NURSING EDUCATION

Introduction To Education
• • Introduction
• • Conceptualization of Term: Origin, Meaning and Views of Eminent Experts
• • Education: Definition and Concept
• • Determinants of Education
• • Philosophy as Determinant of Education: Concept, Definition, Branches of Philosophy,
Types of Philosophies
• • Aims of Education: Various Aims of Education, Aims of Nursing Education
• • Factors Influencing Philosophy of Nursing Education
• • Educational Process: Process and Elements of Education.
• • Impact of Social, Economical, Political and Technological Changes in Education
• • Professional Education
• • Current Trends and Issues in Education
• • Educational Reforms and National Education Policy (Review)
• • Recommendations of Various Committees Pertaining to Nursing Education
• • Trends in Development of Nursing Education in India
• • Trends in Nursing Education
• • Issues Related to Nursing Education
 EDUCATION: MEANING, CONCEPT AND VIEWS OF
EXPERTS ON EDUCATION
‘Teaching is a very noble profession that shapes the character, caliber, and future of an
individual. If the people remember me as a good teacher, that will be the biggest honor for
me.
—A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

INTRODUCTION
I would like to dedicate this ‘unit-1 Introduction to Education’ in memory of our great
Indian leader, philosopher, great Scientist, India's pride, Bharat Ratna The Missile Man of India
–Dr Abdul Kalam. Despite the range of titles he had earned in his lifetime, the visionary preferred
to call himself A Teacher. Abdul Kalam, he is the only president—who has a lot of love for
children and feels that the future of India lies in them. According to Dr APJ Abdul Kalam (2006),
the education system has a tremendous responsibility to transform a child to a leader-the
transformation from ‘what can you do for me’ to ‘what can I do for you?’ The most important part
of education is inculcating in the students the spirit of ‘we can do it’. Education is an endless
journey—through knowledge and enlightenment. Real education enhances the dignity of a human
being and increases his or her self-respect and universal brotherhood in its true sense becomes the
sheet anchor for such education. According to Dr. Kalam, Education is a fundamental right of
every Indian child. He emphasized that education is a pillar of a developed and a powerful country,
besides the most important element for growth and prosperity of a nation.

MEANING OF EDUCATION
Generally speaking, ‘Education’ is utilized in three senses: Knowledge, Subject and a Process.
Etymological meaning of education
Etymologically, the word ‘Education’ has been derived from different Latin words.
1. ‘Educare’ which means ‘to bring out’ or ‘to nourish’.
2. ‘Educere’ which means ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw out’.
3. ‘Educatum’ which means ‘act of teaching’ or ‘training’.
4. ‘Educatus’ which means ‘to bring up, rear, educate’.
5. ‘Ēducātiō which means ‘a breeding, a bringing up, a rearing.’
The Greek word ‘Pedagogy’ is sometimes used for education.· The most common Indian
word ‘Shiksha’ is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ‘Shas’ which means ‘to discipline’, ‘to
control’, ‘to instruct’ and ‘to teach’. Similarly the word ‘Vidya’ is derived from Sanskrit verbal
root ‘Vid’ which means ‘to know’. Vidya is thus the subject matter of knowledge.
Narrower and Broader Meaning of Education
Education in the Narrower Sense
Education, in the narrower sense, is regarded as ‘equivalent of instruction’. It consists of
the ‘specific influences‘ consciously designed by a school or college or in an institution to bring
in the development and growth of the child. The word school includes the whole machinery of
education from Kindergarten to the University. The purpose is to achieve mental development of
children entering school. To make the narrow meaning of education more clear, the following
views of some other educationists are being given:
• The culture which each generation purposefully gives to those who are to be its successors,
in order to qualify them for at least keeping up, and if possible for raising the level of
improvement which has been attained.
—JohnStuart Mill
• In a narrow sense, Education may be taken to mean, any consciously directed effort to
develop and cultivate our powers.
—SS Mackenzie
• Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character and behavior of the
young are shaped and molded.
—Prof. Drever
• The influence of the environment of the individual with a view of producing a permanent
change in his habits or behavior, or thought and attitude.
—GH Thompson
Education in the Broader Sense
In its wider sense, Education is the total development of the personality. Education in the
wider sense is a lifelong process. It begins with the birth of a child and ends with his death.
Continuity is the law of life. Education is not limited to the classroom only; it is also not limited
to a particular period of life. Life is a continuous process of growth and development and so
education is also a continuous process. Throughout life one goes on learning to adjust oneself to
the changing patterns of life. In this way, education is a lifelong process of growth and
development. To make the broader meaning of education more clear, the following views of some
other educationists are being given:
• In the wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life, and is promoted by almost
every experience in life.
—SS Mackenzi
 • By education, I mean the all-round drawing out of the best in child and man's body, mind
and soul.
—MK Gandhi
• Education in its widest sense includes all the influences, which act upon an individual
during his passage from the cradle to the grave.
—Dumvile
• Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of the social continuity.
—John Dewey

