1.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

The English language= West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family that is
closely related to Frisian, German, and Dutch (in Belgium called Flemish) languages.

English language
 the term English is derived from Anglisc, the speech of the Angles—one of the three
Germanic tribes that invaded England during the 5th century
 is the primary language of the United States, the United Kingdom,
Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, and various island nations in the Caribbean
Sea and the Pacific Ocean
 second language in a number of multilingual countries (including India, Singapore, and
the Philippines)
 official language in several African countries (such as Liberia, Nigeria, and South Africa)
 spoken worldwide in 101 countries

English language – spoken worldwide

 today there are about 6,000 languages in the world, and half of the world's population
speaks only 10 of them
 English is the single most dominant of these 10
 it is estimated that about a third of the world’s population, some two billion people, now
use English
 only about 360 million people speak it as their first language
 is the first choice of foreign language in most other countries of the world, and it is that
status that has given it the position of a global lingua franca
 As the language of communications, science, information technology, business,
entertainment and diplomacy, it has increasingly become the operating system for the
global conversation.
 Though the UK’s political and military power was crucial in the 19th and early 20th
centuries and then – as the UK’s empire shrank in the 20th century – rapidly growing
American global influence gave the language a momentum perhaps unique in modern
history.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE - Lingua franca

 is a language or mixture of languages used as a medium of communication by people
whose native languages are different
 also known as a trade language, contact language, international language, and global
language
 English as a lingua franca (ELF) refers to the teaching, learning, and use of the English
language as a common means of communication for speakers of different native languages
 Modern lingua francas may or may not be officially designated as such: the United
Nations employs six official languages (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian,
and Spanish); international air traffic control uses English as a common language; some
multilingual Asian and African countries have unofficial lingua francas
that facilitate interethnic or interregional communication.
 2. BRITAIN: THE FOUR LANDS

BRITAIN GEOGRAPHICAL IDENTITIES

 the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
 short forms ‘UK’ and ‘Britain’ - used for convenience
 part of the British Isles (but more correctly as the British-Irish Islands), which lie off the
north-west coast of continental Europe
 England + Scotland + Wales = Great Britain (the largest island, political title)
 Northern Ireland shares the second-largest island with the Republic of Ireland (Ireland or
Eire),
 Smaller islands, such as: Anglesey, the Isle of Wight, the Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides,
Scillies, are also part of the British political union
 The U.K. has sovereignty over 17 territories which do not form part of the U.K. itself:
 14 British Overseas Territories (BTO) The BTO are the last remaining remnants
of the British Empire and a 1999 UK government white paper stated that: “[The]
Overseas Territories are British for as long as they wish to remain British…” The 14
British Overseas Territories are: Anguilla; Bermuda; the British Antarctic Territory;
the British Indian Ocean Territory; the British Virgin Islands; the Cayman Islands;
the Falkland Islands; Gibraltar; Montserrat; Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan
da Cunha; the Turks and Caicos Islands; the Pitcairn Islands; South Georgia and the
South Sandwich Islands; and Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus
 3 Crown dependencies The Crown dependencies are possessions of the Crown, as
opposed to overseas territories of the U.K. Isle of Man in the Irish Sea + Channel
Islands (Jersey and Guernsey) off the French west coast. These territories are not part
of the United Kingdom. They are self-governing, possess their own independent
legal systems, legislatures and administrative structures. The British government is
responsible for their defence and foreign relations and can intervene if good
administration is not maintained. They all share the British monarch as head of
state.

 Neighbours:
 -the land border with the Irish republic, the U.K. is surrounded by sea
 The English Channel - S of England and between the U.K. and France
 Irish Sea - W of Wales and N England and SE of Northern Ireland, it separates
Great Britain from Ireland
 Atlantic Ocean - SW England, the NW coast of Northern Ireland, and W Scotland
 The capital is London, which is among the world’s leading commercial, financial, and
cultural centres
 Other major cities include Birmingham, Liverpool, and Manchester in England,
 Belfast and Londonderry in Northern Ireland,
 Edinburgh and Glasgow in Scotland,
 Swansea and Cardiff in Wales.
BRITAIN GEOGRAPHY
 area of 242,500 km²
 the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world
 covers a small area - approx. that of the U.S. state of Oregon or the African country
of Guinea
 It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at 50 km-(38 km
underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.
 Mountains:
 Low compared to the Alps
 The highest: Ben Nevis (1343m), Scotland
 2nd highest: Snowdon (1085m), Wales
 Rivers:
 The most famous English river is The Thames, it is 346 km long.
 The Severn is the longest river in the UK, it is 354 km long.
 Lakes:
 in the N of England - Lake District - the most famous are Windermere and
Derwentwater.
 other beautiful lakes, like Loch Lomond and Loch Katrine, are in
Scotland.
 Climate
 The United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all
year round.
 The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below −11 °C or
rising above 35 °C
 Summers are warmest in the south-east of England, being closest to the
European mainland, and coolest in the north.
 Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and
occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.

POPULATION
 the 22nd-most populous country, with an estimated 66.0 million inhabitants in 2017.

POLITICS
 is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy
 The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 1952, making her the longest-
serving current head of state.

ENGLAND

England is only 35 km from France and is now linked by a tunnel under the English
Channel.
 England is the biggest of the four countries in the United Kingdom. Nearly 84% of the
population of the UK lives in England, mainly in the major cities and metropolitan areas.
Together with Scotland and Wales, these three countries are the island of Great Britain.
The English Channel is in the south between England and France. People travel to France by ferry
across the English Channel or by train through the Channel Tunnel which goes under the sea.

Over 50 million people live in England and that’s around 80 per cent of the total UK
population. It is a multicultural country where more than 250 languages are spoken in the capital
city, London. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, which means that there is a queen
or king but they don’t make the laws of the country. Laws and political decisions in England are
made by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Houses of Parliament are in central London
next to the River Thames and the most famous part is the clock tower, Big Ben.

