engineering, and it can be
considered to be the summit of the field, bringing together all of the field’s components.

Design of Heat Exchanger, Heat Exchanger is a device to transfer heat between two or more
fluids. Heat Exchangers are used in both cooling and heating processes. The fluids may be
separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger, Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers are the most commonly used
in industries. The shell and tube heat exchanger which is the majority type of liquid-to-liquid
heat exchanger is used as a feed water cooler in process industries, refineries, chemical plants
and power plants. It is necessary to operate heat exchanger at optimum condition which serves
high thermal efficiency in allowable condition and low running cost. This research is about
shell and tube heat exchangers optimal thermal design, construction and performance.

vii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 PLANT INTRODUCTION:

ADMIRON LIFE SCIENCES PVT. LTD. :

 Admiron Life Sciences established in 2010 by a team of scientists who had a passion towards
chemistry & to ensure a better health to everyone.
 Admiron Life Sciences Private Limited is API (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients)
manufacturing facility.
 “Admiron Life Sciences is a unique API and Advance Intermediates manufacturer; approved
and admired by many regulatory authorities and customers globally. We pride ourselves on
being known by our customers for our quality, highly reliable and reputed partner for
innovation and complex chemistry.”
 Admiron Life is committed to maintain best Quality standards in Research & Development and
Manufacturing of pharmaceutical products.
 Well-equipped standalone Research and Development lab with 5 professional scientists with
strong knowledge of chemistry.

ACTIVE PHARMACEUTICAL INGREDIENTS:

API i.e. Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient is ;
“Any substance or mixture of substances intended to be used in the
manufacturing of drug product and that, when used in the production of a drug, becomes an
active ingredient for that drug product.
Such substances are intended to furnish pharmacological activity or other
direct effect in the diagnosis, cure, treatment or prevention of disease or to effect the structure
and function of body.”
Any drug is composed of two components.
The first is itself “Actual API”. The main part in the drug substance which is
main ingredient. The second is “Excipient”
API’s produced here are used to cure many diseases like cancer, thyroids and other ailments
1
after their formulation. In order to produce these API’s the industry accommodates:
Four Production blocks(PB-1 to PB-4)
o Depending upon the clients requirement these production blocks are used to process
API’s in different batches.
Research & development centre
o Carries out research activities on various drugs.

Quality Control & Quality Assurance

o It is the combination of quality assurance, the process or set of processes used to
measure and assure the quality of a product, and quality control, the process of ensuring
products and services meet consumer expectations. Quality assurance is process
oriented and focuses on defect prevention, while quality control is product oriented and
focuses on defect identification.
Water treatment plant
o It improves the quality of water to make it more acceptable for a specific end-use. The
end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, cooling, laboratory purposes or many
other uses, including being safely returned to the environment. Water treatment removes
contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the
water becomes fit for its desired end-use.
Ware house
o They usually have loading docks to load and unload goods from trucks. Stored goods
can include any raw materials, packing materials, spare parts, components, or finished
goods associated with manufacturing, and production.

Utilities section [N2 gas separation plant, Chiller, Air Handling Unit (AHU) and Boiler house]

o In a pharmaceutical industry, critical utilities like water and HVAC (Heating,

Ventilation and Air Conditioning) systems form the backbone of the manufacturing
process. The primary use of a utility system is to help pharmaceutical companies check
the quality and safety of their products. Without meeting these requirements, a product
may fail to be cleared for marketing.
The company carries out its production at three different stages, at four different production
block namely (PB1 to PB4), at first stage of production chemical reaction takes place later this
2
product is moved for second stage where drying and milling operation take place. Now
moisture free product is sent to packing area, where the products are packed using packaging
materials such as:
o Transparent LDPE bags
o Black LDPE bags
o HDPE container
o Triple laminated aluminum bag

SITE LAYOUT:

Fig.1.1site layout of ADMIRON LIFE SCIENCES

3
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

While packing necessary precautions are taken like purging of nitrogen in HDPE bags
for avoiding oxidation and microbial growth.

After charging the reactants, the empty HDPE bags should be immersed in an anti-static
solution to avoid electrostatic charge development which can further lead to fire hazard.

Quickly clear up all spillages.

Label containers correctly.

Wear eye protection.

Not wear clothing that exposes the skin.

Regularly check that glassware is not cracked and that all equipment is safe to use.

Operating conditions should not exceed the set temperatures and pressures to maintain
product quality.

Also the operating conditions should not exceed the working temperatures and pressures
to prevent leakages or explosion of the equipment.

To avoid any product impurities and electrostatic charges developed inside the equipments,
they should be timely cleansed with following solutions before and after their use:
S.No Equipment Before use After use
1 Stainless steel reactor

2 Leaf filter Isopropyl alcohol

Purified water &
3 Glass lined reactor
methylene dichloride
4 Centrifuge

5 Vacuum tray dryer Methanol

6 Multi mill Ethyl acetate

7 Vibro sifter

Table 1.1Cleaning solutions for equipments

4
1.2 PRODUCTS:

 ETROCOXIB
 DOBUTAMINE
 CHLOROSULON
 LEVOCETIRIZINE
 PROZOLE
 PREGABLIN

S.NO Material flowing inside the pipe Color code of the pipe
1 Room temperature water dark green
2 Hot water Red
3 Air White
4 N2 gas Yellow
5 Toluene Lime
6 Ethyl alcohol Sky blue
7 Methanol Cream
8 Isopropyl alcohol Sea green
9 Acetone Light blue
10 Diesel Black

Table 1.2 . color coding of pipelines

For quick identification of pipelines they are painted with different colors.

5
 CHAPTER 2
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
2.1 FLOW DIAGRAM

RAW MATERIALS

REACTOR(REACTION)

FILTRATION

DRYING

MILLING

SHIFTING

PRODUCT

Fig 2.0 FLOW DIAGRAM

EQUIPMENTS USED IN PRODUCTION:
REACTOR:
Reactor is an equipment. It is a closed vessel. It is used to react two or more components or
materials are converted into products with in a suitable or required temperature & pressure. A
Chemical reaction is a process that results in the conversion of chemical substances. The
substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants. A reactor
consists of a tank with an agitator, jacket and integral heating/cooling system.
Reactors are designed based on features like mode of operation or types of phases present or the
geometry of reactors
They are manually fabricated in two types:-
1. Stainless steel reactor
2. Glass lined reactor

6
Stainless steel reactor: In this reactor used a non-corrosive chemicals. The stainless steel
reactor is made by spraying glass powder which contains high concentrations of silica onto the
internal surface of a steel vessel. After reasonable high temperature sintering, the glass powder
firmly adheres to the metal surface, forming a composite material product. The close-type
stainless steel reactor consists of the lid and tank which can be separated. There are sealing
gaskets between the lid and the tank, and the two are fixed by camps.
It is a the best equipment for hydrolysis, neutralization, crystallization, mixing and
emulsifying, the stainless steel reactor is widely used in the chemical, petroleum,
pharmaceutical, pesticide ,food, dye, and other industries.