DEFINITIONS AND VIEWS OF EXPERTS ON EDUCATION

• Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching. Education is further
defined as ‘to develop the knowledge, skill.
• Education is the manifestation of perfection already in man. Like fire in a piece of flint,
knowledge exists in the mind. Suggestion is the friction; which brings it out.
—Swami Vivekananda
• By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man's body, mind
and spirit.
—Mahatma Gandhi
• The highest education is that which does not merely give us information, but makes our
life in harmony with all existence.
—Rabindranath Tagore
• Education is something, which makes a man, self-reliant and self-less.
—Rigveda
• Education is that whose end product is salvation.
—Upanishada
• Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a means of earning a living; nor it is
only a nursery of thought or a school for citizenship. It is initiated into the life of spirit and
training of human souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue.
—Radhakrishnan
• Education develops in the body and soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection
he is capable of.
—Plato
 • 3Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound body. It develops man's faculty
specially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth,
goodness and beauty.
—Aristotle
• Education is the child's development from within.
—Rousseau
• Education is the enfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the process
through which the child makes the internal-external.
—Froebel
• Education is the harmonious and progressive development of all the innate powers and
faculties of man-physical, intellectual and moral.
—Pestalozzi
• Education is the development of good moral character.
—JF Herbert
• Education is not a preparation for life, rather it is the living. Education is the process of
living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those
capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfil his
possibilities.
—John Dewey
• Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child so that he can make
an original contribution to human life according to the best of his capacity.
—TP Nunn
The different meanings and views of experts on education as given above lead us to the
conclusion that education should have a comprehensive definition.
Thus, Education may be defined as a purposive, conscious or unconscious,
psychological, sociological, scientific and philosophical process, which brings about the
development of the individual to the fullest extent and also the maximum development of society
in such a way that both enjoy maximum happiness and prosperity. In short, Education is the process
of exchange of ideas, the outcome of which is maximizing the potential's of individuals, according
to his needs and demands of society, of which he is an integral part.
DEFINITION OF NURSING EDUCATION, PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION, FORMAL
EDUCATION, INFORMAL EDUCATION
Nursing Education is a professional education which is consciously and systematically
planned and implemented through instruction and discipline and aims at harmonious development,
i.e. physical, intellectual, social, emotional, spiritual and aesthetic powers or abilities of the student
in order to render Professional Nursing care to people of all ages, in all phases of health and illness,
in a variety of settings, in the best or the highest possible manner.
Professional Education includes any programme in which specialized training is provided
to students to make them competent in their chosen sector by increasing knowledge, improving
practical skills, changing attitude of those who commits to behave ethically to protect the interest
of the public e.g. Nurse, doctor, pathologist, physical therapists etc.
Formal Education is defined as, ‘the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded
‘education system’, running from primary school through the university and including, in addition
to general academic studies, a variety of specialized programmes and institutions for full-time
technical and professional training.’
—Combs with Prosser and Ahmed (1973)
Informal Education is defined as, ‘the truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires
attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and
resources in his or her environment – from family and neighbours, from work and play, from the
market place, the library and the mass media.’
—Combs with Prosser and Ahmed (1973)
Non-Formal Education is defined as, ‘any orga-nized educational activity outside the established
formal system – whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity
– that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives.’
—Combs with Prosser and Ahmed (1973)

AIMS OF EDUCATION
The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think—
rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the
memory with thoughts of other men.
— Bill Beattie

