Explain X ray diffractometer with the help of schematic diagram.

 X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a powerful nondestructive technique for characterizing

crystalline materials.
 X-ray diffraction is now a common technique for the study of crystal structures and
atomic spacing.

X-ray diffractometers

 X-ray diffractometers consist of three basic elements: an X-ray tube, a sample

holder, and an X-ray detector
 X-ray diffraction is based on constructive interference of monochromatic X-rays and
a crystalline sample
 X-rays are generated in a cathode ray tube by heating a filament to produce
electrons, accelerating the electrons toward a target by applying a voltage, and
bombarding the target material with electrons.
 When electrons have sufficient energy to dislodge inner shell electrons of the target
material, characteristic X-ray spectra are produced.
 The interaction of the incident rays with the sample produces constructive
interference (and a diffracted ray) when conditions satisfy Bragg’s law:

where n is an integer,

λ is the wavelength of the X-rays,

d is the interplanar spacing generating the diffraction,

and ϴ is the diffraction angle.

  The geometry of an X-ray diffractometer is such that the sample rotates at an angle ϴ
while the X-ray detector is mounted on an arm to collect the diffracted X-rays and
rotates at an angle of 2 ϴ.
 The instrument used to maintain the angle and rotate the sample is termed a
goniometer
 A detector records and processes this X-ray signal and converts the signal to a count
rate, which is then output to a device such as a printer or computer monitor

Q descibe the principal of the particle size analyser. Explain in detail the sample preparation
and the process involved.

Particle size analyser  is used to characterise the size distribution of particles in a given sample.
Particle size analysis can be applied to solid materials, suspensions, emulsions and even
aerosols.

The Nanoparticle Size Analyzer instrument is intended for accurate nano and micron size
particle size analysis of a wide variety of samples.

It works on the principle that when a beam of light (a laser) is scattered by a group of particles,
the angle of light scattering is inversely proportional to particle size (ie. the smaller the
particle size, the larger the angle of light scattering).