Other large cities in England are Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds and Bristol.
Outside cities, England is a very green country and has many rural areas of natural beauty such as
the Lake District, an area with lots of lakes in the north, and the New Forest, a big area of forest
in the south of the country.
Language
T he official language of England is English, which is spoken today by millions of people
all over the world. Many students go to England from other countries to study the language and
learn about the culture. Although everyone speaks English, there are many different accents around
the country. French was the official language in England between 1066 and 1362, which is why
there are many French words and expressions in English such as ‘bon voyage’ for ‘have a good
trip’ or ‘bouquet’ for ‘a bunch of flowers’.
Music
English people love music. In the summer you can go to music festivals all over the country
like those at Glastonbury, Leeds or Reading. Glastonbury is a five-day festival of music, dance,
comedy, theatre and circus and around 175,000 people go. Many people stay at the festivals for a
few days and camp in tents. People listen to all types of music, especially pop and rock. England
has produced many international groups and singers like the Beatles, Amy Winehouse, Coldplay,
Ed Sheeran and Adele.
Sport
The most popular sports in England are football, rugby and cricket and most towns have a
sports ground where teams can play. English football teams like Manchester United, Chelsea and
Liverpool are world-famous and English football players include David Beckham, Wayne Rooney
and Harry Kane. Women’s football is also popular and teams play in leagues and competitions all
over the country. Every year, the English rugby union team play in the Six Nations Championship
against Wales, Scotland, Ireland, France and Italy. Cricket is a traditional sport played with a bat
and ball which began in England and is now played all over the world. People like to watch all
these sports on television, as well as other sports like horse racing, tennis, snooker (a type of
billiards) and motor racing.
 Food
England is a very multicultural country and this has a big influence on the food people eat.
Indian, Chinese and Italian cuisines are popular alternatives to traditional English food like fish
and chips, roast beef or sausage and mash (mashed potatoes). Many English people drink several
cups of tea every day, usually with milk. However, coffee and herbal teas are also popular.

WALES

Wales is one of the countries in Britain and the United Kingdom. It’s a small country with
England to the east. Wales has got a continuous coastline, around 1,300km long, which means
there are a lot of beaches! It has some of the most beautiful beaches in the UK and is a popular
destination for holidaymakers and water sports fans. As well as beaches, there are a lot of
mountains and also three national parks, including Snowdonia. It is in north Wales and its highest
mountain, Snowdon, is 1,085m.
The population of Wales is just over three million people, around five per cent of the total
UK population. Most Welsh people live in south Wales in the capital city, Cardiff, and two other
big cities: Swansea and Newport. In Cardiff you can go shopping, visit the castle, go to the museum
or go to a concert or sports match at the famous Millennium Stadium.
Language
The official languages of Wales are English and Welsh and ‘Wenglish’ is a Welsh-English
dialect. Everyone speaks English, but if you go to school in Wales you have to learn Welsh until
you are 16. Street signs are written in Welsh and English, and villages, towns and cities have an
English name and a Welsh name. For example, the capital city is Cardiff or Caerdydd. One of the
longest place names in the world is a village in Wales called
Llanfairpwllgwingyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllandysiliogogogoch.
The Welsh language is an old, Celtic language which is very different from English. For example,
the Welsh name for ‘Wales’ is ‘Cymru’, ‘Good morning’ is ‘Bore da’ and ‘How are you?’ is ‘Sut
mae?’. It is one of the oldest languages in Europe and around 20 per cent of people in Wales speak
Welsh.
Music
The Welsh people love music and there are a lot of singing festivals and competitions in
Wales. One of the largest cultural festivals in Europe is the National Eisteddfod of Wales, which
is in a different town or city every year. All the events are in Welsh and include literature, singing,
art, exhibitions, dance and theatre. Famous singers and groups from Wales include Duffy,
Stereophonics and Catatonia.
Sport
The Welsh enjoy watching and playing sport, especially rugby union and football. Wales
has its own football league and famous Welsh footballers include Ryan Giggs and Gareth Bale.
The modern Millennium Stadium in Cardiff can hold 74,500 spectators and is where you go if you
want to watch a football or rugby match or even a pop concert. In 2014 Cardiff was the European
Capital of Sport.
 Water sports are popular in Wales. You can go surfing, wakeboarding (a combination of
waterskiing, snowboarding and surfing) or coasteering (climbing up rocks and jumping into the
sea).
If you like unusual sports, visit the small town of Llanwrtyd Wells. Every year in this town
there is a man versus horse marathon and a bog snorkelling competition. Bog snorkelling is similar
to swimming in extremely dirty water.
Food
There are lots of sheep in Wales, so people eat a lot of lamb. Typical Welsh dishes include
‘cawl’ which is lamb stew, Glamorgan sausages and ‘rarebit’ which is a type of cheese on toast.
There are also Welsh cakes, which are small, sweet, round cakes with dried raisins inside.

SCOTLAND

Scotland is a country in Great Britain, to the north of England. Scotland has nearly 800
islands, but people only live on some of them.
Scotland is a very beautiful country with many mountains, forests, beaches, rivers and
lochs (the Scots word for lakes). In the north of Scotland it is light until 11.30 p.m. in summer and
in winter you can sometimes see the Northern Lights, or Aurora Borealis, which are spectacular
lights in the sky. Energy from the sun turns the Earth’s sky green, red and other colours.
Scotland has its own parliament which makes laws for Scottish people. The Scottish
parliament is in the capital city, Edinburgh. About five million people live in Scotland, which is
8.5 per cent of the UK population. Most people live in the south of the country in and around the
cities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth and Dundee.
Language
There are three languages in Scotland. Most people speak English and Scots. Scots is
spoken by young and old people in cities and rural areas and sometimes people mix Scots and
English. Some words in Scots are the same as in English and some are different. Look at these
sentences. Can you see the difference?
Scotland is ane o the fower kintras that maks the Unitit Kinrick. (Scots)
Scotland is one of the four countries that make the United Kingdom. (English)
A minority (around one percent of the Scottish population) speak Scottish Gaelic, an old
Celtic language which is very different from English. For example, the Gaelic word for Scotland
is ‘Alba’, ‘What is your name?’ is ‘Dè an t-ainm a tha ort?’ and ‘Goodbye’ is ‘Slàn leat’.
Music
At public and cultural events, you can often hear traditional music and see traditional
dancing. Pipers play music on bagpipes, a Celtic wind instrument with pipes and a bag. Pipers and
dancers usually wear kilts. A kilt is a traditional skirt with a tartan design which is worn by men
and women. Scots enjoy all types of music from folk to rock and pop, and festivals like the
Edinburgh Festival or concerts like ‘T in the Park’ are very popular. Famous Scottish singers and
groups include Paolo Nutini, Franz Ferdinand and The Fratellis.
Sport
 The most popular sport in Scotland is football and famous teams include Celtic and
Rangers, from Glasgow, Scotland’s biggest city. Another popular game, golf, was invented in
Scotland in the Middle Ages. You can go skiing or snowboarding in winter at Scotland’s five
mountain ski resorts and any time of the year at snowsports centres around the country. In rural,
Gaelic-speaking regions people play shinty, a traditional sport similar to hockey that is played in
Scotland and Ireland.
The famous Scottish Highland Games are a combination of culture and sport. Competitors
do heavy sports like ‘caber tossing’, where they throw big tree trunks, and there is traditional
Scottish music and dancing. Highland Games are celebrated all over the world. The first Highland
Games in New York were in 1836, the most northern games are in Norway and the most southern
ones are in New Zealand.
Food
When people think of Scottish food they often think of haggis, a type of sausage made from
parts of a sheep. However, Scotland is also known for its variety of seafood such as lobster and
oysters, fish such as salmon and trout, and beef.

