I.R.

BURGLAR DETERRENT

A mini project report Submitted for the partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree in

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BY
G.SRIDHAR (06881A0247)

K.BHARAT KUMAR (07885A0204)

S.ANIL (06881A0203)

Under The Esteemed Guidance of

Sri . Mr. N. SRINIVAS .

Associate Professor in Dept. of E.E.E

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Accredited By NBA, Approved By A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi)

Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad

KACHARAM (V), SHAMSHABAD (M), R.R.Dist

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We consider it a privilege to express our deep sense of gratitude to our guide Mr.

N.Srinivas for his valuable guidance and moral support through out the tenure of our

project.

We are very much indebted to Dr. K.S. Sarma, Head of the Department,

Electrical & Electronics Engineering for his encouragement for doing this project.

Finally, we thank every one who helped us for the successful completion of

Project work.

………. G.SRIDHAR
K.BHARAT KUMAR
S.ANIL
 ABSTRACT

I.R. Burglar Deterrent

IR BDA is a simple circuit that uses IR Transmitter-Receiver cum Alarm

Circuit in order to detect any Burglary attempt.

The Circuit of IR BDA consist of IR transmitter and receiver cum alarm

section. It works of 6V dc 500mA of un interrupted power supply and uses low cost
readily available electronic component.

The transmitter section is built around 555 timer and the receiver cum alarm
section consist of IR sensor, dual precision monostable multi vibrator and a sound
generator.

The transmitter section continuously transmits the IR signals using 555

timer and these signals are detected by sensor placed on receiver.
Now whenever these signals are interrupted, this interruption is sensed by a sensor and it
triggers the multivibrator which inturn triggers the alarm section, thus leading to an
audible indication.

Hence in this way 24 hours of protection can be given using I.R.BD.

 CONTENTS

PROJECT ASPECTS
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT

1.2 NEED OF THE DEVICE

1.3 HARDWARE

1.4 FEATURES

1.5 PACKAGE CONTENTS

2. WORKING AND OPERATION

3. ARCHITECTURE & EXPLANATION

3.1 555 TIMER IC

3.2 TRANSISTORS
3.3 PHOTO DIODES
3.4 CAPACITORS
3.5 RESISTORS

4. APPENDIX

4.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF COMPONENTS USED

4.2 OPERATIONAL CIRCUIT DAIGRAM

4.3 TEST RESULTS

5. CONCLUSIONS
6. REFERENCES
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT

The "motion sensing" feature on most lights (and security systems) is a

passive system that detects infrared energy. These sensors are therefore known as PIR
(passive infrared) detectors or pyroelectric sensors. In order to make a sensor that can
detect a human being, you need to make the sensor sensitive to the temperature of a
human body. Humans, having a skin temperature of about 93 degrees F, radiate infrared
energy with a wavelength between 9 and 10 micrometers. Therefore, the sensors are
typically sensitive in the range of 8 to 12 micrometers.

The devices themselves are simple electronic components not unlike a photosensor. The
infrared light bumps electrons off a substrate, and these electrons can be detected and
amplified into a signal.

We have probably noticed that light is sensitive to motion, but not to a person who is
standing still. That's because the electronics package attached to the sensor is looking for
a fairly rapid change in the amount of infrared energy it is seeing. When a person walks
by, the amount of infrared energy in the field of view changes rapidly and is easily
detected. You do not want the sensor detecting slower changes, like the sidewalk
cooling off at night.
Your motion sensing light has a wide field of view because of the lens covering the
sensor. Infrared energy is a form of light, so you can focus and bend it with plastic
lenses. But it's not like there is a 2-D array of sensors in there. There is a single (or
sometimes two) sensors inside looking for changes in infrared energy.

1.2 NEED OF THE DEVICE

Burglar alarms have become standard equipment in stores and other

businesses, and they're becoming increasingly common in private homes as well. If
you've ever shopped for a home security system, then you know there are a wide variety
of options available. These systems range from do-it-yourself kits you can pick up for
$10 to sophisticated whole-house security networks that must be installed by
professionals. But, as it turns out, most alarm systems are actually built around the same
basic design concepts.