MEANING OF AIM, GOAL, OBJECTIVES, TARGET

The term Goal, Objectives, Target and aims are often confused and used interchangeably.
But, there is a difference in all these terms. Lets us understand these terms.
Goals are what we should achieve in the long term. Goals are long term aims. Goals are stated and
discussed in the overall management of the organization, since they are concerned with the
organization as a whole.
Objectives are to be accomplished in the medium terms. Objectives are relatively short term
milestones to be accomplished within the general goal. They are for the departmental level.
Objectives must be SMART, which stands for:
S—Specific
M—Measurable
A—Acheivable
R—Relevant
T—Time Bound
Targets generally are stated and discussed in the lower or supervisory level. Target refers to
physical achievements in the organization. Target is what you try to achieve.
Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational action. Aims are usually
written in amorphous words like: learn, know, understand, appreciate. Purpose and aims are
possessed by the person, whereas target, goal and objectives are what he aspires.
The main difference between aims and objectives is that Aims are what you want to
achieve, while, objectives are what you will do to achieve them. An objective is more specific in
character, while an aim is more abstract. Also, an objective is time-bound whereas an aim need
not be. Aiming is basically the first step of goal setting. Aims are things you plan to accomplish in
a small amount of time, like a class lesson. It's something you just have to pass, it's not as hard as
a goal or objective.

Fig. 1.1: Relationship between aims, objectives and goals

 This picture depicts that the Goals are long term. The aims are directed towards goals.
Aims gives direction to the activities. Aims of education are formulated keeping in view the needs
of the situation and Objectives are short steps taken by an individual to achieve set goals.

NEED OF EDUCATIONAL AIMS

• Education is a purposeful activity. By education we intend to bring certain desirable
changes in the students.
• Education is a conscious effort and, as such, it has definite aims and objectives.
• In the light of these aims, the curriculum is determined and the academic achievements of
the student are measured.
• Aims give direction to the activity. Absence of an aim in education makes it directionless.
• Every stage of human development has some aim for life. The aims of life determined by
aims of education.
• The aims of education have changed from age to age and thus it is dynamic because the
aims of life are dynamic.

VARIOUS AIMS OF EDUCATION

According to Dr Kalam, aims of education are as follows:
1. To build character and to cultivate human values in students.
2. To inject creativity and to develop a scientific attitude with a spiritual foundation
3. To enhance learning capacity through technology
4. To build confidence among children to face future challenges.
5. To ensure the creation of enlightened citizens to make the nation prosperous happy and
strong
6. To develop capacity for research and inquiry among students.
7. To unfold innovating powers and entrepreneurship
8. To develop moral leadership
9. To make the country independent.
10. To develop the sense of dignity, self-respect and self-reliance among students.
Aims of Education may be categorized as:
• The Individual Aims
• Social /Psychological Aim
• Professional Aims
• Self-Actualization Aims