Fig2.1.Stainless steel Reactor

Glass Lined Reactor:

The glass-lined equipment is a pressure vessel whose main body is made of high quality
carbon steel its lined with special ciliate glass by fritting at a high temperature. It is
irreplaceable with stainless steel, engineering plastic and other alloy steel under a certain
medium and temperature at corrosion resistance. It is also indispensable and economic and
good corrosion resistance equipment.
Properties of glass lined reactor
Type of acid:
Glass lining is resistant to virtually all-acid solution at all concentration up to 130o c
and in many cases up to 200o c or higher. Exception are aqueous fluoride containing solutions
are hot concentrated phosphoric acid.
7
TEMPERATURE:
At ambient temperature, most acid have little effect on glass lining. In most acids
changes in corrosion rate are insignificant up to 121oc.
CONCENTRATION:
Maximum corrosion rate ranges up to concentration approximately 40%. At
concentration above 40% acids corrosion rate usually begin to decrease.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS:
Specific gravity: 2.5-2.7
Specific heat: 835 J/KG.k
Compressive strength: 800-1000 N/m2
Glass thickness: 3 to 2 mm.

Fig 2.2. Glass Lined Reactor

REACTOR PARTS:

Agitator: The usual agitator is a centrally mounted drive shaft with an over head drive unit.
Impeller blades are mounted on the shaft. A wide variety of blade designs are used and
typically the blades cover about two thirds of the diameter of the reactor.
Agitator types:
Anchor: This simple agitator consists of a shaft and an anchor type propeller and can be
mounted centrally or at an angle. It is mainly used in reactors.
8
Propeller: Propellers (marine) give an inlet and outlet which are on axial direction, preferably
downward, they are characterized by a nice pumping flow, low energy consumption and low
shear magnitude as well as low turbulence.
Turbine: Turbines (flat blades or pitched blades) which inlet flow is axial and outlet flow is
radial will provide shearing, turbulence and need approximately 20 time more energy than
propellers, for the same diameter and same rotation speed.

Jacket: It is a utility storage part. It is surrounding the reactor and it is covered by insulation.
The jacket have a pressure indicator and temperature indicator. It is have utility outlet and inlet
connections near the top and bottom.
Man hole: It is a head of the reactor. It is used to charge the raw material into the reactor and
man entering into the reactor. It is used to see the inner part of the reactor and mass in the
reactor. It is used to take the samples and cleaning purpose.
Motor & Gear box: To rotate the impeller in a reactor, a motor is to provide with a shaft which
is coupled with reactor according to the reactor design.
Gearbox: It is top side have motor and bottom is connected to the shaft of the agitator. It is
used to rotate the impeller or agitator.
Nitrogen line: It is used to reduce the oxygen content in the reactor. In the reactor have a sum
of the reactions by adding the some chemicals. There have a chance to raise the fire or any
dangerous. It is prevented by using the nitrogen line.
Atmospheric vent: In the reactor have any waste gases and vapors are vent through a
atmospheric vent.
Temperature indicator: It is used to know the temperature of the mass in the reactor and
utility in the jacket.
Pressure indicator: It is used to know the pressure buildup in the reactor and steam pressure in
the jacket.
Solvent lines: It is a addition lines to the reactor. The solvent feed to the reactor from holding
tanks, charging tanks and receiving tanks.
Safety valve: A safety valve is a valve mechanism for the automatic release of a substance
from a boiler. Pressure, vessel or other system when the pressure or temperature exceeds preset
limits. It is part of a bigger set named pressure safety relief valve (SRV) or pressure relief valve
(PRV).
9
Thermo well: Thermo well is used in industrial temperature measurement to provide isolation
between a temperature sensor and the environment whose temperature is to be measured. They
are intrusive fittings and are subjected to static and dynamic fluid force. Usually digital thermo
meter connected to a digital display is provisioned.
Baffles: These are stationary blades which break up flow caused by the rotating agitator. These
may be fixed to the vessel cover or mounted on the side walls inner surface of reactor by some
insulation as per required directions of current.

Fig 2.3. REACTOR

FILTRATION:
Filtration is a process whereby solid particles present in a suspension are separated from the
liquid or gas employing a porous medium, which retains the solids but allows the fluid to pass
through. When the proportion of solids in a liquid is less, the term clarification is used. It is a
common operation which is widely employed in production of sterile products, bulk drugs, and
in liquid oral formulation. The suspension to be filtered is known as slurry. The porous medium
used to retain the solids is known as filter medium. The accumulated solids on the filter are
referred as filter cake & the clear liquid passing through the filter is filtrate. The pores of the
10
filter medium are smaller than the size of particles to be separated. Filter medium like filter
paper or muslin cloth is placed on a support. When feed is passed over the filter medium, the
fluid flows through the filter medium by virtue of a pressure differential across the filter.
Gravity is acting on the liquid column. Therefore, solids are trapped on the surface of the filter
medium. After a particular point of time, the resistance offered by the filter cake is high that
stops the filtration.

CENTRIFUGE:
It is an equipment, generally driven by an electric motor. It is rotating around a fixed axis,
applying a force perpendicular to the axis. The centrifuge works using the sedimentation
principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes more dense substances to separate out along
the radial direction. The rotating unit is called rotor, has fixed holes drilled at an angle. The
filter bag placed in inner surface of basket and the rotor is spin. It is used to filter the slurry and
separate the mother liquor. The remaining material in the basket is wet cake. Corrosive
chemicals are used in the halar coating centrifuge and non- corrosive chemicals used in stain
less steel centrifuge.

Loading in the basket:

The centrifuge is filled with a load of solids and liquid as slurry by flowing through a feed pipe
slowly from the reactor bottom valve. All possible precautions should take to ensure good
balance in the machine.
Unloading:
The basket must be stopped and the solids scrapped out with scoop. We must avoid the
damaging of filter screen or cloth but the lining should be free of filter material which will tend
to blind the filter medium.
Washing:
A small vertical pipe projecting in to the basket and fitted with several spray nozzles provide
the best washing device. Reducing the speed of the basket so as to increase the contact period
and reduce the velocity of the wash liquid enhances the effctiveness of this as of all other
washing equipment.

11
 Fig 2.4. CENTRIFUGE

DRYING
Drying is a unit operation in which the moisture content is evaporated with help of hot air or
heat and the final product is normally in the powder form.

SELECTION OF DRYING EQUIPMENT

The first consideration in selecting a dryer is its operability; above all else, the equipment must
produce the desired product in the form at the desired rate. The quality required in a finished
product, and its necessary physical characteristics, are determined by its end use. A tomato
powder, for example, would be made to have different characteristics if it were intended for
beverages use that if it were to be used as tomato paste in spiced cookery.
Despite the variety of commercial dryers on the market, the various types mare largely
complementary, not competitive, and the nature of the drying problem dictates the type of dryer
that must be used, or at least limits the choice to perhaps two or three possibilities. The final
choice is then made on the basis of capital and operating costs. Attention must be paid,
however, to the costs of the entire isolation system, not jus t the drying unit alone. There are
some general guidelines for selecting a dryer, but it should be recognised that the rules are far
from rigid and exceptions not uncommon. Batch dryers, for example, are most often used when
the production rate of dried solid is less than 150 to 200 kg/h; continuous dryers are nearly
12
always chosen for production rates greater than 1 or 2 tons/h. At intermediate production rates
other factors must be considered. Thermally sensitive materials must be dried at low
temperature under vacuum, with a low - temperature heating medium, or very rapidly as in a
flash or spray dryer. Fragile crystals must be handled gently as in a tray dryer, a screen-
conveyor dryer, or two dryer.
The dryer must also operate reliably, safely, and economically. Operation and maintenance
costs must be excessive; pollution must be controlled; energy consumption must be minimised.
As with other equipment these considerations may conflict with one another and a compromise
reached in finding the optimum dryer for a given service.
As far as the drying operation itself is concerned, adiabatic dryers are generally less expensive
than non-adiabatic dryers, in spite of the lower thermal efficiency of adiabatic units.
Unfortunately there is usually a lot of dust carry over from adiabatic dryers, and these entrained
particles must be removed almost quantitatively from the drying gas. Elaborate particle-removal
equipment may be needed, equipment which may cost as much as the dryer itself. This often
makes adiabatic dryers less commercial than a “buttoned-up” non-adiabatic system in which
little or no gas is used.