NORTHERN IRELAND

Northern Ireland is one of the four countries in the United Kingdom, with England,
Scotland and Wales. It is to the north of the Republic of Ireland, on an island next to Great Britain.
Around 1.9 million people live in Northern Ireland, which is about three per cent of the population
of the UK. The capital city is Belfast. Another name for Northern Ireland is ‘Ulster’ or ‘The Six
Counties’ because it is made up of six regions or counties.
In Northern Ireland you can find beautiful beaches, forests and mountains. You can visit
the Giant’s Causeway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site: here, about 40,000 columns were formed
after a volcanic eruption. Most of them are hexagonal and some of them are 12m tall. Films and
TV series such as Dracula Untold and Game of Thrones are filmed in Northern Ireland.
Northern Ireland was a place of conflict between people who wanted to be part of the
Republic of Ireland, people who wanted to be part of the UK and people who wanted Northern
Ireland to be a separate country. In the 1990s there was an important peace process and the violence
and conflict stopped. The Northern Ireland Assembly and the UK Parliament decide on the laws
in Northern Ireland.
Language
Nearly everyone in Northern Ireland speaks English. A small number of people speak Irish
Gaelic, an old Celtic language which is very different from English. The other regional language
is Ulster Scots, a variation of English which is spoken in Northern Ireland and is similar to Scots
spoken in Scotland.
Music
You can hear all types of music in Northern Ireland including traditional Irish music, jazz,
rock or pop. In summer Belfast has music festivals like Belsonic and Belfast Vital. Many
international artists play at these festivals, including bands from Northern Ireland like Snow Patrol,
Ash and Two Door Cinema Club.
 Sport
Northern Ireland is a popular place to go walking or do outdoor activities such as mountain
biking, coasteering (climbing up rocks and jumping into the sea) or zorbing (rolling down a hill in
a giant PVC ball). Football, rugby, cricket, hurling (a sport similar to hockey) and Gaelic football
are all popular. Gaelic football is similar to rugby because players can touch and kick the ball. For
most sports, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland join together in the same team when they
play in international competitions. However, football is different and Northern Ireland has its own
national team and football league. Some players from Northern Ireland play for teams in the
English or Scottish leagues.
Food
The best-known dish from Northern Ireland is the Ulster Fry, which is bacon, eggs,
sausages and soda bread. Some versions include tomatoes, mushrooms or baked beans. It’s called
the Ulster Fry because everything is fried in a pan. It is also eaten with Irish potato bread.
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries in the United Kingdom, with England,
Scotland and Wales. It is to the north of the Republic of Ireland, on an island next to Great Britain.
Around 1.8 million people live in Northern Ireland, which is about three per cent of the population
of the UK. The capital city is Belfast. Another name for Northern Ireland is ‘Ulster’ or ‘The Six
Counties’ because it is made up of six regions or counties.

SYMBOLS OF ENGLAND, WALES, SCOTLAND AND NORTHERN IRELAND

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ENGLAND

 The historic Flag of St. George became England's official flag in 1278. The flag is
dominated by an upright, deep-red cross.
 The red rose is the national flower of England.
 The “Three Lions” is the unofficial crest of England and was first used by Richard the
Lionheart.
 The oak is the national tree of England.
 St Edward's Crown was one of the English Crown Jewels, often being used as the
coronation crown.

WALES

 In 1959, the Queen made the Red Dragon on green and white, the official Welsh flag.
 The leek is a vegetable, Welshmen wore it in battles.
 The daffodil is a yellow spring flower.
 The Prince of Wales is always the first son of the royal family.
 St. David is a patron saint of Wales, his flag with a yellow cross on black background is a
symbol of Wales too.

SCOTLAND

 The national musical instrument of the Scots is the bagpipe.

 The national flower of the Scots is the purple thistle.
 The Lion Rampant, is the symbol of the Scottish monarch.
 Scotsmen wear tartan kilts.
 The famous Scottish Saltire, St. Andrew’s cross, is a white cross on sky-blue background.
  The Scottish Crown Jewels, known as the Honours of Scotland, are the oldest regalia in
the British Isles.

NORTHERN IRELAND

 The Red Hand of Ulster is the official seal of the O'Neill family. Today it is the official
Arms of Northern Ireland.
 St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland illustrated the Holy Trinity with a shamrock.
 The Ulster banner, the former flag of Northern Ireland was in use from 1953-1972.
 The Cross of St Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, is a red saltire on a white field

England
The national flag of England is white with a red cross. It is called the St George’s Cross and Saint
George is the patron saint of England. St George’s Day is on 23 April, but it’s not a public holiday.
The rose is the national flower of England and the lion is the national animal. The lion is a symbol
of many English sports teams.

Wales
If you ever go to Wales, you will see dragons everywhere! Not real ones, of course, but a red
dragon appears on the national flag of Wales. The patron saint of Wales is St David, who is
celebrated on 1 March. Other symbols of Wales include the leek (a long, green vegetable) and the
daffodil (a white or yellow flower).

Scotland
Blue is a colour which is often associated with Scotland. The Scottish flag is blue with a white X-
shaped cross called the St Andrew’s cross. St Andrew is the patron saint of Scotland and his day
is celebrated on 30 November. On this day, everywhere you go in Scotland you will see tartan,
kilts and bagpipes. Also, look out for the national animal, the unicorn, and the thistle, the purple
flower of Scotland.

Northern Ireland
St Patrick is the patron saint of Ireland and Northern Ireland. St Patrick’s Day, on 17 March, is a
very important celebration in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland with parades,
concerts, music and dancing. Another important symbol is the shamrock, a green plant with three
leaves. It is the symbol of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
 3. MOMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY

BRITAIN'S EARLY HISTORY - REVIEW

• characterized by a series of invasions:
• The Celts: settled all over Britain; lived as farmers.
• The Romans: built roads and fortified cities; made England a major trading nation.
• The Anglo-Saxons: were great farmers; established a well-organised system of
government.
• The Danes (Vikings, Norsemen): raided the coastal areas for a long time; eventually settled
in the eastern and southeastern part of England (Danelaw);