The individual is the product of the society while society finds its advancement in the
development of its individual member. An Individual cannot develop in a vacuum. According to
John Adams, ‘Individuality 5requires a social medium to grow.’ According to T.P. Nunn,
‘Individuality develops in social environment.’ The true aim of education cannot be other than the
highest development of the individual as a member of society. Morover, we cannot ignore
Professional Aims of Education. Let us discuss individual, social and professional aims in detail.
1. The Individual aims: According to Sir Percy Nunn, ‘Nothing goods enter into the human
world except in and through the free activities of individual men and women. Education
should give scope to develop the inborn potentialities through maximum freedom.’
Development of an individual-physically, mentally and spiritually is well known aim of
education. Objectives related to this aim of individual development have been expressed
in following ways:
o Developing physical and mental abilities of an individual.
o Acquiring the capacities of understanding, appreciation and expression through
word and action.
o To make children self-confident and self dependent, and to make them physically
and mentally strong. Education is meant to develop every child's character,
personality and culture.
▪ The Knowledge or Information Aim: According to various educationists,
knowledge is indispensable for all right action and it is the source of all
 power. ‘It is knowledge which makes a realist a visionary successful in any
profession.’
▪ The Spiritual Aim: According to idealist thinkers, the spiritual
development of an individual should be the supreme aim of education.
Mahatma Gandhi has attached great importance to spiritual values in
education.
▪ The Character Formation Aim: Character is the cream of life and, as
such, it should be the aim of education. Vivekananda and Gandhi both
emphasized character building in education. Character formation or moral
education is concerned with the whole conduct of man. The Secondary
Education Commission (1951-52) has rightly remarked: ‘Character
education has to be visualized not in a social vacuum, but with reference to
contemporary socio-economic and political situation.‘
▪ Moral Values: The aim of Education must enable the student to inculcate
moral values. Such as faithfulness, goodness, purity, courage and honesty.
2. Social Aims: No individual can live and grow without society. Individual‘s security and
welfare depend on the society. Education should make each individual socially efficient.
A socially efficient individual is able to earn his livelihood. The individual is only a means.
The progress of the society is the aim of education. Education is for the society and of the
society. The function of education is for the welfare of the state. The state will make the
individual as it desires. It prepares the individual to play different roles in society.
Individuality has no value, and personality is meaningless apart from society. If society
will develop individual will develop automatically. Here society plays an important role.
The social aim of education should also take the form of social service and citizenship
training. The spirit of service, sacrifice and co-operation should be developed through all
the school programmes and practices.
The purpose of education should be the development of the fullest possible capacities and
potentialities physical and spiritual of a `total man’. It should make a man capable of earning his
livelihood reasonably well to enjoy a happy and secure life, while making effective contributions
to the society and national effort of making India strong, advanced and prosperous.
o The Culture Aim: The cultural aim of education has been suggested to supplement
the narrow view of knowledge aim. The cultural aim of education produces men of
culture.
o The Adjustment Aim: The adjustment is the primary rule of human life. Without
adjustment to the environment, no-one can survive. Life is a struggle for
adjustment. In the words of Horney: ‘Education should be a man's adjustment to
his nature, to his fellows and to the ultimate nature of the cosmos.’
o The Citizenship Training Aim: A citizen has to perform various civic duties and
responsibilities. Children should be so trained by education so that they can
 successfully discharge their various civic duties and responsibilities. The
Secondary Education Commission in India (1951-1952) has greatly emphasized
citizenship training in schools. Such training includes the development of certain
qualities, such as clear thinking, clarity in speech and writing, art of community
living, cooperation, toleration, and sense of patriotism and sense of world
citizenship.
3. Professional Aims
o The Vocational Aim: The vocational aim is also known as ‘the utilitarian aim or
the bread and butter aim.‘ The above stated ideals of education are useless unless
these aims enable us to procure the primary needs of our life-food, shelter and
clothing. Education must help the child to earn his livelihood. Education, therefore,
must prepare the child for some future profession or vocation or trade. The
vocational aim is a narrow aim of education. Therefore, the vocational aim is not a
complete aim in itself.
o The Leisure Aim: ‘Free and unoccupied Time‘ of an individual is generally known
as leisure. It is a time which we can use in a creative way. During leisure, we can
pursue an activity for own sake and not for earning a living, which is dull and
monotonous. During leisure we can also regain our lost energy and enthusiasm.
Leisure can make our life dynamic and charming.
4. Self-Actualization Aim
o The Complete Living Aim: Some educationists have insisted upon the need of an
all-comprehensive aim of education. This viewpoint has led to the development of
two aims–‘the complete living aim‘ and the ‘harmonious development aim.‘
According to Horney ‘there is no one final aim, subordinating all lesser aims to
itself… There is something in all these aims but not everything in any one of them.‘
o The Harmonious Development Aim: Educationists are of the opinion that all the
powers and capacities inherited by a child should be developed harmoniously and
simultaneously.