TRAY DRAYER
Tray drier is an equipment, it consists of a rectangular chamber of sheet metal containing to
trucks that support to trucks that support rakes. Each rack carries a number of shallow trays. It
have a baffles is used to distribute the air uniformly over the stack of trays. Some moister air is
continuously vented through exhaust line, make up fresh air enters through inlet. They can dry
almost anything but because of the man power required for loading and unloading, they
expensive to operate. Drying by circulation of air across stationary layers of solids is low, any
drying cycles are long 4 to 48 hours per batch. They find most frequent application on valuable
products like dyes and pharmaceuticals. Energy savings may be significant however, tray dryers
may be operated within direct heating. The trays may rest on hallow metal plates supplied with
steam or hot water may themselves contain space for a heating fluid. Vapor from the solid is
removed by an ejector or vacuum pump. Freeze-drying is the sublimation of water from ice
under vacuum temperature below. Tray dryers are useful when the production rate is small.

13
 Fig 2.5. TRAY DRYER
ROTO CONE VACUUM DRYER:
The roto cone vacuum dryer is a conical revolving dryer, mixing and drying in one body. It is
equipped with compensator and vacuum pump. The compensator is not used because solvent is
not recover. The design of this machine is advanced and its inner structure is simple. So its
clean is very convenient and the raw materials can be discharged fully and meanwhile when the
cylinder is rotating, the raw material is rotated too, the wall of cylinder cannot be accumulated
on the wall. Its coefficient of thermal transmission is high and the drying speed is high. Not
only it can save energy but also the raw material can be dried fully and uniformly and the
quality of product is high. It can be used wide for pharmaceutical industry, chemical industry,
food stuff industry, dyestuff industry, etc. This dryer is suitable for drying of thermal sensitive
materials easily resolved, polymerized or deteriorated under higher temperature. Sterilization
can be conducted prior to the drying process, during which no matter is allowed to enter the
product. Static vacuum dryer eliminates the configuration damage of the drying materials, there
for widely used in pharmaceutical, chemicals and foodstuff etc. Some moister air is
continuously vented through exhaust line, make up fresh air enters through inlet.

14
 Fig 2.6.ROTOCONE VACUUM DRYER

MILLING:
Milling is a process extensively used by the pharmaceutical, chemical agro-chemical,
pigment and cosmetic industries for the production offline powders. The milling is
suitable for virtually any materials requiting ultra fine grinding, whether in continuous
production. Special linings are available for cohesive and for abrasive material. This is best
suited for heat sensitive material, because the cooling effect of grinding fluid as it expands at
the jets and material remains cool.
The powder is fed at subsonic speeds (approximately 50 m/s) into the flat cylindrical milling
chamber tangentially through a Venturi system using pressurized air or nitrogen.
Once inside the milling chamber the particles are then accelerated by a series of jets
around the perimeter to supersonic speeds (300m/s), in a spiral movement. The micronizing
effect occurs when the slower incoming particles and the faster particles in the spiral path
collide. While centrifugal force retains the larger particles at the periphery of the milling
chamber, the smaller particles exit with the exhaust gas from the centre of the chamber. This
process works at constant temperature (endothermic) and independently with the lowest
consumption of process gas of similarly sized units available on the market.
15
MULTI MILLER:-
Multi Miller is a self contained portable unit useful for high speed GRANULATING,
PULVERISING, MIXING, SHREDDING AND CHOPPING, etc., of a wide range of
wet and dry materials without special attachments.
As compared to the four common principles of size reduction i.e. grinding, compression, impact
and shearing, which often do not produce controlled size reduction, this machine utilises the
principle of variable force swing hammer blades having both knife and impact edges rotating
with a carefully selected screen to control size reduction.
Flow path of material in vertical rotor machine is streamlined. During comminution, material
entering the chamber travels to the periphery and passes through the screen tangentially and
radically, avoiding chocking and temperature rise.

Fig2.7. MULTI MILLER

SHIFTER :
Shifter have a circular unitary gyratory screens used to separate mass composition of solids
from solids, liquid from solid and for gradation of materials as per particle size, having very
wide range applications.
This is accomplished by vibrating the screens in three different planes along the vertical axis
by means of a specially designed vibratory motor having off centered weights at the top and
bottom end of the motor shaft.
The top weight causes vibration in the horizontal plane which causes the material to move
across the screen towards the periphery. The lower weights acts to tilt the machine which
16
 causes vibration in the vertical tangential axis.
The angle of lead of the lower weight with relation to the upper weight provides variable
control of the screening pattern. Thus the material moves across the screens and also in the
vertical and tangential planes enabling maximum screening.
The shifter unit consist of specially designed vibratory motor to run on 400/440V, suitable
HP, 3phase, 50 cycles electric supply, with adjustable eccentric weights at the top and bottom
of the motor shafts mounted vertically at the center of the base plate of screening unit.
Screening unit consists of SS304 screen sandwiched between SS304 hopper and bowl with the
help of special clamp with gasket. This in turn is clamped to the base plate. Rugged springs
placed over the circular motor base amplify the vibration and at the same time restrict the
vibration from being transferred to the floor.

Fig 2.8. SHIFTER

17
2.2 MATERIAL BALANCES
Reactor:
The reactor is charged with HBr and Dobutamine ,total mass of 497 kg
Input is 497 kgs
Reaction mass collected after reaction is 491 kgs
Output is 491 kgs
Accumulation = input-output
Accumulation in reactor = 497-491
A= 6 kgs

Centrifuge:
Mass loaded in basket of centrifuge is 490 kgs
Slurry=490 kgs
After centrifuge
Wet material collected is 63 kgs
Liquid composition = slurry- wet material
= 490-63
= 427 kgs

Drying:
Wet material = 63 kgs
Dry material = 43.5 kgs
𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙−𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
Moisture content removed = ×100
𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
63−43.5
M.C= ×100
63
Moisture content=30.95%

18
 2.3 ENERGY BALANCES
Heating and Cooling Loads of reactor:
 HBr-300L
 Density of HBr-1.49 g/cc
 Mass of HBr- 447kg
 Mass of Dobutamine- 50kg
 Total mass (m)= 497kg

Heating
The reaction mass is heated from 25°c to 125°c
ΔT=125-25=100°C=373K
Cp=1 KJ/Kg-k
m=497Kg
Q=((m×Cp×ΔT)+(m×λ))+ (m×Cp×ΔT)
Q=(497×1×373)+(74.5×2260)+(74.5×100)
Q=185381 KJ+168370KJ+7450KJ
Q=361201KJ
Energy required for 4hrs
Q=361201×4
Q=1444804KJ
Q=332317 Kcal

amount of steam required :

Q=mλ
Where ,
Q=332317 Kcal
m= mass of the steam
λ=540cal (latent heat of steam)
Q=mλ
332317=m×540
m=332317/540
19
 m=615 kgs
615 kg of steam is required to provide energy for heating.