THE NORMAN CONQUEST AND 12TH – 15TH CENTURIES - THE NORMAN

CONQUEST

The Norman conquest of England was the invasion of the Kingdom of England by William the
Conqueror (Duke of Normandy), in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings and the subsequent Norman
control of England. It is an important watershed event in English history for a number of reasons.
The conquest linked England more closely with Continental Europe through the introduction of a
Norman aristocracy, thereby lessening Scandinavian influence. It created one of the most powerful
monarchies in Europe and engendered a sophisticated governmental system. The conquest
changed the English language and culture, and set the stage for rivalry with France, which would
continue intermittently until the nineteenth century. It remains the last successful military conquest
of England.
After having settled in their newly acquired land, the Normans, adopted the French feudal
system and French as official language.
Edward the Confessor (1004-1066) succeeded to Canute's two sons. He nominated
William, Duke of Normandy, as his successor, but upon his death, Harold Godwinson, the
powerful Earl of Wessex, crowned himself king. William refused to acknowledge Harold as King
and invaded England with 12,000 soldiers in 1066. King Harold was killed at the battle
of Hastings (by an arrow in the eye, as the legend as it), and William the Conqueror become
William I of England. His descendants have sat on the throne of England to this day.
 William I (1027-1087) ordered a nationwide survey of land property known as
the Domesday Book, and redistributed land among his vassals. Many of the country's medieval
castles were built under William's reign
(eg. Dover, Arundel, Windsor, Warwick, Kenilworth, Lincoln...).
The Norman rulers kept their possessions in France, and even extended them to most of
Western France (Brittany, Aquitaine...). French became the official language of England, and
remained it until 1362, a bit after the beginning of the Hundred Years' War with France. English
nevertheless remained the language of the populace, and the fusion of English (a mixture of Anglo-
Saxon and Norse languages) with French and Latin (used by the clergy) slowly evolved into
modern English.
William had castles built to house his followers, and the Tower of London for himself, to
instill fear and respect in the people.
He kept enough land for himself to make sure that he was more powerful than his nobles.
He brought into England the law of primogeniture - the eldest son inherited all the father’s
possessions, making the monarchy hereditary.
How did William take long term control of England?
William used the methods of control that he was most familiar with: castles and the feudal system.
But he also adopted a new method in the form of the Domesday Book.
Castles: William had new, loyal nobles from Normandy build over 100 castles all over the
country. They were built extremely quickly, some in just eight days! From their castles, the new
Norman lords could control the local area, and the sight of them made it clear who was now in
control. The need for quick constructions meant materials such as earth and wood were used and
although this sped up the building process, it meant they didn’t last very long. Over time, the more
important ones were rebuilt from stone.
The feudal system: William could not be everywhere at the same time. To solve this, he
lent parcels of his new lands to nobles, or barons, as they were called at the time. In return for
loyalty and taxes, they could use the land. The barons then loaned the land to knights who in turn
loaned it to peasants who then did all of the hard farming work! If the barons betrayed William,
they would lose their land, and the wealth that came with it.
The Domesday Book: the book was the end result of a survey of all of England by William
to assess the value of the country. It took his two sets of officials a year to complete. The first
group asked questions of the people. The questions concerned the value of farms and animals
which created England’s wealth at the time. The second group checked the first group’s answers
to see if they had told the truth. The book is still in existence today.
How The Norman Conquest changed England and Western Europe?
The Norman Conquest changed the face of England and Western Europe forever:
 The Norman Conquest broke England's links with Denmark and Norway, and connected the
country to Normandy and Europe.
 William got rid of all the Saxon nobles and imposed the feudal system on England.
 The new Norman landowners built castles to defend themselves against the Saxons they had
conquered. This gave them great power, and enabled some of them to rebel against William in
the late 1070s.
 William reorganised the church in England. He brought men from France to be bishops and
abbots. Great cathedrals and huge monasteries were built.
 The status of women in the Anglo-Saxon period had been relatively high, with the opportunity
for rights in land ownership, for instance. The Feudal system introduced by the Normans
reversed these changes.
 Norman-French and Anglo-Saxon words make up the English language we use today. For
example, royal, law and pork come from Norman-French words, but king, rules and pig come
from Saxon ones.

THE 16TH CENTURY

HENRY VIII is remembered in history as one of the most powerful kings of England.
Except for getting married six times, desperate for a male heir, Henry changed the face of England,
passing the Acts of Union with Wales (1536-1543), thus becoming the first English King of Wales,
then changing his title of Lord of Ireland into that of (also first) King of Ireland (1541).
In 1533, Henry divorced his first wife, Catherine of Aragon (Queen Mary's mother,
see Peterborough) to remarry Anne Boleyn (Queen Elizabeth I's mother), the Pope
excommunicated Henry, and in return, Henry proclaimed himself head of the Church of England.
To assure the control over the clergy, Henry dissolved all the monasteries in the country (1536-
1540) and nationalised them, becoming immensely rich in the process.
Henry VIII was the last English king to claim the title of King of France, as he lost his last
possession there, the port of Calais (although he tried to recover it, taking Tournai for a few years,
the only town in present-day Belgium to have been under English rule).
The 10-year old Edward VI inherited the throne at his father's death in 1547, but died 6
years later and was succeeded by his elder half-daughter Mary. Mary I (1516-1558), a staunch
Catholic, intended to restore Roman Catholicism to England, executing over 300 religious
dissenters in her 5-year reign (which owned her the nickname of Bloody Mary). She married the
powerful King Philip II of Spain, who also ruled over the Netherlands, the Spanish Americas and
the Philippines (named after him), and was the champion of the Counter-Reform (read
"Inquisition"). Marry died childless of ovarian cancer in 1558, and her half-sister Elizabeth
ascended the throne.
ELIZABETH I (1533-1603)
Princess Elizabeth was born on September 7, 1533. Her father was Henry VIII, the King
of England, and her mother was Queen Anne. She was heir to the throne of England.
Elizabeth worked hard at being a good queen. She visited different towns and cities in
England and tried to keep her people safe. She set up a council of advisors called the Privy Council.
The Privy Council helped her when dealing with other countries, working with the army, and
taking care of other important issues. Elizabeth's most trusted advisor was her Secretary of State
William Cecil.
War with Spain
Elizabeth avoided fighting wars. She did not want to conquer other countries. She only
wanted England to be safe and prosper. However, when she had the Catholic Queen Mary of Scots
killed, the King of Spain would not stand for it. He sent the powerful Spanish Armada, a fleet of
warships, to conquer England.
The outgunned English navy met the Armada and was able to set fire to many of their ships.
Then a huge storm hit the Armada and caused many more of their ships to sink. The English
somehow won the battle and less than half of the Spanish ships made it back to Spain.
The Elizabethan Age
The defeat of the Spanish ushered England into an age of prosperity, peace, and expansion.
This time is often referred to as the Elizabethan Age and is considered by many to be the golden
age in the history of England. This era is perhaps most famous for the blossoming of English
Theatre, especially the playwright William Shakespeare. It was also a time of exploration and the
expansion of the British Empire into the New World (Virginia).
Elizabeth died in 1603 and Mary Stuart's son, James VI of Scotland, succeeded Elizabeth
as King James I of England - thus creating the United Kingdom.

