the partials are whole-number multiples of the original frequency, that are perceived as

pleasant (octaves). If they are odd multiples, they are called odd harmonics and are
considered unpleasant, dissonant, harsher tones
◦ Timbre – the harmonics and their relative intensities
◦ Envelope:
▪ Attack
▪ Decay
▪ Sustain
▪ Release
◦ Loudness levels – human ear hears over a range of 1013: 1, so logarithms are used to
simplify the numbers
◦ Decibel (1/10th of a Bell – a unit of measurement used with older phones, named after
Alexander Graham Bell)
◦ Sound-pressure Level (SPL) – the acoustic pressure that's built up within (usually) a square
centimeter. The higher the SPL, the louder the sound (see this SPL chart). As the distance
from a sound is doubled, the sound will decrease by 6 dB, if the distance is halved, it will
increase by 6 dB
◦ Voltage – the pressure behind electrons within a wire
◦ Power – a measure of wattage or current; the flow of electrons through a wire over time.
◦ Takeaways
▪ a 1 dB change is noticeable to most ears (but not as much)
▪ Turning something up by 3 dB will double its level
▪ Turning something down by 3 dB will halve its level
▪ Turning something up 10 dB will be a ten-fold increase, turning it up 20 dB will be a
100-fold increase, 30 dB increase will be 1000 times louder (because of logarithms)
▪ Show diagram of ear and talk about how it works
▪ Take care of your hearing
• Acoustic trauma – ear exposed to sudden, loud noise, could lead to permanent
hearing loss (Pete Townshend – Kieth Moon blowing up drums)
• Temporary threshold shift – temporary loss of hearing – like after a loud rock
concert
• Permanent threshold shift – extended exposure to loud noises can lead to permanent
loss of hearing in that range
• Wear earplugs when around loud sounds
• Take 15-minute quiet breaks when around a lot of sound-press
• Have hearing checked periodically by an audiologist
 Basic Audio Recording Notes
Chapter Three

Studio Types

– If you spend hundreds or thousands of dollars on your equipment, you probably have a Project
Studio (under this definition, I personally have a Project Studio, though if you spend enough
time spending money on it ((like 20-30 years) you can easily end up with a Professional Studio)
– If you spend tens of thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, on your equipment, you
probably have a Professional Studio
– A third type of studio is the Audio-for-Visual Studio, which is for scoring films and other
visual projects.
– Professional studios are often defined by how much the budget is for creating them and by
building constraints. Pro equipment and facilities are very pricey. Fewer of these studios are
around these days as home-recording equipment has become so affordable.
– Anything from a lady with a laptop and microphone up to someone who spends tens of
thousands of dollars on equipment would probably be considered a Project Studio. Project
Studios are constrained by construction budgets and often have to make do with what's
available.
– Professional Studios are like other professional businesses in that they rent or buy pricey
buildings and equipment and have professional personnel on staff. A local professional studio
owner I know has microphones alone that are worth $100,000.00.

Form Factors Governing Studio Acoustics

– Acoustic isolation – keep external noises (airplanes, cars, trains, neighbors) to a minimum
– Symmetry in control room/monitoring design – allows you to hear the sounds in the optimal
environment (see Auralex analysis of my control room)
– Frequency balance – maintain the original frequency balance via symmetry in room design,
otherwise frequencies will not be heard accurately (will be imbalanced)
– Reflection – too much creates Standing waves (aka “room modes” - reflections off non-
absorbent surfaces) can continue to bounce around the room and artificially highlight certain
frequencies while de-emphasizing others. Sound can reflect around the room the way visuals
reflect in a room filled with funhouse mirrors. Standing waves cause phase problems (phase
cancellation). They are generated by rooms with parallel walls (which is most rooms) and also
the ceiling/floor
– Diffusion – helps break up standing waves (see Auralex T-fusor) and can help smooth out the
reverberation of the room (bookshelves are natural diffusors)
– Isolation rooms (aka acoustic partitions, gobos, baffles – can be made from palettes)
– Absorption – opposite of reflection – sucks some of the acoustic energy out of the room. Some
engineers agree that a ration of 25% absorption with 25% diffusion, 50% reflections is a good
balance
– Reverberation – the persistence of a signal (the time required for a sound to die)
– Acoustic echo chamber – an isolated room that has highly-reflective surfaces where
microphones are placed. You can create your own echo chambers in garages, showers and by
feeding speaker outputs into a large room. You could play a track into a church and record the
reverberation to add to the main tracks later.
 Basic Audio Production
Chapter 4: Microphones