Cooling:
The reaction mass is to be cooled to 45°c from 125°c
ΔT=125-45=80°c=353k
Cp=1 KJ/Kg-k
m= 497 kg
Q=m×Cp×ΔT
Q=497×1×80
Q=39760KJ
Q=9503Kcal
For heating we should provide 20% excess of steam
Due to losses in steam lines,
615kg actual steam requirement.
With 20% excess
615
Excess= ×20
100
Excess =130 kgs
Total steam to be supplied to reactor for heating is
Actual + Excess
615+130
745 kgs of steam to be supplied for process to occur and for reaction.

20
 CHAPTER 3
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER
Classification of Heat Exchangers:

Transfer of heat from one fluid to another is an important operation for most of the chemical
industries. The most common application of heat transfer is in designing of heat transfer
equipment for exchanging heat from one fluid to another fluid. Such devices for efficient
transfer of heat are generally called Heat Exchanger. Heat exchangers are normally classified
depending on the transfer process occurring in them. General classification of heat exchangers
is shown in the fig.3.1.
Amongst of all type of exchangers, shell and tube exchangers are most commonly used heat
exchange equipment. The common types of shell and tube exchangers are:
Fixed tube-sheet exchanger (non-removable tube bundle): The simplest and cheapest type of
shell and tube exchanger is with fixed tube sheet design. In this type of exchangers the tube
sheet is welded to the shell and no relative movement between the shell and tube bundle is
possible (fig.3.2).
Removable tube bundle: Tube bundle may be removed for ease of cleaning and replacement.
Removable tube bundle exchangers further can be categorized in floating-head and U-tube
exchanger.
Floating-head exchanger: It consists of a stationery tube sheet which is clamped with the shell
flange. At the opposite end of the bundle, the tubes may expand into a freely riding floating-
head or floating tube sheet. A floating head cover is bolted to the tube sheet and the entire
bundle can be removed for cleaning and inspection of the interior. This type of exchanger is

 in fig 3.3.
shown

U-tube exchanger: This type of exchangers consists of tubes which are bent in the form of a
“U” and rolled back into the tube sheet shown in the fig 3.4. This means that it will omit some
tubes at the centre of the tube bundle depending on the tube arrangement. The tubes can expand
freely towards the “U” bend end.
The different operational and constructional advantages and limitations depending on
21
applications of shell and tube exchangers are summarized in Table3.1. TEMA (USA) and IS:
4503-1967 (India) standards provide the guidelines for the mechanical design of unfired shell
and tube heat exchangers. As shown in the Table 3.1, TEMA 3-digit codes specify the types of
front-end, shell, and rear-end of shell and tube exchangers.

Fig 3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER

22
Table 3.1 FEATURES OF SHELL AND TUBE TYPE EXCHANGERS

23
 Fig3.2 Fixed-tube heat exchanger

Fig3.3 Floating-head heat exchanger

Fig 3.4 Removable U-tube heat exchanger

24
Typical parts and connections shown in fig 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 are summarized below:
1. Shell
2. Shell cover
3. Shell flange (channel end)
4. Shell flange (cover end)
5. Shell nozzle or branch
6. Floating tube sheet
7. Floating head cover
8. Floating head flange
9. Floating head gland
10. Floating head backing ring
11. Stationary tube sheet
12. Channel or stationary head
13. Channel cover
14. Channel nozzle or branch
15. Tube (straight)
16.Tubes (U-type)
17.Tie rods and spacers
18.Transverse (or cross) baffles or support plates
19.Longitudinal baffles
20.Impingement baffles
21.Floating head support
22.Pass partition
23.Vent connection
24.Drain connection
25.Instrument connection
26.Expansion bellows
27.Support saddles
28.Lifting lugs
29.Weir
30.Liquid level connection

3.2 THERMAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The flow rates of both hot and cold streams, their terminal temperatures and fluid properties are
the primary inputs of thermal design of heat exchangers.
Thermal design considerations:
Thermal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger typically includes the determination of heat
transfer area, number of tubes, tube length and diameter, tube layout, number of shell and tube
passes, type of heat exchanger (fixed tube sheet, removable tube bundle etc), tube pitch, number
of baffles, its type and size, shell and tube side pressure drop etc.
3.2.1.Shell
Shell is the container for the shell fluid and the tube bundle is placed inside the shell. Shell
diameter should be selected in such a way to give a close fit of the tube bundle. The clearance
between the tube bundle and inner shell wall depends on the type of exchanger. Shells are
usually fabricated from standard steel pipe with satisfactory corrosion allowance. The shell
thickness of 3/8 inch for the shell ID of 12-24 inch can be satisfactorily used up to 300 psi of
operating pressure.
3.2.2.Tube
Tube OD of “¾ and 1” are very common to design a compact heat exchanger. The most
25
efficient condition for heat transfer is to have the maximum number of tubes in the shell to
increase turbulence. The tube thickness should be enough to withstand the internal pressure
along with the adequate corrosion allowance. The tube thickness is expressed in terms of BWG
(Birmingham Wire Gauge) and true outside diameter (OD). The tube length of 6, 8, 12, 16, 20
and 24 ft are preferably used. Longer tube reduces shell diameter at the expense of higher shell
pressure drop. Finned tubes are also used when fluid with low heat transfer coefficient flows in
the shell side. Stainless steel, admiralty brass, copper, bronze and alloys of copper-nickel are
the commonly used tube materials.
3.2.3.Tube pitch, tube-layout and tube-count
Tube pitch is the shortest centre to centre distance between the adjacent tubes. The tubes are
generally placed in square or triangular patterns (pitch) as shown in the Fig3.5. The widely used
tube layouts are illustrated in Table 3.2.
The number of tubes that can be accommodated in a given shell ID is called tube count. The
tube count depends on the factors like shell ID, OD of tube, tube pitch, tube layout, number of
tube passes, type of heat exchanger and design pressure.
3.2.4.Tube passes
The number of passes is chosen to get the required tube side fluid velocity to obtain greater heat
transfer co-efficient and also to reduce scale formation. The tube passes vary from 1 to 16. The
tube passes of 1, 2 and 4 are common in application. The partition built into exchanger head
known as partition plate (also called pass partition) is used to direct the tube side flow.

Tube OD, inch Pitch type Tube pitch, inch

3/4 Square 1
1 1 1/4
3/4 Triangular 15/16
1 1
Table 3.2 Common tube layouts
3.2.5.Tube sheet
The tubes are fixed with tube sheet that form the barrier between the tube and shell fluids. The
tubes can be fixed with the tube sheet using ferrule and a soft metal packing ring. The tubes are
26
attached to tube sheet with two or more grooves in the tube sheet wall by „tube rolling‟. The
tube metal is forced to move into the grooves forming an excellent tight seal. This is the most
common type of fixing arrangement in large industrial exchangers. The tube sheet thickness
should be greater than the tube outside diameter to make a good seal. The recommended
standards (IS:4503 or TEMA) should be followed to select the minimum tube sheet thickness.