There are many different ways to create a motion sensor. For example:

• It is common for stores to have a beam of light crossing the room near the door,
and a photosensor on the other side of the room. When a customer breaks the
beam, the photosensor detects the change in the amount of light and rings a bell.
• Many grocery stores have automatic door openers that use a very simple form of
radar to detect when someone passes near the door. The box above the door
sends out a burst of microwave radio energy and waits for the reflected energy to
bounce back. When a person moves into the field of microwave energy, it
changes the amount of reflected energy or the time it takes for the reflection to
arrive, and the box opens the door. Since these devices use radar, they often set
off radar detectors.
 • The same thing can be done with ultrasonic sound waves, bouncing them off a
target and waiting for the echo.

All of these are active sensors. They inject energy (light, microwaves or sound) into the
environment in order to detect a change of some sort.

1.3 HARDWARE:

 Transmitter supply is 6v
 Receiver supply is 9v to 12v
 Range of this alarm is 4-5 meters without lenses

1.4 FEATURES

 This infrared burglar alarm can be used to protect gate,door,corridor etc

 The buzzer gets activated, when an intruder or unexpected visitor or any non-
rransperent object is interrupted between the transmitter and receiver

1.5 PACKAGE CONTENTS

 TRANSMITTER
 RECEIVER
 CHAPTER-2

WORKING & OPERATION

 CHAPTER-3

ARCHITECTURE & EXPLANATION

The architecture of the IR burglar deterrent confines various equipment and features of
the each are explained below.
The main components used in the construction of the alarm are the following:-
3.1 555 TIMER IC
3.2 TRANSISTORS
3.3 PHOTO DIODES
3.4 CAPACITORS
3.5 RESISTORS
3.1 555 TIMER IC

The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and
multivibrator applications. The IC was designed by Hans.R.Camenzind in 1970 and
brought to market in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The original name
was the SE555 (metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was described as "The IC
Time Machine". It has been claimed that the 555 gets its name from the three 5 kΩ
resistors used in typical early implementations, but Hans Camenzind has stated that the
number was arbitrary. The part is still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price
and good stability. As of 2003, it is estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every
year.

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20 transistors, 2
diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package
(DIP-8).Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one
chip), and the 558 (a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS &
THR connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).

Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and TLC555.
The 7555 requires slightly different wiring using fewer external components and less
power.

The 555 has three operating modes:

• Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications

include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc
• Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include
LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.
• Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS
pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched
switches, etc.
 The connection of the pins is as follows:

Nr. Name Purpose

1 GND Ground, low level (0 V)
2 TRIG A short pulse high-to-low on the trigger starts the timer
3 OUT During a timing interval, the output stays at +VCC
4 RESET A timing interval can be interrupted by applying a reset pulse to low (0 V)
5 CTRL Control voltage allows access to the internal voltage divider (2/3 VCC)
The threshold at which the interval ends (it ends if the voltage at THR is at
6 THR
least 2/3 VCC)
Connected to a capacitor whose discharge time will influence the timing
7 DIS
interval
8 V+, VCC The positive supply voltage which must be between 3 and 15 V

3.1.1 MONOSTABLE MODE:

Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode

The relationships of the trigger signal, the voltage on C and the pulse width in
monostable mode

In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a “one-shot” pulse generator. The pulse
begins when the 555 timer receives a trigger signal. The width of the pulse is determined
by the time constant of an RC network, which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor
(R). The pulse ends when the charge on the C equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The
pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific application by
adjusting the values of R and C.

The pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply
voltage, is given by

where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads. See RC circuit for an explanation

of this effect.

3.1.2 ASTABLE MODE

Standard 555 Astable Circuit

In astable mode, the '555 timer ' puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses
having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge
pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and
the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the
capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has
low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging
the capacitor.

In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2
and C:

The high time from each pulse is given by

and the low time from each pulse is given by

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the
capacitor in farads.

3.1.3 SPECIFICATIONS

These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have better specifications
depending on the grade (military, medical, etc).

Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA
Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA
Output current (maximum) 200 mA
Power dissipation 600 mW
Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C
3.2 TRANSISTOR

The design of a transistor allows it to function as an amplifier or a switch. This is

accomplished by using a small amount of electricity to control a gate on a much larger
supply of electricity, much like turning a valve to control a supply of water.