AIMS OF NURSING EDUCATION

• Harmonious development: Nursing education aims at the harmonious development of the
physical, intellectual, emotional, social, spiritual and aesthetic powers or abilities of the
student. Harmonious development is essential for achieving the qualities required for
leading a successful profession and personal life. In short, nursing education aims to
prepare students as good human beings with qualities of a professional nurse.
• Including the right attitude: Right attitude towards nursing form the basic of nursing
career. Right attitude helps to adjust to the student life and motivate them to achieve
 excellence in the upcoming professional life. Nursing education offers a variety of learning
experience with an attitude among students.
• Knowledge and skill aim: Nursing education provides the much needed knowledge and
skill required to practice the profession in a successful manner. Technological
advancement in the field of education helps nurse educator to fulfill this aim in a meticulous
way.
• Emphasis on high-tech-high-touch approach: High-tech-high-touch approaches in
nursing care were devised to preserve the human component of nursing care without
undermining the advantages of the technical advancements in the field of patient care.
Nurse educators have to motivate the students to maintain the human elements of nursing
while rendering care with the help of sophisticated gadgets.
• Prepare students to take up a role in learning: One of the aim of Nursing Education is to
make nurse educator role model for students. Nurse educator of today is considered as a
facilitator of learning, whose main duty is to prepare students to adopt a proactive role in
learning so that they will actively participate in the teaching-learning process.
• Professional development: Nursing education prepares the students to render professional
nursing care in the best or the highest possible manner. Nurse educators can fulfill the
professional aspirations of the students by way of providing guidance, arranging adequate
learning experience and serving as role models. The need for professional development in
this era of competition and knowledge explosion should be explained properly to the
students. Easy access to information, availability of staff development programs and
increased opportunities for higher education will help nurses to maintain the professional
development.
• Assist to build a promising career: Nursing profession offers a variety of career
opportunities. It helps students to realize their potential and interests and will enable them
to build a promising career.
• Democratic Citizenship: Nursing education should motivate the student to perform his or
her duties as a citizen for the welfare of the fellow human being.
• Social aim: Nursing education prepares the student to become a useful member in the
society. This will in turn help them to interact effectively with the people and render
dedicated care without any discrimination.
• To prepare global nurse: Globalization and liberalization have created worldwide
opportunities for professional nurses ever than before. Today a 7competent nurse with
good knowledge in English can easily build a career in other nations.
• Leadership aims: Since nursing profession is experiencing a shortage of eminent leaders.
Leadership aim is very important. Nursing education has to nurture leadership abilities
among students.
PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION
Philosophy is a scientific, systematic inquiry about the ultimate reality in the universe; it is
the basis for understanding man. Etymologically, the word philosophy has been derived from the
Greek words: ‘Philos’ means ‘Love’, ‘Sophia’ means ‘Wisdom’. It is the loving and searching for
wisdom and truth. The etymological meaning of the word ‘Philosophy’ is ‘love of learning’. It
signifies a natural and a necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in
which they ‘live and move and have their being’. It is impossible for man to live without a
philosophy.

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY
• It is a living force, a way of life, an attitude towards life, or search for truth and reality.
• It is a search for deeper and finer values of life.
• It is a search for a comprehensive view of nature.
• Philosophy refers to a certain way of thinking. It arises out of an attempt.
• To arrive at the solution of the problem through the use of human reasoning and experience.
• To find the deeper meaning of the problems.
• Philosophy is the study of the general principles and understanding all, i.e. God, the World.
• Each individual should have a philosophy of life, i.e. a set of standards, ideals which are
based on the principles that have been chosen as being acceptable to him.
• It is what we believe and the principle which governs our life.
• It is acting like a guide to have a concrete outlook on the world, life, human conduct and
actions.
• Philosophy is the most earliest and original intellectual discipline.

DEFINITIONS AND VIEWS OF EXPERTS ON PHILOSOPHY

• Philosophy is the science of knowledge.
—Fitch
• Philosophy is the science of all sciences.
—Coleridge
 • Philosophy is the mother of all arts.
—Cicero
• Philosophy is the persistent effort of both ordinary and persistent people to make life as an
intelligible as meaningful as possible.
—Bramold
• Philosophy is the tenacious attempt of reasoning men to think through the most
fundamental issue of life, to reach reasonable conclusions on the first and last things, to
suggest worthwhile goals that can command the loyalty of individuals and groups.
—Carlis Lamont
• Philosophy is a search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at a universal
explanation of the nature of things.
—Henderson
• Philosophy is an unceasing effort to discern the general truth that lies behind the particular
facts (i.e. The reality that lies behind the appearances).
• According to Alfred Weber ‘Philosophy is a search for a comprehensive view of nature,
an attempt at a universal explanation of the nature of things a person who searches into the
reason and nature of things, who tries to arrive at a general principle, and who attempts to
apply those principles to the daily conduct of life, acts like a true philosopher.
Branches of Philosophy
There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on a different aspect and is
central to our teaching. The three branches and their sub-branches are:

Branches Educational Examples

Metaphysics • Do you think human beings are basically good or evil?

What is the nature of reality? • What is conservative or liberal beliefs?

Epistemology • How would an anthropologist look at this classroom?

What is the nature of knowledge? • A political scientist? A biologist?
How do we come to know? • How do we know what a child knows?

Axiology • Is morality defined by our actions, or by what is in our hearts?