THE 17TH CENTURY: RELIGIOUS TROUBLES & CIVIL WAR

• Charles I – an absolute ruler of divine right
• his totalitarian the English Civil War – Charles beheaded
• Oliver Cromwell – Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland
• dictator acting as head of state and head of government of the new republic
• the Parliament restored the monarchy in 1660 – Charles II
CHARLES I
Charles I (November 1600 –January 1649) was the monarch over the three kingdoms of
England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649.
Charles was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland,
but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent
much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the thrones of England, Scotland and
Ireland on the death of his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, in 1612. An
unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to the Spanish Habsburg princess Maria Anna
culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage
negotiations. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead.
After his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to
curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the divine right of kings and thought he could
govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular
the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a
tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman
Catholic, generated the antipathy and mistrust of Reformed groups such as the English Puritans
and Scottish Covenanters, who thought his views were too Catholic. He supported high church
Anglican ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant
forces successfully during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to
adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English
and Scottish parliaments and helped precipitate his own downfall.
From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the
English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually
handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a
constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on
the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver
Cromwell's New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried,
convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a
republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to
Charles's son, Charles II, in 1660.

THE HOUSE OF HANOVER

• 19th century – dominated by the British Empire, spreading on all five continents
• Industrial Revolution, with James Watt's famous steam engine and the mechanisation of
the manufacturing industry
• the gap between the rich and the poor increased considerably

THE HOUSE OF HANOVER - THE BRITISH EMPIRE & VICTORIAN ENGLAND

Queen Victoria
• rely on her Prime Ministers
• married to her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
• Great Exhibition of the Industries of All Nations in 1851, and the profits were used to found
the Victoria and Albert Museum
• Education Act of 1870 brought compulsory education to every child in England, Scotland
and Wales
• the conditions of the poor in most of Britain greatly improved
• the authority of the Church was weakened
• “Redbrick” universities were established in the industrial cities
• a national railway system - travel for pleasure began
• cricket and football became mass entertainments
 • 1876 Empress of India
• the most glorious reign, as she ruled over 40% of the globe and a quarter of the world's
population
• the grandmother of Europe

Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. On 1 May 1876, she
adopted the additional title of Empress of India.
Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son
of King George III. Both the Duke and the King died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close
supervision by her mother, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne at
the age of 18, after her father's three elder brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate
children. The United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy, in which the
sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence
government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was
identified with strict standards of personal morality.
Victoria married her first cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840. Their
nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together and
earning her the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria
plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion,
republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity
recovered. Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration.
Her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than that of any of her predecessors
and is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and
military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British
Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover. Her son and successor, Edward
VII, initiated the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father.
 4. THE BRITISH POLITICAL SYTEM

FORM OF GOVERNMENT
 constitutional monarchy
 parliamentary democracy
 head of state = the reigning king or queen
 head of government = the prime minister (PM)
Monarchy = the oldest form of government in the U.K.
constitutional monarchy (while The Sovereign is Head of State, the ability to make and pass
legislation resides with an elected Parliament)
 main elements of the government:
 the legislature
 the executive
 the judiciary
 overlap between the branches
The main elements of the government are the legislature, the executive, the judiciary.
There is some overlap between the branches, as there is no formal separation of powers or system
of checks and balances.
 all state and governmental business is carried out in the name of the monarch

PARLIAMENT STRUCTURE

The Queen

House of Lords The House of Commons

Introduction to Parliament
Parliament has been around for hundreds of years and has changed many times…Way back
in 1215, King John put his seal on Magna Carta and agreed to a list of 63 rules set out by a group
of barons – these were important landowners who advised the king. This meant that for the first
time no-one, not even the King, could break the law of the land… Fifty years later, Simon de
Montfort, for the first time, invited representatives of the towns and shires to his 1265 parliament.
From this point onwards the power to make decisions for the nation passed, over time, from the
king or queen to Parliament.
Parliament structure
The Government's job is to run the country. Parliament's job is to check and challenge what
the Government. Let's take a closer look at what happens in Parliament today...
Parliament is made up of three parts – the House of Commons, the House of Lords, and the king
or queen – known as the monarch.
 The House of Commons chamber is where important topics are debated, laws are discussed
and where Members of Parliament, MPs, can keep an eye on the work of the Government. There
are 650 MPs, and each one represents an area of the United Kingdom. These areas are called
constituencies. Most MPs belong to a political party, which is a group of people with similar views
on how the country should be run… And some MPs are ‘independent’, which means they aren’t
part of any party. MPs are voted for by the people in their constituency at general elections. The
leader of the party that wins the election becomes the Prime Minister. The Prime Minster and their
party run the country, and are called the Government. Parties not in power are known as the
opposition and they take a leading role in checking and challenging the ideas of Government
through debates in the chamber. At the head of the house sits the speaker. It’s their job to make
sure debates are kept in order – sometimes they can get very lively!
The second part of Parliament is The House of Lords and it shares the job of making laws
with the House of Commons. There are around 800 members and most are ‘life peers’. Life peers
are chosen for their knowledge and experience, so they can use their special skills to look carefully
at new laws. Anyone (including you!) can nominate somebody to be a life peer. Successful
nominations are then recommended by the Prime Minister and approved by the monarch. Once
approved you become a Lord if you are a man, or a Baroness if you are a woman and you are then
a Member of the House of Lords, a ‘peer’, for the rest of your life. In the House of Lords there is
also a small group of ‘hereditary peers’, who have had their position passed on to them by their
family, and some bishops.
The third part of Parliament is the monarch. This role is mainly ceremonial these days.
They meet the Prime Minister once a week to hear what’s going on in Parliament, and sign every
new law.
Making laws
Both the House of Commons and the House of Lords share the job of making laws. But
where do laws come from in the first place? A law is a rule we’ve all agreed to live by. Laws help
everyone understand what we must and must not do. Ideas for new laws are called Bills. They can
be suggested by lots of different people, including political parties and campaign groups. A Bill
can begin in the House of Commons or the House of Lords. MPs and Lords always check Bills
very carefully because making and changing laws affects everyone in the country. They do this by
holding debates in each House where they can discuss what they agree and disagree with in the
Bill and suggest changes. Sometimes a Bill can go backwards and forwards between the two
Houses lots of times – this is called Parliamentary Ping Pong! Once the two Houses agree, then
it’s the monarch’s turn! It’s their job to formally agree the Bill. This makes it an Act of Parliament,
and only then is it a ‘law’.