Transistors are composed of three parts – a base, a collector, and an emitter. The base is
the gate controller device for the larger electrical supply. The collector is the larger
electrical supply, and the emitter is the outlet for that supply. By sending varying levels of
current from the base, the amount of current flowing through the gate from the collector
may be regulated. In this way, a very small amount of current may be used to control a
large amount of current, as in an amplifier. The same process is used to create the binary
code for the digital processors but in this case a voltage threshold of five volts is needed
to open the collector gate. In this way, the transistor is being used as a switch with a
binary function: five volts – ON, less than five volts – OFF.

Semi-conductive materials are what make the transistor possible. Most people are familiar
with electrically conductive and non-conductive materials. Metals are typically thought of
as being conductive. Materials such as wood, plastics, glass and ceramics are non-
conductive, or insulators. In the late 1940’s a team of scientists working at Bell Labs in
New Jersey, discovered how to take certain types of crystals and use them as electronic
control devices by exploiting their semi-conductive properties. Most non-metallic
crystalline structures would typically be considered insulators. But by forcing crystals of
germanium or silicon to grow with impurities such as boron or phosphorus, the crystals
gain entirely different electrical conductive properties. By sandwiching this material
between two conductive plates (the emitter and the collector), a transistor is made. By
applying current to the semi-conductive material (base), electrons gather until an effectual
conduit is formed allowing electricity to pass The scientists that were responsible for the
invention of the transistor were John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley.
 Their Patent was called: “Three Electrode Circuit Element Utilizing Semi conductive
Materials.”

There are two main types of transistors-junction transistors and field effect transistors. Each
works in a different way. But the usefulness of any transistor comes from its ability to control
a strong current with a weak voltage. For example, transistors in a public address system
amplify (strengthen) the weak voltage produced when a person speaks into a microphone. The
electricity coming from the transistors is strong enough to operate a loudspeaker, which
produces sounds much louder than the person's voice.

3.2.1JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

A junction transistor consists of a thin piece of one type of semiconductor material between
two thicker layers of the opposite type. For example, if the middle layer is p-type, the outside
layers must be n-type. Such a transistor is an NPN transistor. One of the outside layers is
called the emitter, and the other is known as the collector. The middle layer is the base. The
places where the emitter joins the base and the base joins the collector are called junctions.

The layers of an NPN transistor must have the proper voltage connected across them. The
voltage of the base must be more positive than that of the emitter. The voltage of the collector,
in turn, must be more positive than that of the base. The voltages are supplied by a battery or
some other source of direct current. The emitter supplies electrons. The base pulls these
electrons from the emitter because it has a more positive voltage than does the emitter. This
movement of electrons creates a flow of electricity through the transistor.

The current passes from the emitter to the collector through the base. Changes in the voltage
connected to the base modify the flow of the current by changing the number of electrons in
the base. In this way, small changes in the base voltage can cause large changes in the current
flowing out of the collector.

Manufacturers also make PNP junction transistors. In these devices, the emitter and collector
are both a p-type semiconductor material and the base is n-type. A PNP junction transistor
works on the same principle as an NPN transistor. But it differs in one respect. The main flow
of current in a PNP transistor is controlled by altering the number of holes rather than the
number of electrons in the base. Also, this type of transistor works properly only if the
negative and positive connections to it are the reverse of those of the NPN transistor.

BD140 is epitaxial planar transistor which is mounted in the SOT-32 plastic package. They
are designed for audio amplifiers and drivers utilizing complementary or quasi-
complementary circuits. the complementary PNP types are the BD136 and BD140.

They are used in Medium Power Linear and Switching Applications. BD135, BD137 and
BD139 are complement to BD136, BD138 and BD140 respectively.

BD140 pin configuration

3.3 PHOTO DIODE

3.3.1 IN 4148 DIODE

The 1N4148 is a standard small signal silicon diode used in signal processing. Its name
follows the JEDEC nomenclature. The 1N4148 is generally available in a DO-35 glass
package and is very useful at high frequencies with a reverse recovery time of no more than
4ns. This permits rectification and detection of radio frequency signals very effectively, as
long as their amplitude is above the forward conduction threshold of silicon (around 0.7V) or
the diode is biased.