Fig 3.5 Heat exchanger tube-layouts

3.2.6.Baffles
Baffles are used to increase the fluid velocity by diverting the flow across the tube bundle to
obtain higher transfer co-efficient. The distance between adjacent baffles is called baffle-
spacing. The baffle spacing of 0.2 to 1 times of the inside shell diameter is commonly used.
Baffles are held in positioned by means of baffle spacers. Closer baffle spacing gives greater
transfer co-efficient by inducing higher turbulence. The pressure drop is more with closer baffle
spacing. The various types of baffles are shown in Fig 3.6. In case of cut-segmental baffle, a
segment (called baffle cut) is removed to form the baffle expressed as a percentage of the baffle
diameter. Baffle cuts from 15 to 45% are normally used. A baffle cut of 20 to 25% provide a
good heat-transfer with the reasonable pressure drop. The % cut for segmental baffle refers to
the cut away height from its diameter. Fig 3.6 also shows two other types of baffles.
3.2.7.Fouling Considerations
The most of the process fluids in the exchanger foul the heat transfer surface. The material
deposited reduces the effective heat transfer rate due to relatively low thermal conductivity.
Therefore, net heat transfer with clean surface should be higher to compensate the reduction in
performance during operation. Fouling of exchanger increases the cost of (i) construction due to
oversizing, (ii) additional energy due to poor exchanger performance and (iii) cleaning to
27
remove deposited materials. A spare exchanger may be considered in design for uninterrupted
services to allow cleaning of exchanger.
The effect of fouling is considered in heat exchanger design by including the tube side and shell
side fouling resistances. Typical values for the fouling coefficients and resistances are
summarized in Table 3.3. The fouling resistance (fouling factor) for petroleum fractions are
available in the text book

Fig 3.6 BAFFLES

28
 -2 -1 2 -1
Fluid Coefficient (W.m .°C ) Resistance (m .°C.W )
River water 3000-12,000 0.0003-0.0001
Sea water 1000-3000 0.001-0.0003
Cooling water (towers) 3000-6000 0.0003-0.00017
Towns water (soft) 3000-5000 0.0003-0.0002
Towns water (hard) 1000-2000 0.001-0.0005
Steam condensate 1500-5000 0.00067-0.0002
Steam (oil free) 4000- 10,000 0.0025-0.0001
Steam (oil traces) 2000-5000 0.0005-0.0002
Refrigerated brine 3000-5000 0.0003-0.0002
Air and industrial gases 5000-10,000 0.0002-0.000-1
Flue gases 2000-5000 0.0005-0.0002
Organic vapors 5000 0.0002
Organic liquids 5000 0.0002
Light hydrocarbons 5000 0.0002
Heavy hydrocarbons 2000 0.0005
Boiling organics 2500 0.0004
Condensing organics 5000 0.0002
Heat transfer fluids 5000 0.0002
Aqueous salt solutions 3000-5000 0.0003-0.0002
Table 3.3. Typical values of fouling coefficients and resistances
3.2.8.Selection of fluids for tube and the shell side
The routing of the shell side and tube side fluids has considerable effects on the heat exchanger
design. Some general guidelines for positioning the fluids are given in Table 3.4. It should be
understood that these guidelines are not ironclad rules and the optimal fluid placement depends
on many factors that are service specific.

Tube-side fluid Shell-side fluid

Corrosive fluid Condensing vapor (unless corrosive)

Cooling water Fluid with large temperature difference (>40°C)
Fouling fluid
Less viscous fluid
High-pressure steam
Hotter fluid
Table 3.4. Guidelines for placing the fluid in order of priority

29
 3.3.Process(thermal) design procedure
Shell and tube heat exchanger is designed by trial and error calculations. The main steps of
design following the Kern method are summarized as follows:
Step 1.Obtain the required thermo physical properties of hot and cold fluids at the caloric
temperature or arithmetic mean temperature. Calculate these properties at the caloric
temperature if the variation of viscosity with temperature is large. The detailed calculation
procedure of caloric temperature available is in reference.
Step 2.Perform energy balance and find out the heat duty (Q ) of the exchanger.

Step 3.Assume a reasonable value of overall heat transfer coefficient (UD,assm). The value of

UD,assm with respect to the process hot and cold fluids can be taken from the books.

Step 4.Decide tentative number of shell and tube passes ( np ). Determine the LMTD and the

correction factor FT. FT normally should be greater than 0.75 for the steady operation of the

exchangers. Otherwise it is required to increase the number of passes to obtain higher FT

values.
𝑄
Step 5.Calculate heat transfer area (A) required.A= 𝑈𝐷×𝛥𝑇 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

Step 6.Select tube material, decide the tube diameter (ID= di , OD = do ), its wall thickness (in
terms of BWG or SWG) and tube length ( L ). Calculate the number of tubes

( n ) required to provide the heat transfer area (A): n  A

t t  do L
4 m ( n p / nt )
Calculate tube side fluid velocity, u 
d 2
i

If u <1 m/s, fix np so that, Re  4 m ( n p / nt ) 104

 di 

Where, m,  and  are mass flow rate, density and viscosity of tube side fluid. However, this is
subject to allowable pressure drop in the tube side of the heat exchanger.
Step7.Decide type of shell and tube exchanger (fixed tubesheet, U-tube etc.). Select the tube

pitch (PT), determine inside shell diameter ( Ds ) that can accommodate the calculated number

30
of tubes ( nt ). Use the standard tube counts table for this purpose. Tube counts are available in
standard text books.
Step 8.Assign fluid to shell side or tube side (a general guideline for placing the fluids is
summarized in Table 3.4). Select the type of baffle (segmental, doughnut etc.), its size (i.e.
percentage cut, 25% baffles are widely used), spacing ( B ) and number. The baffle spacing is
usually chosen to be within 0.2 Ds to Ds.

Step 9.Determine the tube side film heat transfer coefficient ( hi ) using the suitable form of
Sieder-Tate equation in laminar and turbulent flow regimes.
Estimate the shell-side film heat transfer coefficient ( ho ) from:

h D  c  3 
1
 0.14
jH  o e   
w 
k  k  
You may consider,  1.0
w

Step 10.Calculate the tube-side pressure drop ( PT ): (i) pressure drop in the straight section of
the tube (frictional loss) ( Pt ) and (ii) return loss ( Prt ) due to change of direction of fluid in
a multi-pass exchanger.
Total tube side pressure drop: PT = Pt + Prt
Step 11.Calculate shell side pressure drop ( PS ): (i) pressure drop for flow across the tube

bundle (frictional loss) ( Ps ) and (ii) return loss ( Prs ) due to change of direction of fluid.

Total shell side pressure drop: PS = Ps + Prs.

If the tube-side pressure drop exceeds the allowable pressure drop for the process system,
decrease the number of tube passes or increase number of tubes per pass. Go back to step 6 and
repeat the calculations steps.
If the shell-side pressure drop exceeds the allowable pressure drop, go back to step 7 and repeat
the calculations steps.
Step 12.Upon fulfillment of pressure drop criteria, go mechanical design.

31
3.4. DESIGN PROBLEM:
PROBLEM STATEMENT:
To design a shell and tube heat exchanger to reduce the temperature of n-butanol from 388K to
308K using water.
Tube side Fluid: Hot fluid (n-Butanol)
Shell side Fluid: Cold fluid (Water)
Heat to be removed is obtained from energy balance (Q) =38720 kJ/h=37206btu/h
Units used: FPS (Foot-Pound-Second) system
Hot fluid data (BUTANOL):
Mass flow rate of hot fluid=200 kg/hr=440lb/hr
Inlet temperature (T1) = 388K = 239 °F
Out let temperature (T2) =308K=95°F
Cold Fluid Data (WATER):
Mass Flow rate of cold fluid=200kg/h=440lb/h
Specific heat capacity of water=4.18kJ/kg-k=0.998Btu/lb-°F
Inlet Temperature (t1) =298K=76.7°F
Outlet Temperature (t2) =345K=156.452°F
Here we are taking counter current heat exchanger,
(239−156.45)−(95−76.7)
Calculation of (∆T)LMTD= 82.55
ln( 18.3 )