GOVERNMENT

Prime minister

Senior MP-s Members of the Lords

Government departments

They all form the cabinet

THE MONARCH
 Elizabeth II
 constitutional monarch
 THE QUEEN REIGNS BUT DOES NOT RULE
 her power is limited
 largely ceremonial
 must work in conjunction with Parliament
According to a famed British constitutional scholar, Walter Bagehot, Queen Elizabeth II “could
disband the army; she could dismiss all the officers . . .she could sell off all our ships-of-war and
all our naval stores; she could make a peace by the sacrifice of Cornwall and begin a war for the
conquest of Brittany. She could make every citizen in the United Kingdom, male or female, a
peer; she could make every parish in the United Kingdom a ‘University’; she could dismiss most
of the civil servants, and she could pardon all offenders.”
Once a bill has completed all the parliamentary stages in both Houses, it is ready to receive royal
assent. This is when the Queen formally agrees to make the bill into an Act of Parliament (law).
There is no set time period between the conclusion of consideration of amendments/ping pong
and royal assent.

Her Majesty’s actual rights as a Queen are only three:

 The right to be consulted by the Prime Minister
 To encourage certain courses of action
 To warn against others

Powers of the Queen:

 The power to appoint and dismiss the Prime Minister
 The power to appoint and dismiss other ministers.
 The power to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament
 The power to make war and peace
 The power to command the armed forces of the United Kingdom
 The power to regulate the Civil Service
 The power to ratify treaties
 The power to issue passports
 The power to appoint bishops and archbishops of the Church of England
 The power to create peers (both life peers and hereditary peers).

ELECTIONS
The Political Parties
 the great majority of the MPs in the House of Commons belong to either
 the Conservative Party - support comes mainly from business interests and the middle
and upper classes (S England)
 the Labour Party
 support from the trade unions, the working class, the middle-class (south Wales, Scotland,
and the Midland and northern English industrial cities)
  Smaller political parties have some representation in the House of Commons: the Liberals
and Social Democrats; the Scottish National Party; Plaid Cymru (the Welsh National
Party);
 General elections are held every 5 years (choose MPs)
 voting is not compulsory and is from the age of 18
 the method of election used is the simple majority system or 'first past the post'
In the UK there is a democracy. This means they let as many people as possible have a say
in how the country is run. They do this through our right to vote in elections. For many years, lots
of people in the UK fought to get the rights to vote that we have today. And now every eligible
person aged 18 and over can vote. There are lots of different types of elections to vote in: general,
local, and European. In General elections they vote Members of Parliament, MPs, for the House
of Commons. General elections take place in the UK usually once every five years. Voting takes
place on one day called ‘polling day’. People go to ‘polling stations’ set up across the country.
They choose who they want to vote for from a list of candidates, by putting a cross next to the
name of the person they have chosen. The candidate with the most votes then becomes the MP for
that area, called a constituency. How would they know who to vote for? Before elections,
candidates need to campaign to try to get people to vote for them. Campaigning can involve
handing out leaflets to explain their ideas, speaking in public discussions, talking to people by
visiting houses door to door, and party political broadcasts on TV. Parties with candidates standing
for election also write a list of everything they want to do if they win – this is called a manifesto.
Once they’ve won an election, an MP represents all their constituents – including those who didn’t
vote, or voted for someone else. The party with the most elected MPs forms the Government and
their leader becomes the Prime Minister. If no one party wins the election, then this is called a
‘hung Parliament’. If this happens, two or more parties might agree to join together to form what
is known as a ‘coalition government
 5. BRIEF OUTLINE OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY & HISTORY

US OVERVIEW
 Location - bordering both the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean, between
Canada and Mexico
 Area - 9,833,517 sq km
 Climate - mostly temperate, tropical in Hawaii and Florida, arctic in Alaska, arid in the Great
Basin of the southwest
 Natural Resources: coal, copper, lead, rare earth elements, uranium, gold, iron, mercury,
nickel, silver, zinc, petroleum, natural gas, arable land
 Economy: the most technologically powerful in the world - computers, pharmaceuticals,
aerospace and military equipment
 Population - 326.6 million (urban population: 82.3%)
 Ethnicity - white 72.4%, black 12.6%, Asian 4.8%, Amerindian and Alaska native 0.9%, native
Hawaiian and other Pacific islander 0.2%, other 6.2%, two or more races 2.9%
 Language - English 79%, Spanish 13%, other Indo-European 3.7%, Asian and Pacific island
3.4%, other 1%
 Religion - Protestant 46.5%, Roman Catholic 20.8%, Jewish 1.9%, Mormon 1.6%, other 5.8%,
unaffiliated 22.8%, unspecified 0.6%
 Capital - Washington D.C.
 50 States

US REGIONS
 5 Regions: Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, Southwest, West
 The West: Alaska, Nevada, California, Oregon, Colorado, Utah, Hawaii, Washington, Idaho,
Wyoming, Montana
Industry, agriculture, ranching, mining, and tourism contribute to the region’s economy.
The West Region includes the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast.
The population of the West is about 60 million people.
 The Southwest: Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
Industry, ranching, and petroleum contribute to the region’s economy. The Southwest Region
includes mountains, deserts, plains, and forests. The population of the Southwest is about 34
million people.
 The Midwest: Iowa, Missouri, Indiana, Nebraska, Illinois, Ohio, Kansas, North Dakota,
Michigan, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin
Agriculture and farming in the countryside and industry in the cities contribute to the economy.
The Mississippi River and its major tributaries, the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, are important trade
routes.
The population of the Midwest Region is about 66 million people.
 The Northeast: Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, New York, Maine, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont
Industry, services, and fishing contribute to the region’s economy.
It is the oldest region, home to the first American colonies and it is a very urban area (cities).
The population of the Northeast Region is about 56 million people.
 The Southeast: Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, Maryland, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia,
Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee
Agriculture and farming is the main focus of the Southeast Region’s economy, and has been for
many years. The Southeast Region has a combination of rural and urban areas (country and cities).
The population of the Southeast Region is about 80 million people. The Southeast region is good
for growing crops because of its flat land, rich soil, and long growing season. Southern farmers
can grow crops for most of the year. ... Other farmers produce rice, cotton, tobacco, sugar cane,
and peanuts.

US TERRITORIES
 16 territories
There are five major U.S. territories: American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands,
Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. A U.S. territory is a partially self-governing piece of land
under the authority of the U.S. government. U.S. territories are not states, but they do have
representation in Congress. Each territory is allowed to send a delegate to the House of
Representatives. The people who live in American Samoa are considered U.S. nationals; the
people in the other four territories are U.S. citizens. Citizens of the territories can vote in primary
elections for president, but they cannot vote in the general elections for president.