SPECIFICATIONS:

• VRRM = 100V (Maximum Repetitive Reverse Voltage)

• IO = 200mA (Average Rectified Forward Current)
• IF = 300mA (DC Forward Current)
• IFSM = 1.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 sec), 4.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 uSec) (Non-Repetitive
Peak Forward Surge Current)
• PD = 500 mW (power Dissipation)
• TRR < 4ns (reverse recovery time)

3.3.2 IR LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as
indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a
practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.

The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched on),
electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to
the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is
usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape
its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent
light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness,
smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. However, they are
relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional
light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are more expensive to buy than
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in
automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. Airbus uses LED lighting in
their A320 Enhanced since 2007, and Boeing plans its use in the 787. The compact size of
LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology.

Lifetime and failure

List of LED failure modes

Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low
currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs produced in the 1970s and 1980s are still
in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours but heat and current
settings can extend or shorten this time significantly.

The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light
output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. Early red
LEDs were notable for their short lifetime. With the development of high-power LEDs the
devices are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than
traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light output
degradation. To quantitatively classify lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested
to use the terms L75 and L50 which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 75% and
50% light output respectively. L50 is equivalent to the half-life of the LED.

3.3.3 IR SENSOR

A Passive InfraRed sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic device that measures infrared (IR)
light radiating from objects in its field of view. PIR sensors are often used in the construction
of PIR- based motion detectors (see below). Apparent motion is detected when an infrared
source with one temperature, such as a human, passes in front of an infrared source with
another temperature, such as a wall.

All objects emit what is known as black body radiation. It is usually infrared radiation that is
invisible to the human eye but can be detected by electronic devices designed for such a
purpose. The term passive in this instance means that the PIR device does not emit an infrared
beam but merely passively accepts incoming infrared radiation. “Infra” meaning below our
ability to detect it visually, and “Red” because this color represents the lowest energy level
that our eyes can sense before it becomes invisible. Thus, infrared means below the energy
level of the color red, and applies to many sources of invisible energy.

• Object Detection using IR light

It is the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic idea is to send infra red
light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any object in front of the sensor.
Then all you have to do is to pick-up the reflected IR light. For detecting the reflected IR light,
we are going to use a very original technique: we are going to use another IR-LED, to detect
the IR light that was emitted from another led of the exact same type!
This is an electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the fact that a led
Produce a voltage difference across its leads when it is subjected to light. As if it was a photo-
cell, but with much lower output current. In other words, the voltage generated by the leds can't
be - in any way - used to generate electrical power from light, It can barely be detected. that's
why as you will notice in the schematic, we are going to use a Op-Amp (operational Amplifier)
to accurately detect very small voltage changes.

3.4 CAPACITOR

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference (voltage) exists
across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and
produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a
narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often
called plates.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured

in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric
has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of power
supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency
equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-

conductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a vacuum
or a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is
assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from
an external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite charges on their
facing surfaces, and the dielectric contains an electric field. The capacitor is a reasonably
general model for electric fields within electric circuits.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor
causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

Energy storage

Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists and energy
is stored in the electric field. If charge is later allowed to return to its equilibrium position, the
energy is released. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of
energy stored, is given by:
Current-voltage relation

The current i(t) through a component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of change of
the charge q(t) that has passed through it. Physical charges cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, but rather build up in equal and opposite quantities on the electrodes: as
each electron accumulates on the negative plate, one leaves the positive plate. Thus the
accumulated charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current, as well as being
proportional to the voltage (as discussed above). As with any antiderivative a constant of
integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the
capacitor equation,

Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than
the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in
the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

DC circuits

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of
voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the
switch is open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation,

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The
initial current is then i (0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields

where τ0 = RC is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltage across the resistor
and the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a
charged capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor
voltage replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.

3.4.1 APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is
a rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.

Energy storage

A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be
used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain
power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile
memory.)

Conventional electrostatic capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram of energy
density, while capacitors using developing technologies can provide more than 2.52 kilojoules
per kilogram.