(∆T)LMTD=42.64°F
Calculation of R & P values:
T1  T2 239−95
R= = 156.45−76.7 =1.805
t2  t1
t2  t1 156.45−76.7
P= = =0.491
T1  t1 239−76.7

FT(Correction Factor) =0.82(from graph)

By using R & S values and FT we choose 2-4 shell and tube heat exchanger,
No of shell passes=2
No of tube passes=4
32
Actual (∆T)LMTD=0.82×42.64°F=34.96°F

Fig 3.7 CORRECTION FACTOR GRAPH

Calorific temperature of hot fluid and cold fluids:

Calculation of UD:
Btu
From literature U D  9
h  ft 2 º F
Calculation of Heat transfer area:
𝑄
A=
𝑈𝐷×𝛥𝑇𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
37206
A= =118.24 ft2
9×34.96
Heattransferarea
NT 
No.of shellside passes  Lengthof thetube( L)  Surface perlinear ft
Heat transfer area=118.24ft2
No of Shell side passes=2
Length of the tube=10’0”
Surface per linear ft(at”)=0.1963ft2

33
 118.24
=NT
2×10×0.1963
NT=30 tubes
For ¾ in OD, 10 BWG pipe“ at”=0.812in2

Figure 3.8: 2-4 Shell and tube heat exchanger

at”(Surface area per inch)=0.1963

Calculation of corrected UD:
Q
UD 
A  (T ) LMTD

Where A= N  Nt  L  a "
A=2×30×10×0.1963
A=117.78 ft2
N (Number of shell side passes)=2
Nt (Number of tubes) =30
L=10’0’’
a’’=0.1963
∴A= 117.78ft2
Q=37206Btu/h

34
 37206 𝐵𝑇𝑈
UD = = 9.03
117.78×34.96 ℎ−𝑓𝑡2−℉
Hot Fluid (Tube Side):
N t  at '
at 
144n
N
t= 30
at’(flow area per tube)=0.182in2
n(Number of tube side passes)=4
30×0.182
at = = 9.479×10-3 ft2
144×4
Mass Velocity (Gt):
w
Gt 
at
440
Gt = =46418.40 lb/ft2
9.479×10−3
At T=Tavg=167ºF
µ=0.4cp=0.4×2.42=0.968lb/ft-s
Reynolds Number (Ret):

D  Gt
Ret 

0.48
D( Innerdiameterof tube) 0.48in   0.04 ft
12
0.04×46418.40
Ret = =1918.10
0.968
L/D = 250
J factor (jH)=10(from graph using Ret and L/D values)

Tube side Pressure drop Calculation:

At Ret=4515.02
Friction factor (f)=0.00035(from graph using Ret)
Specific gravity(s)=0.8057

35
 f  Gt 2  L  n
Pt 
5.22 1010  D  S

Where n=no of tube side passes=4

L= length of tube =10 ft
Gt = mass velocity near tube
f = friction factor

kj BTU
Cp  2.02  0.48 
kg  k lb F
w BTU
k  0.124  0.0716
mk h  ft  F
k cp   13
hi  jH   ( )
D k
0.0716   13
hi  10  ( )
0.04 0.0716
BTU
hi  33.38
h  ft 2  F
ID
hio  hi  ( )
OD
ID  0.48in
OD  0.75in
0.48
hio  33.38  ( )
0.75
BTU
hio  21.36
h  ft 2  F

f  Gt 2  L  n
Pt 
5.22 1010  D  S

0.00035×46418.40²×10×4
ΔPt =
5.22×0.04×0.80×1010
ΔPt =0.018 psi
Gt
u

u=Velocity of fluid in tubes
36
 =Density of fluid=805.7kg/m3=50.298lb/ft3
46418.40
u= =922.86 ft/h
50.298

u2
 Pr  4  n  ( )
2 g

Where n (number of tube side passes) = 4

Acceleration due to gravity=416923200ft/s2
Where ΔP =return pressure drop,

922.86²
ΔPr = 4 × 4× =0.016 psi
2×416923200

Total pressure drop on tube side ( P T) = Pt +  Pr

=0.034psi
Shell Side Calculations:
Cold Fluid-water (Shell side):
Flow area:
1 ID  C ' B
as  
ns 144  Pt
Where ns=No of shell side passes=2
Inner Diameter of Shell (ID) =8in
Baffle spacing (B) =6in
25% cut segmental Baffles,
Clearance (C’)=0.25in
Pitch (PT) =C’+ Tube OD
(PT)=0.25+0.75=1in
1 8  0.25  6
as    0.041 ft 2
2 144 1

Mass velocity of Shell side:

w
GS 
as
37
w=mass flow rate of cold fluid water in shell side=200kg/hr=440lb/hr
as=flow area=0.041ft2
440
Gs = = 107.1 lb/ft2-h
0.041
At T=tavg = 116.575ºF
µ=0.54cp=0.54×2.42=1.306lb/(ft)(h)
Calculation of Shell side equivalent diameter:
Assuming Square pitch,

4  ( PT 2  Dt 2 )
De  4
Dt
Where De =equivalent diameter
PT=pitch
Dt=Outer diameter of tubes.
1  0.75 2
4  (( ) 2    ) )
De  12 4 12  0.076 ft
0.75
( )
12
Calculation of Reynolds Number (Res):
De  Gs
Re s 

0.07 3
Re s 
1.306
Re s  590.81
J factor (jH)=14(From graph using Res)
w Btu
k  0.643  0.371
mk h  ft  F
kj Btu
Cp  4.181  0.998
kg  k lb  F
𝑘 𝐶𝑝 ×𝜇 1/3
h0 = jH× ×( )
𝐷𝑒 𝑘
0.0371 0.998×1.306 1/3
h0 =14× ×( 0.371 )
0.079

38
 𝐵𝑇𝑈
h0 = 99.94
ℎ−𝑓𝑡 2 −℉
Number of Crosses:
12 L
N 1 
B
12  10
N 1   40
6
8
Shell side diameter (Ds)= 8in   0.67 ft
12
Shell side Pressure Drop:
f  Gs 2  Ds  ( N B  1)
Ps 
5.22 1010  De  S
Where f=friction factor
Gs=Mass flow rate across shell side
Ds=Diameter of the shell
De=Equivalent diameter
S=Specific gravity
(NB+1)=Number of crosses

2
ΔPs =0.0035×10731 ×0.667×40
5.22×1010 ×0.079×0.988

ΔPs = 2.61×10-3 psi

Clean overall Coefficient (UC):
1 1
UC  
hio ho
hio  ho
UC 
hio  ho

99.94×21.36
UC =
99.94+21.36
𝐵𝑇𝑈
UC =17.59
ℎ−𝑓𝑡²−℉

39
 Dirt Factor (Rd):
1 1
= + Rd
𝑈𝐷 𝑈𝐶

ℎ−𝑓𝑡²−℉
𝑅 d =0.053
𝐵𝑇𝑈
Design Summary:
1. Type of Heat Exchanger: 2-4 Shell and tube Heat exchanger
2. Number of Shell side passes: 2
3. Number of tube side passes:4
𝐵𝑇𝑈
4. Tube side heat transfer coefficient : 21.36
ℎ−𝑓𝑡²−℉
𝐵𝑇𝑈
5. Shell side heat transfer coefficient:99.94
ℎ−𝑓𝑡²−℉
𝐵𝑇𝑈
6. Clean over all coefficient:17.59
ℎ−𝑓𝑡²−℉
7. Total pressure drop:0.034 psi
ℎ−𝑓𝑡²−℉
8. Dirt factor:0.053
𝐵𝑇𝑈
9. Inside diameter of the shell:8 inches
10. Baffle space:6 inches
11. Baffle cut:25%
12. Number of tubes:30
13. Tube length:10’0’’
14. Tube outer diameter:0.75inches
15. Tube thickness:16 BWG
16. 16. Pitch of the tube:1 inch square pitch

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 CHAPTER 4
4.1 SAFETY CONDITIONS
Heat exchanger safety
The Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Safety. As you are probably aware, a heat exchanger is a
piece of equipment that is used to transfer heat from one medium to another. It goes without
saying that ensuring the safety of a heat exchanger is highly important.
Plate, shell and tube, and air cooled heat exchangers combine to function for a variety of
applications and are prevalent in a number of industries. If you work in an industry that uses
machinery of any type, you probably knowingly or unknowingly work alongside a heat
exchanger on a daily basis. While heat exchangers are incredibly useful and relatively safe to
operate, there are precautions to should be taken when starting, running, and shutting them
down.
Here are a few tips that can help keep you safe when operating a heat exchanger at work.