US HISTORY

US NATIONAL ANTHEM – Star Spangled Banner I

In 1814, Francis Scott Key pens a poem which is later set to music and in 1931 becomes
America’s national anthem, “The Star-Spangled Banner.” The poem, originally titled “The
Defence of Fort McHenry,” was written after Key witnessed the Maryland fort being bombarded
by the British during the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the sight of a lone U.S. flag still flying
over Fort McHenry at daybreak, as reflected in the now-famous words of the “Star-Spangled
Banner”: “And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that
our flag was still there.”
Francis Scott Key was born on August 1, 1779, at Terra Rubra, his family’s estate in
Frederick County (now Carroll County), Maryland. He became a successful lawyer in Maryland
and Washington, D.C., and was later appointed U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia.
On June 18, 1812, America declared war on Great Britain after a series of trade
disagreements. In August 1814, British troops invaded Washington, D.C., and burned the White
House, Capitol Building and Library of Congress. Their next target was Baltimore.
After one of Key’s friends, Dr. William Beanes, was taken prisoner by the British, Key
went to Baltimore, located the ship where Beanes was being held and negotiated his release.
However, Key and Beanes weren’t allowed to leave until after the British bombardment of Fort
McHenry. Key watched the bombing campaign unfold from aboard a ship located about eight
miles away. After a day, the British were unable to destroy the fort and gave up. Key was relieved
to see the American flag still flying over Fort McHenry and quickly penned a few lines in tribute
to what he had witnessed.
The poem was printed in newspapers and eventually set to the music of a popular English
drinking tune called “To Anacreon in Heaven” by composer John Stafford Smith. People began
referring to the song as “The Star-Spangled Banner” and in 1916 President Woodrow Wilson
announced that it should be played at all official events. It was adopted as the national anthem on
March 3, 1931.
 Francis Scott Key died of pleurisy on January 11, 1843. Today, the flag that flew over Fort
McHenry in 1914 is housed at the Smithsonian Institution’s Museum of American History in
Washington, D.C.

The thirteen original colonies

By the middle of the eighteenth century the settlements that had sprung up on the eastern
seaboard had been formed into thirteen British colonies, each separate, and owing allegiance to
the British government.
NH = New Hampshire, MA = Massachusetts, NY ~ New York, Ri = Rhode Island, CT =
Connecticut, PA – Pennsylvania, NJ = New Jersey, DE ~ Delaware, MD = Maryland, VA ~
Virginia, NC = North Carolina, SC = South Carolina, GA = Georgia

FOUNDATION OF THE USA - THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1775-1783)

The British Government started to charge new taxes on sugar, coffee, textiles etc. to cover
the costs of the war against France. Colonial Americans thought that they could be taxed only by
their own colonial assemblies. The colonists refused to pay taxes and so British soldiers were sent
to Boston. In 1773 a group of patriots, dressed as Indians, threw a cargo of British tea into the
Boston harbor. This event is known as the Boston Tea Party. Americans began boycotting British
trade.
In 1775 at Lexington the War began. Later George Washington (a Virginia planter) took
over the command of a Continental Army. The Continental Congress began to work as a national
government and on July 4th, 1776 they agreed on the Declaration of Independence written mainly
by Thomas Jefferson. The Declaration defended the American revolution against the British king
George III and explained "that all men are created equal" and have a natural right to "Life, liberty
and the pursuit of happiness". The War of Independence lasted till 1783 when Britain signed the
peace treaty and recognized the USA. The new Constitution was adopted in 1787 after a long
debate in which G. Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison participated.
FOUNDATION OF THE USA - DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
 explained "that all men are created equal" and
 have a natural right to "Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”
 1783 when Britain signed the peace treaty and recognized the USA.
 The new Constitution was adopted in 1787
 G. Washington – 1st president
USA BOUNDARIES

HISTORY OF THE USA - EXPANSION AND CIVIL WAR (1861-1865)

 During 1776-1898 the territory of the original states was expanded through
purchase of land, treaties or war
 1803 Jefferson made the "Louisiana Purchase" which meant that he bought for
about 15 million dollars all central part of the present States from France
 wars with Mexico led to expansion in California, Arizona, Nevada etc.
 Alaska was bought from Russia in 1867
  social reforms became important, especially the abolition of slavery
 There was a note on slavery being inhuman in the Declaration of Independence
 but it was removed from it by southern delegates
 Many N states abolished slavery by the early 1860 but not in the S
In this era of expansion social reforms became important, especially the abolition of
slavery. There was a note on slavery being inhuman in the Declaration of Independence, (Thomas
Jefferson, himself a slave owner, wrote it in 1776), but it was removed from it by southern
delegates. Many northern states abolished slavery by the early 1860 but southern economy was
based on large plantations where slaves were used to grow cotton, rice, tobacco and sugar.
About 60 years of never ending disputes led to the Civil War between the North and the
South. It was the worst episode in American history. It started after Abraham Lincoln was elected
President in 1860, (Even before in 1859 John Brown had tried to begin a slave rebellion in Virginia
but he was hanged - while many Northerners hailed him as a martyr.) Southern States protested
against Lincoln being the President and wanted to leave the Union. Abraham Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, which granted freedom to all slaves. During the war the
Southern Army (Confederates) won some victories but later, after the battle of Gettysburg and
mainly due to Union Generals Grant and Sherman, the Union Forces (North) won in April 1865.
It was only short after the end of war when Lincoln was assassinated in April 1865.

RESULTS OF CIVIL WAR (1861-1865)

The war had two main good results - it put an end to slavery which was abolished in the
Constitution in 1865, and it also decided, once for all, that America was a single and indivisible
nation. This war however took more American lives than any other war conflict (635,000 dead).
 6. AMERICAN POLITICS AND CONSTITUTION

FORM OF GOVERNMENT
 The US = Constitutional Federal Republic (a federation of states with a Representative
Democracy).
 A representative democracy (= a representative republic) = governance is done by officials
who are elected by the general populace of the country.

CONSTITUTION
 the supreme law of the land
 provides the framework for the organization of the US Government
 the introduction to the Constitution is called the Preamble
 The Preamble begins with the phrase “We the people…”
 This means that the government is based on the consent of the people.
 Structure of the Constitution:
 Preamble: Statement of purpose
 Articles: I: Legislative Branch; II: Executive Branch, III: Judicial Branch, IV: Relations
Among the States, V: Amendment Process, VI: National Supremacy, VII: Ratification
 Amendments: 27 total
 1st 10 are the Bill of Rights
 Basic principles:
 Popular sovereignty; Limited government; Separation of powers; Checks and balances;
Judicial review; Federalism
CONSTITUTION - BILL OF RIGHTS
 first 10 amendments
1. Freedom of religion, of speech, of the press, to assemble, and to petition
2. Right to bear arms
3. No quartering of soldiers
4. No unreasonable search and seizure
5. Indictments (a formal charge or accusation of a serious crime); Due process; Self-
incrimination
6. Right to a fair and speedy public trial, Notice of accusations, Confronting one's accuser
7. Right to trial by jury in civil cases
8. No excessive bail & fines or cruel & unusual punishment
9. There are other rights not written in the Constitution
10. All rights not given to Federal Government belong to states and people.