What values should one live by? • What values should be taught in character education?
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION
‘Philosophy and Education are the two flowers of one stem, the two sides of one coin. One can
never be thought of without the other. The presence of one is incomplete without the other. The
following are a few viewpoints that establish the relationship between philosophy and education:
• View of Ross: ‘Philosophy and education are the two sides of the same coin; the former is
the contemplative while the latter is the active side’.
• View of John Dewey: John Dewey endorses the viewpoint of Ross when he says,
‘Philosophy is the theory of education in its most general phase’.
• Fichte's view: ‘The art of education will never attain complete clearness without
philosophy’.
• Spencer's view: ‘True education is practicable to true philosophers’.
• Gentile's view: ‘Education without philosophy would mean a failure to understand the
precise nature of education’.
Following points explain the relationship between education and Philosophy:
Philosophy Points out the Way to be followed by Education
Education is the modification of the child's behaviour, whereas philosophy shows the way
to be followed by educators in the modification of the child's behaviour. Education is a laboratory
in which the philosophical theories are tested, thus education will be said as, ‘applied philosophy’.
Philosophy is wisdom; Education transmits wisdom from one generation to the other.
Education is the Best Means for the Propagation of Philosophy
A philosopher arrives at the truth after a great deal of emphasis on the real nature of the
universe, man, his destiny and lays down aims, ideals and values and then he tries to live in
accordance with them. He wants others to convert his beliefs and live according to them, thus it
can be achieved through education, which is the best means for propagation of his philosophy.
Education becomes more prominent than philosophy as action speaks louder than words.
All Great Philosophers are Great Educators
Philosophers reflected their views in their educational schemes. When the Philosopher
wishes to spread his ideals, beliefs, he formulates a scheme of education based on his philosophy,
e.g. Socrates, Buddha, Tagore, Gandhi, etc. were great philosophers and thinkers as well as great
educators.
Philosophy Determines Broad Aspects of Education
Philosophy provides aims of education, it determines the curriculum (Course of Study),
methods of teaching, school discipline, role of teacher, school problems, etc; Philosophy
influences and determines both the matter and the method of education. Thus, philosophy
contributes to the educational theory and practice.
 S Philosophy Education
No.

1. It sets the ideals, principles, goals, standards, Education works out those values.
values thus it is in reality and truth.

2. It is theory based. It explains how to achieve the goals through

man's educational efforts by practical
application of theory.

3. It is contemplative and tells way of life It denotes practically walking on that path.

4. It deals with abstract ideas. It deals with concrete ideas.

5. It is the art. It is the science.

6. Philosophy formulates the method. It deals with the use of this method.

7. Philosophy is wisdom Education transmits that wisdom from one

generation to the other.

8. Philosophic theories and speculations are Education is a laboratory. Education may be

tested and made concrete rightly called applied philosophy.

INFLUENCE OF PHILOSOPHY ON DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF EDUCATION

Philosophy and aims of education: Philosophy is the determining force in laying down the aims
of education. Aims of education are based on the views and ideals, beliefs, values and standards
of philosopher.
Philosophy and curriculum: Curriculum is the sum total of all the activities and experience
provided by the school to its pupils to achieve the aims of education. The philosophy determines
content and discipline that student will follow to achieve educations objectives.

TYPES OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophies are divided into 2 major types given as follows (Fig. 1.2):
A Synopsis of ‘Schools of Philosophy‘
Schools Characterizations

Idealism Reality is spiritual or mental. Knowing is recalling: Values, absolute we construct

world.

Realism Reality exists unperceived. Values are natural and absolute knowledge comes via
the senses.

Naturalism Only Nature exists -

Nature is better than Civilization

Empiricism Knowledge comes through the senses

Pragmatism Knowledge is what works.

Truth is Warranted Assertion values are Relative

Existentialism Individual construct their reality Deciding precedes knowing.

Philosophical Reality is what is verifiable.

Analysis
Truth corresponds to reality.
Usage determines meaning.

Perenniallsm Some knowledge is eternally valid.

Education cultivates intellect.

Essentiallism Certain skills and knowledge are essential for rational living.

Progressivism Children are naturally good. The child's needs and interests are relevant to the
curriculum.

Reconstructionism The school should help rebuild the social order.

Behaviorism Only the physical world is real.