Definition
• A microphone is a transducer that changes energy from one form (sound waves) to another
(electricity)
• The quality of the recorded sound will depend on external factors (placement, distance,
instrument and acoustic environment) and on design variables (microphone operating type,
design characteristics and quality)
• Three rules to apply when miking:
1. There are no rules, only guidelines
2. The overall sound of an audio signal is no tter than the weakest link in the signal path
3. Use the “good” rule. Good musician + good instrument + good performance + good
mike + good placement = good sound

Mike Design

• Three types of mikes are used:

1. Dynamic
2. Ribbon
3. Condenser

Dynamic Mic
This mic uses electromagnetic induction – when an electrically conducive metal cuts across the flux
lines of a magnetic field, a current of a specific magnitude and direction will be generated within that
metal.

These mikes contain a stiff Mylar diaphragm. Attached to the diaphragm is a finely-wrapped of metal
called the voice coil that is precisely suspended within a high-level magnetic field. When an acoustic
pressure wave hits the diaphragm, the attached voice coil is displaced in proportion to the amplitude
and frequency of the wave, causing the coil to cut across the lines of magnetic flux and creating an
analogous electrical signal through the output leads.

Traditional Ribbon Mic

These mikes use an extremely thin piece of aluminum (2 microns) that is corrugated. Sound pressure
waves cause it to move across the magnetic flux lines, creating a current that's equal in amplitude and
frequency to the acoustic waveform. These mics generate low electricity, so they must be attached to a
step-up transformer to get the audio to be at a higher volume.

Newer ribbon mikes use updated technology (please see the book for more information)

Condenser Mic
These mikes work using electrostatic principles, as opposed to the electromagnetic principles used by
the previous two mics. There are two metal plates: one is thin and movable and the other is static and
attached to the back of the microphone. DC power is put through the plates which create a
“capacitance” in-between the plates (this is called a “capacitor” it is also known as a “condenser.” As
the movable diaphragm is hit by acoustic sound waves, it moves back and forth, changing the amount
of space between the diaphragm and the back plate, thereby changing the electrical signal that is output
in a way that matches the amplitude and frequency of the incoming signal.
Condenser and ribbon mikes are often powered by the mixing board in a process known as “phantom
power.” This supplies +48 volts of electricity to the incoming signal to bring it up to a volume level
where it can be used.

Microphone Characteristics
The directional response of a mic refers to its sensitivity (output level) at various angles of incidence
with respect to the front (on-axis) of the microphone. The angular response can be graphically charted
in a way that shows a microphone's sensitivity with respect to direction and frequency over 360
degrees. This is called the mic's polar pattern. Mic directionality can be classified into two categories:

• omnidirectional
• directional

Omnidirectional mics pick up information from all sides (omni is Latin for “all). A directional mike
that is equally sensitive on two side of a diaphragm has a figure 8 or bi-directional polar pattern.
Frequency Response
The on-axis frequency-response curve of a microphone is the measurement of its output over the
audible frequency range when driven by a constant, on-axis input signal.

Rumble
At low frequencies, rumble may be picked up due to people walking in a hallway, passing cars or
trains, etc. This may be handled in several ways:

– Use a shock mount to isolate the mic from the vibrating surface and floor stand
– Choose a mic that has a restricted low-frequency response
– Restrict the response of a wide-range mic by using a low-frequency roll-off filter

Proximity Effect
This effect is an increase in bass response when a mic is brought within 1 foot of a sound source.