Safety Tip 1: Follow proper start-up procedures.

When starting up any device that has a heat exchanger, it’s crucial to follow all of the
recommended procedures. Begin by opening the vent connections and gradually circulate the
cold medium first. The whole cold side of the heat exchanger should be flooded before closing
the vents on the cold side.
After this part of the start-up is complete, the hot medium can be slowly introduced until all of
the passages are filled with fluid. The hot side vents can then be closed, and the unit can be
steadily turned up to its operating temperature.
NOTE: If operations are not started slowly, and hot fluid is introduced too quickly, the unit can
become shocked, causing damage and putting the operator in danger. The same is true if cold
fluid is introduced to a hot system. When adding fluids, make sure they flow smoothly into the
heat exchanger with as little pulsating as possible, as pulsating can lead to vibrations and cause
leaks.
Safety Tip 2: Replace damaged equipment.
While certain types of damage can be repaired, other types necessitate buying an entirely new
unit. If you have a plate heat exchanger, it is fairly simple to repair or replace individual plates,
but not all repairs are so easy. Fouling can also typically be repaired, but, depending on the age
41
of your unit, it may or may not be worth what it costs. Cracks, on the other hand, are not as easy
to repair. As a rule, when cracks develop in a heat exchanger, it’s time to get a new one.
Safety Tip 3: Have carbon monoxide detectors installed.
If your facility has a heat exchanger (and it likely does) or any equipment that involves the
transfer of heat, a carbon monoxide detector should be installed on every floor of your building.
Position these carbon monoxide detectors near the areas that people spend the most time to
ensure that the air everyone is breathing in is safe to breathe in.
Safety Tip 4: Limit damage caused by noise.
Noise is often not thought of as a major safety concern, but the damage caused by excessive
noise is a legitimate concern that every business should address. Millions of workers are
affected by excessive noise in the workplace, and they often pay the price with hearing damage
or hearing loss. Companies also pay the price in the form of loss of high-quality employees.
Fortunately, there are ways to limit the ill effects of workplace noise, including giving all
employees exposed to noise personal hearing protection devices, modifying or replacing
equipment, putting a barrier between workers and the noise source, and reducing the amount of
time that people spend near the loudest equipment.
Safety Tip 5: Follow proper shutdown procedures.
Just as starting up a heat exchanger needs to be done a certain way, when it’s time to shut a heat
exchanger down for the day, there is a particular way to do it. Start by turning off the hot fluid.
In some units, it is also necessary to stop the cold fluid from circulating and, if this is the case
with your unit, the hot medium should also be stopped by bypassing the heat exchanger.
It can’t be stressed enough – shutting a heat exchanger down should be taken just as seriously
as starting it up. You don’t want to go home for the day, only to get to work the next day with
damaged equipment to deal with.
PROBLEMS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE IN HEAT EXCHANGERS
The main problems affecting the performance are usually due to one of the following:

+ Fouling

+ Tube vibrations

+ Leakage

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+ Dead Zones

FOULING

This can be generally defined as the precipitation of unwanted material within the heat
exchanger over time which hamper the performance.

The principal types of fouling encountered in process heat exchangers include:

1. Particulate fouling

2. Corrosion fouling

3. Biological fouling

4. Crystallization fouling

5. Chemical reaction fouling

6. Freezing fouling

In the case of corrosion, the surfaces of the heat exchanger can become corroded as a result of
the interaction between the process fluids and the materials used in the construction of the heat
exchanger. The situation is made even worse due to the fact that various fouling types can
interact with each other to cause even more fouling. Fouling can and does result in additional
resistance with respect to the heat transfer and thus decreased performance with respect to
heat transfer. Fouling also causes an increased pressure drop in connection with the
fluid flowing on the inside of the exchanger.

To improve the performance of fouled heat exchangers requires that the tubes be cleaned
periodically. Tube cleaning procedures for shell and tube heat exchangers are performed off-
line, the most frequently chosen and fastest method being mechanical cleaning. Among other
off-line methods is the use of very high pressure water but, since the jet can only be
moved along the tube slowly, the time taken to clean a heat exchanger can
become extended. Chemicals are also used for the off-line cleaning of heat exchanger tubes.
Several mildly acidic products are available and will remove more deposit than most other
methods; but it is expensive, takes longer for the operation to be completed, and the

43
subsequent disposal of the chemicals, an environmental hazard, creates its own set of problems.

TUBE VIBRATIONS

Another problem that often arises in connection with the use of heat exchangers is tube
vibration damage. Tube vibration is most intense and damage is most likely to occur in cross
flow implementations where fluids flow is perpendicular to the tubes, although tube vibration
damage can also occur in non cross flow (i.e. axial) implementations in the case of very high
fluid velocities. Vibration may be eliminated by reducing velocities, decreasing the unsupported
span or, in some cases, by altering the method of fixing or pinning the ends of the unsupported
span.

This problem can cause significant damage to the exchanger if within high limits.

LEAKAGE

Sometimes the fluid of the tube side can leak to shell side or vice versa, This problem can cause
huge production loss.

Leaks may develop at the tube to tube sheet joints of fixed tube sheet exchangers because
differential thermal expansion between the tubes and the shell causes overstressing of the rolled
joints. Or, thermal cycling caused by frequent shutdowns or batch operation of the process may
cause the tubes to loosen in the tube holes. Floating heads or U-bend exchangers would be
considered first for this type of service. If a fixed tube sheet unit is required, an expansion joint
will be specified. An exchanger that will be thermally cycled two or three times a day will
require superior mechanical construction such as the strength welding of tubes to the tube sheet,
complete inspection of the shell and channel welds during fabrication. Welding the tubes to the
tube sheets does not guarantee that a leak will not occur as sometimes weld failure due to
porosity in the welds or just one poorly welded tube out of the hundreds of welds can cause a
leakage. The use of double tube sheets to minimise the chances of leakage between the tube
side and shell side can be a good solution to the problem. Nevertheless, double tube sheet can
cause considerable maintenance problems because the outboard and inboard tube sheets may
be subjected to considerably different process temperatures and this can have differential
expansion between the tube sheets resulting in bending the tubes

44
 DEAD ZONES

Areas that have the flow to minimal or even non existent and usually produce poor heat transfer
and can lead ultimately to excessive fouling.