GOVERNMENT
 Separated System/ Checks and Balances
 3 branches of the government
 1. The legislative - which makes the laws
 2. The executive - which enforces the laws or make sure the laws are carried out
 3. The judicial - which interprets the laws or explains the laws and makes sure they are
fair

GOVERNMENT - US Congress
 = legislative branch
 made up of two Houses (parts):
 The House of Representatives
 the Senate

The House of Representatives

 Number according to the population
 House members must be at least 25 years old or older to serve
  House members are elected to a 2-year term
 There are 435 members in the House of Representatives.
The Senate
 100 Senators - 2 for each state
 Senators must be at least 30 years old
 Senators are elected to a six-year term
 divided as equally as may be into three Classes, so that one third may be chosen every
second year
 Filibuster ("pirate“) to delay or block legislative action - became popular in the 1850s,
when it was applied to efforts to hold the Senate floor in order to prevent a vote on a bill.

GOVERNMENT - The Executive Branch

1. President Donald Trump, since January 20, 2017
2. Vice President Mike Pence
3. The Cabinet

The president
 must be a citizen by birth
 must be at least 35 years old
 14-year resident of the US
 is elected to a four-year term
 can only serve two terms
US President duties and powers
 Veto laws
 Make appointments
 commander-in-chief of the armed forces
 Grant pardons
 Make treaties
 Appoint federal officers
 Ensure laws are executed
 The framers of the Constitution established a system of checks and balances to prevent any
branch government from getting too powerful.
Example: Congress has the right to pass bills into law, but the president can veto them, which
means the bill does not become a law.
If the president vetoes a law, the Congress can override his veto by a 2/3 majority.
The Supreme Court can say that any law is unconstitutional. The law no longer exists.

POLITICAL PARTIES
The Republican Party – logo: the elephant
The Republican Party, byname Grand Old Party (GOP), in the United States, one of the
two major political parties, the other being the Democratic Party. During the 19th century the
Republican Party stood against the extension of slavery to the country’s new territories and,
ultimately, for slavery’s complete abolition. During the 20th and 21st centuries the party came to
be associated with laissez-faire capitalism, low taxes, conservative social policies, less regulation,
and less federal intervention in the economy. The party acquired the acronym GOP, widely
understood as “Grand Old Party,” in the 1870s. The party’s official logo, the elephant, is derived
from a cartoon by Thomas Nast and also dates from the 1870s.

The Republican Platform

 Social Conservatives; Laissez-Faire economics; Fiscal Conservatism; Lower taxes for
ALL; Personal responsibility over welfare programs; Voter Base: Financial Sector, low
black vote, high income, military, higher ed. but few professors, older, straight, church
goers, South, Midwest, Mountain West.

The Democratic Party – logo: the donkey

The Democratic Party has changed significantly during its more than two centuries of
existence. During the 19th century the party supported or tolerated slavery, and it opposed civil
rights reforms after the American Civil War in order to retain the support of Southern voters. By
the mid-20th century it had undergone a dramatic ideological realignment and reinvented itself as
a party supporting organized labour, the civil rights of minorities, and progressive reform. Since
Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal of the 1930s, the party has also tended to favour greater
government intervention in the economy and to oppose government intervention in the private
noneconomic affairs of citizens. The logo of the Democratic Party, the donkey, was popularized
by cartoonist Thomas Nast in the 1870s; though widely used, it has never been officially adopted
by the party.
The Democratic Platform
 Social Liberalism; Social Democracy; Greater Federal Gov. Intervention; Progressive
Taxation; Different tax rates for different tax brackets; Larger government to serve
people’s needs; Voter Base: Young professionals, academia, organized labor, working
class, women, Minorities, Northeast, Great Lakes, and West Coast

ELECTIONS - The election process

Like the UK Parliament, the United States Congress has two houses; the House of
Representatives and the Senate. Unlike the UK, there are public elections to both houses and a
third separate election is held to choose a President. In the US the President is both the head of
State and the head of Government. In the UK these roles are carried out separately by the Monarch
and the Prime Minister.
The House of Representatives in the US Congress is designed to give a voice to the people
of every local voting region in America. Members of the House of Representatives stand for re-
election every two years. Each state is split into Districts and each District votes for one
representative. The number of Districts depends on the population of each State, for example
California the most popular State is split into 53 Districts so has 53 Representatives, but Alaska
which is huge but has a really small population, only has one District and therefore only one
Representative in the House. Like the UK House of Commons, the election system is first past the
post so the candidate with the most votes in each District wins a seat in the House of
Representatives. The party that wins a majority of seats in the house takes control. The ideal
situation for a President is that the house is controlled by their own party. However, with elections
held every two years, there’s always a midterm election in the middle of the President’s time in
office. If the public thinks the President is not doing a great job, they can vote in more members
of the opposition party making it more difficult for the president to pass laws.
 The Senate in the US Congress like the House of Lords in the UK Parliament is sometimes
called the Upper House. George Washington described the Senate as the saucer that cools the
coffee, meaning that it’s their job to scrutinize and question all proposals made by both the House
of Representatives and the President before voting to decide whether they should proceed as law.
Senators like members of the House of Representatives are also elected to their seats by the public.
Senators serve six year terms and elections are staggered so every two years a third of the Senators
run for re-election. Each State is represented by two Senators, regardless of its population and
again the first-past-the-post voting system is used so the candidate with the most votes wins.
So how do Americans choose their leader? Well, Presidential elections take place every
four years. The two main parties; the Democrats and the Republicans, host big get togethers where
they choose their Presidential candidates, the person they think will be the best leader for the
nation. The winning candidate then chooses their Vice Presidential candidate also known as their
Running Mate to help support the campaign. Presidential candidates usually choose someone with
different areas of skill or knowledge so they present voters with the best package. Together they’re
known as a ticket.
Presidential candidates from both parties then start out on massive election campaigns to
gain as much voter support as possible. They travel across the country and hold great big campaign
rallies where they set out the policies and their ideas for the whole country. These campaigns cost
money, lots of it, so both candidates have large campaign teams who helped raise the tens of
millions of dollars needed to keep them afloat. When it comes to Election Day, the public go to
the polls to vote for one Presidential ticket.
So far so easy, however the public don’t vote directly for their choice for President, instead
a system called the Electoral College is used. Each State is allocated a number of Electors that will
make the final choice. A State has the same number of Electors as it does Senators and
Representatives. In most States all the Electors will vote for the Presidential ticket which received
the most support and public vote. Finally, the Presidential ticket with the most Electoral College
votes becomes President and Vice President of the United States of America. So that’s how things
work in the US, a Democracy like the UK but on a much larger scale.