In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on demand. Also
for a flash tube a capacitor is used to hold the high voltage. In ceiling fans, capacitors play the
important role of storing electrical energy to give the fan enough torque to start spinning.

Pulsed power and weapons

Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor

banks) are used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications. These
include electromagnetic forming, Marx generators, pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers),
pulse forming networks, radar, fusion research, and particle accelerators.

Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for the exploding-bridgewire
detonators or slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty weapons.
Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for
electromagnetic armour and electromagnetic railguns and coilguns.

Power conditioning

A 10,000 microfarad capacitor in a TRM-800 amplifier

Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half
wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in
the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.

Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and
larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the
primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio
equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum
before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power
source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications,
when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the
lead-acid car battery.

Power factor correction

In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors
often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these
capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive
(VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and
transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp
loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually
with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a
large utility substation.

Signal coupling
capacitive coupling:

Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the applied dc
voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method
is known as or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not
be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at the signal frequency, is employed.

Decoupling
decoupling capacitor:

A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to protect one part of a circuit from the effect of
another, for instance to suppress noise or transients. Noise caused by other circuit elements is
shunted through the capacitor, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is
most commonly used between the power supply and ground. An alternative name is bypass
capacitor as it is used to bypass the power supply or other high impedance component of a
circuit.

Noise filters and snubbers

When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly,
creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large
enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or
sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A snubber capacitor across the
newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby
preserving their life; these were commonly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for
instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the
switch but will still radiate undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a filter
capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in
series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are
available in a single package.

Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage circuit breaker in order
to equally distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading
capacitors.

In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn
vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The
straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see electrolytic
capacitor).

Motor starters
motor capacitor:

In single phase squirrel cage motors, the primary winding within the motor housing is not
capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To start
the motor, a secondary winding is used in series with a non-polarized starting capacitor to
introduce a lag in the sinusoidal current through the starting winding. When the secondary
winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary winding, a rotating electric field is
created. The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor
spinning. When the rotor comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or current-
sensitive relay in series with the main winding) disconnects the capacitor. The start capacitor
is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing. These are called capacitor-start motors,
that have relatively high starting torque.

There are also capacitor-run induction motors which have a permanently-connected phase-
shifting capacitor in series with a second winding. The motor is much like a two-phase
induction motor.

Motor-starting capacitors are typically non-polarized electrolytic types, while running

capacitors are conventional paper or plastic film dielectric types.

Signal processing

The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent information, either in binary form, as
in DRAMs, or in analogue form, as in analog sampled filters and CCDs. Capacitors can be
used in analog circuits as components of integrators or more complex filters and in negative
feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to integrate a current
signal.

Tuned circuits

Capacitors and inductors are applied together in tuned circuits to select information in
particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to tune
the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use
capacitors to select different audio bands.

The resonant frequency f of a tuned circuit is a function of the inductance (L) and capacitance
(C) in series, and is given by:

where L is in henries and C is in farads.

Sensing

Most capacitors are designed to maintain a fixed physical structure. However, various factors
can change the structure of the capacitor, and the resulting change in capacitance can be used
to sense those factors.

Changing the dielectric:

The effects of varying the physical and/or electrical characteristics of the dielectric
can be used for sensing purposes. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric
can be used to measure humidity in air. Capacitors are used to accurately measure the
fuel level in airplanes; as the fuel covers more of a pair of plates, the circuit
capacitance increases.

Changing the distance between the plates:

Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Industrial
pressure transmitters used for process control use pressure-sensing diaphragms, which
form a capacitor plate of an oscillator circuit. Capacitors are used as the sensor in
condenser microphones, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed
position of the other plate. Some accelerometers use MEMS capacitors etched on a
chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used
to detect changes in acceleration, e.g. as tilt sensors or to detect free fall, as sensors
triggering airbag deployment, and in many other applications. Some fingerprint
sensors use capacitors. Additionally, a user can adjust the pitch of a theremin musical
instrument by moving his hand since this changes the effective capacitance between
the user's hand and the antenna.

Changing the effective area of the plates:

Capacitive touch switches are now used on many consumer electronic products.

3.4.2 TYPES OF CAPACITORS