Existing shell and tube heat exchangers suffer from the fact that they must typically use baffles
to maintain the required heat transfer. This, however, results in “dead zones” within the heat
exchanger where flow is minimal or even non existent. These dead zones generally lead to
excessive fouling. Other types of heat exchangers may or may not employ baffles. If they do,
the same increased fouling problem exists. Further, in heat exchangers fitted with baffles, for
example, the cross flow implementation results in the additional problem of potential damage to
tubes as a result of flow induced vibration. In the case of such damage, processes must often be
interrupted or shut down in order to perform costly and time consuming repairs to the device.

4.2 TROUBLE SHOOTING

The most common methods employed are stream blasting using high-pressure steam lines or
hydro-blasting, using high-pressure water jets, to remove the surface build-up. Neither of these
techniques tend to be 100% successful at removing fouling deposits and surfaces may remain
rough even after treatment.

Fouling also impedes fluid flow, accelerates corrosion and increases pressure drop across heat
exchangers.

Fouling tendencies depends on the type of heat exchanger and the fluids. During the design
stage certain considerations may help minimize fouling experienced in the field:
 If possible, allocate the more fouling fluid to the tube side.
 Design for a fouling fluid velocity of 5 ft/sec on the tube side and 3 ft/sec on the shell side.
 Try to keep the fluid velocity constant.
 Allow for easy access for cleaning.
 In water service, ensure the tube wall temperature is not too high to create salt deposits or
render treatment chemicals ineffective.
 Do not throttle water flows in winter time.
45
 Chemical cleaning techniques range dramatically in the chemicals used and the results that are
gained. This type of cleaning method also features many advantages which are more beneficial
against mechanical repair. These advantages include:
 Quicker cleaning process
 Less labor intensity
 Access to difficult to clean components that mechanical cleaning may struggle to clean
Chemical cleaning solutions provide the opportunity to clean fouling more effectively without
the need to dismantle the heat exchanger. Over all, this speeds up the entire process and allows
the equipment to get back up and operational in a reduced time. This can help to save time and
money associated with taking the system offline for a period of time.

The following steps are generally used in the chemical cleaning procedure:
1. Alkaline clean: Starting with an alkaline clean , this process is designed to remove the
build-up of organic materials, including fats and oils, leaving the surface area of the
equipment exposed and ready for treatment.
2. Rinse: Rinsing should be done following each cleaning step. This is generally
completed using a high flow water flusher. This removes any loose debris, along with
any remaining residue from chemicals used.
3. Acid Cleaning: The surface area of equipment then treated with appropriately mixed
acid blend. This chemical is designed to help dissolve and soften the fouling materials
more successfully.
4. Rinse: Rinsing the equipment again helps to remove any sludge, debris or residual acid
from the heat exchanger after the acid cleaning process
5. Passivation: The passivation process is the final stage of cleaning and is required to help
add a protective coating to the surface area of the base metal components which have
been exposed during the cleaning process. These areas are more vulnerable to oxidation
if they are continuously exposed to open air.

46
 CHAPTER 5
5.1 CONCLUSION
Heat exchanger, Two fluids of different starting temperatures, flow through the heat exchanger.
One flows through the tubes (the tube side) and the other flows outside the tubes but inside the
shell (the shell side). Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other through the tube walls,
either from tube side to shell side or vice versa. The fluids can be either liquids or gases on
either the shell or the tube side. In order to transfer heat efficiently, a large heat transfer area
should be used, leading to the use of many tubes. In this way, waste heat can be put to use. This
is an efficient way to conserve energy.
Heat exchanger is where heat transfer takes place between fluids which are in contact or
separated by a wall. The importance of heat exchanger, heat exchanger is playing dominant
role in oil refineries, pharmaceutical industries and fertilizer industries etc, these are used for
cooling, heating, waste heat recovery.
Heat exchangers are widely used in industry both for cooling and heating large scale industrial
processes. The type and size of heat exchanger used can be tailored to suit a process depending
on the type of fluid, its phase, temperature, density, viscosity, pressures, chemical composition
and various other thermodynamic properties.
In many industrial processes there is waste of energy or a heat stream that is being exhausted,
heat exchangers can be used to recover this heat and put it to use by heating a different stream
in the process. This practice saves a lot of money in industry, as the heat supplied to other
streams from the heat exchangers would otherwise come from an external source that is more
expensive and more harmful to the environment.
Due to the many variables involved, selecting optimal heat exchangers is challenging. Hand
calculations are possible, but many iterations are typically needed. As such, heat exchangers are
most often selected via computer programs, either by system designers, who are
typically engineers, or by equipment vendors.
To select an appropriate heat exchanger, the system designers (or equipment vendors) would
firstly consider the design limitations for each heat exchanger type. Though cost is often the
primary criterion, several other selection criteria are important:
 High/low pressure limits
 Thermal performance
47
 Temperature ranges
 Product mix (liquid/liquid, particulates or high-solids liquid)
 Pressure drops across the exchanger
 Fluid flow capacity
 Cleanability, maintenance and repair
 Materials required for construction
 Ability and ease of future expansion
 Material selection, such as copper, aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel alloys etc.
Shell and tube heat exchangers are widely used in petroleum refineries, pharmaceutical
industries, fertilizer industries and chemical-based industries etc.
Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes which contain fluid that must be
either heated or cooled. A second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so
that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube
bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and
tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with pressures greater
than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260 °C). This is because the shell and tube heat
exchangers are robust due to their shape.

48
 5.2 REFERENCES
1. Hewitt G, Shires G, Bott T (1994), Process Heat Transfer, CRC Press Inc, Florida.
2. Various Types of Gas – Liquid Direct Contact Heat Exchangers (Hewitt G, Shires G & Bott T,
1994)
3. Coulson, J. & Richardson, J. (1983), Chemical Engineering – Design (SI Units), Volume 6,
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
4. Sadik Kakaç; Hongtan Liu (2002). Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating and Thermal
Design (2nd ed.). CRC Press.
5. Saunders, E. A. (1988). Heat Exchanges: Selection, Design and Construction. New York:
Longman Scientific and Technical.
6. Industrial Shell-and-tube heat exchangers; American Industrial Heat Transfer Inc.;
7. Kay J M & Nedderman R M (1985) Fluid Mechanics and Transfer Processes, Cambridge
University Press.
8. Panchal C;B; and Ebert W., Analysis of Exxon Crude-Oil-Slip-Stream Coking Data, Proc of
Fouling Mitigation of Industrial Heat-Exchanger Equipment, San Luis Obispo, California,
USA, p 451, June 1995.
9. Afgan, N. H., and E. U. Schlunder, eds., 1974, Heat Exchangers: Design and Theory
Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill, New York.
10. Andreone, C. F., and S. Yokell, 1997, Tubular Heat Exchanger: Inspection, Maintenance and
Repair, McGraw-Hill, New York.
11. Bott, T. R., L. F. Melo, C. B. Panchal, and E. F. C. Somerscales, 1999, Understanding Heat
Exchanger Fouling and Its Mitigation, Begell House, New York.
12. Chisholm, D., ed., 1980, Developments in Heat Exchanger Technology, Vol. I, Applied Science
Publishers, London.
13. Bryers, R. W., ed., 1983, Fouling of Heat Exchanger Surfaces, Engineering Foundation, New
York.
14. Foumeny, E. A., and P. J. Heggs, eds., 1991, Heat Exchange Engineering, Vol. 1; Design of
Heat Exchangers, Ellis Horwood, London.
15. Hausen, H., 1983, Heat Transfer in Counterflow, Parallel Flow and Cross Flow, McGraw-Hill,
New York.
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