Learning is changing behavior.
Fig. 1.2: Classification of education philosophy
Traditional Philosophies
• Naturalism: Naturalism is a doctrine that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to
matter and setup unchangeable laws as supreme. According to naturalists, human life is a
part of nature; it is a self-sufficient entity having its own natural matter, natural force and
natural laws. It emphasizes, on ‘matter and the physical world’. It does not believe in
spirituality and supernaturalism.
• Idealism: The word ‘Idealism‘ has been derived from ‘ideal‘ or ideas. Ideals or higher
values are much more significant in human life than anything else. This philosophy seeks
to explain man and universe in terms of spirit or mind. This philosophical thought, is
originated by the great Greek philosophers, Socrates and Plato. Man's spiritual nature is
considered to be the very essence of his being.
• Realism: Realism is an outcome of scientific development, by observation,
experimentation and examination if it is found to be true can be considered as real; realism
is directly related to man and society. Through realism man is able to enjoy the comforts
of society, after getting all the joys of life. Realism provides education, which is useful for
life where man can enjoy his activities and comforts in reality.
• Pragmatism: Pragmatism is a matter of fact, treatment of things based solely on their
practical utility. It is the element of utility that has the greatest appeal for a pragmatist. For
him, utility is truth and truth is utility. Pragmatism believes in practical and utilitarian
philosophy.
Modern Philosophies
• Existentialism: This philosophy views a man as participating in a world of things and
events, human existence is the nature of man to exist, to stand out into reality, to participate
in being, to be present to all.
 • Progressivism: Education is centered around for the present life itself. The development
of an individual and the society is only possible, when education facilitates the growth of
every phase of the child.
• Behaviorism: Each individual is having an ‘ ego‘/‘mind‘ centre of consciousness which
enable him to choose any course of action, that he wanted to do. Individual's actions are
predetermined by his heredity or immediate surroundings.
• Humanism: According to them, man is an end, not a means; the humanist emphasis is on
literature. He has to overcome the conflicts of his own time.
• Experimentalism: It rejects the laissez-faire indi-vidualism and permissiveness. They
accept a natu-ralistic point of view, but they want the control and utilization of nature– not
submission to nature. It accepts the perspective of evolution.
• Eclecticism: It is the fusion or synthesis of different philosophies of education. The
harmonization of principles underlying various tendencies and rationalization of
educational practices, the process of putting together the common views of different
philosophies into a comprehensive whole.
• Reconstructionalism: It is the total change of the entire system or desirable change of the
entire system.

IDEALISM EDUCATION
An idealist is one who on, noticing that a rose smells better than a cabbage, concludes that it
is also more nourishing.
— Mencken HL

MEANING OF IDEALISM
The word ‘idealism’ has been derived from ‘ideals’ or ‘ideas’. According to this
philosophy, ideals or lighter values are the most important thing in human life than anything else.
The idealist believe in the world of mind (metaphysics) and in truth as ideas (epistemology).
Idealism idolises ‘mind and spirit’. So, an idealist emphasize on spirituality of human being rather
than scientific facts. Ultimately this philosophy believes that ideas or higher values in their mind
make the human being perfect.

EXPONENTS OF IDEALISM
Guru Nanak, Mahatma Gandhi, Plato, Socrates, Kant, Tagore
CHIEF ASSERTIONS OF IDEALISM
• Idealism believes in ‘Universal mind’ means ‘GOD’: It means ‘GOD’ is creator and
others are created. As the Human mind is a part of Universal mind (God), so He is the
source of all values, knowledge and activities of human. Man is considered as ‘spiritual
being’ who is superior to all animals. So the main aim of human life is to achieve spiritual
values, e.g. truth, goodness, etc., which are permanent, undying and absolute. By following
these values, human being become higher in moral values and ultimately realization of
universal mind or god in ownself.
• Idealism regards man as a spiritual being: As the human being is superior to all animals
because of spirituality, so every individual soul (Atma) has to identify and merge into
universal mind (God) so by following spiritual values he will achieve this ultimate goal of
his life.
• The world of ideas and values is more important than the world of matter: Idealism has
full faith in eternal values which never change. These values can neither be created nor
destroyed. Man can only discover them, if they try. According to Plato, the outstanding
eternal values are; truth, goodness and beauty (sathyam, shivam, sundarum)
• Real knowledge is perceived in mind: The knowledge which is gained through activity
and creativity of mind is more important than the knowledge acquired through the senses.

IDEALISM IN EDUCATION
All idealists believe that man is born with the spiritual self. Education helps in increasing spiritual
values by developing moral values, self-realization and character development.

IDEALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

The most distinct contribution of idealism to the field of education is that it has provided human
life with very high aims.
Some of these important aims are as follows:
• Exaltation of human personality: Idealism aims at making man perfect so to become
perfect, self-realization is must which comes from education.
• Universal education: As all human beings are equal to god, so education should be
provided to human beings of the whole universe without any distinction of caste, creed,
color, religion or socioeconomic status.
• Development of inventive and creative powers: Education should foster inventive and
creative power in man to modify environment according to his own needs and purpose.
 • Acquisition and enrichment of cultural environment: Man himself is the creator of
cultural environment. So he must not only preserve what he has inherited, he should also
make his own contribution to the enrichment of that culture. Education must help him in
making this contribution.
• Development of moral senses: One of the important aim of education is to develop moral
values in the child so that he can distinguish between right and wrong.

THE CONCEPT OF STUDENT

• The student must bring himself closer to the absolute through imitation of the exemplar
(the teacher) and through the study of those subjects (the humanities) which best represent
or symbolize the true ideas of which the human race has knowledge.
• The idealistic pupil wish to be perfect, in whatever he does as well as he can.
• He is ambitious to deserve honors and scholarship.
• He wants to grow in knowledge and wisdom, to appreciate the aesthetic things in life to
deserve recognition and to be a worthy person.
• He strives for perfection because the ideal person is perfect.

THE CONCEPT OF TEACHER

• Idealists have high expectations of the teacher. The teacher must be excellent, in order to
serve as an example for the student, both intellectually and morally.
• The teacher must excel in knowledge and human insight into the needs and capacities of
the learners; and must demonstrate moral excellence in personal conduct and convictions.
• The teacher must also exercise great creative skill in providing opportunities for the
learner's minds to discover, analyze, unify, synthesize and create applications of knowledge
to life and behaviour.
• The teacher serves as a model for the student by teaching through example and guidance,
the lifelong habits of patience, tolerance and perseverance towards a goal.
• It is the teacher's responsibility to encourage the students and to provide them with
materials to encourage them to work to achieve higher goals. The idealist teacher tries to
be the right sort of person himself and to develop the right sort of personality in his pupils.
• The teacher should be close to the absolute and should be, in a very real sense, a co-worker
with the absolute in developing the pupil's capacities and guiding him closer to knowledge
of the ideal.
 • Since idealists believe in character development, they also believe that the teacher should
be a role model for students to imitate. Teaching is considered a moral calling.
• The teacher's role is to be a skilful questioner who encourages students to think and ask
more questions in an environment that is suitable for learning.

THE CURRICULUM
• Idealists believe that ideas can change lives and that classical literature can be used and
explored to help solve problems in today's world.
• Creativity will be encouraged when students immerse themselves in the creative thinking
of others and when they are encouraged to reflect.
• The curriculum is based upon the idea or assumption of the spiritual nature of man. This
idea in turn leads to an idea of the nature of the larger units of family, community, state,
earth, the universe, and infinity.
• In preserving the subject-matter content, which is essential for the development of the
individual mind, the curriculum must include those subjects essential for the realization of
mental and moral development. These subjects provide one with culture, and they should
be mandated for all pupils.
• Moreover, the subject matter should be kept constant for all. The idealist tradition of
subject matter is basically literary and places its primary emphasis on the subject matter of
books, especially those literary pieces considered the masterworks of information about
ideas.
• Because of the idealist's reliance on the world of the mind, their curriculum calls for little
contact with the experiential universe. The idealist educator has little place in his
curriculum for field trips and empirical or sensory data.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
• Idealist education involves depth of learning, a holistic approach that involves teaching the
whole rather than its parts. Knowledge was not important just for the material needs that it
met.
• The idealist is not concerned with turning out students with technical skills so much as
having students with a broad view and understanding of the world in which they live.
• Idealism emphasizes the role of the teacher, a skillful questioner, who should be a model
for the person we want children to become. While the lecture method is still important in
an idealist's education system, it is considered more of a way to convey information and to
help students comprehend ideas.
 • Self-realization and self-education are very important in idealism. While teachers cannot
always be present when learning occurs, they must attempt to stimulate students so that
learning occurs even when they are not present. Project based learning is one example of a
self-directed learning activity where learning can occur without a teacher's presence.
• As the curricular emphasis is the subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy,
and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and
Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and
clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring
to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed
through imitating examples and heroes.
• The classroom structure and atmosphere should provide the learners with opportunities to
think, and to apply the criteria of moral evaluation to concrete within the context of the
subjects.
• The teaching methods must encourage the acquisition of facts, as well as skill in reflecting
on these facts. It is not sufficient to teach pupils how to think. It is very important that what
pupils think about be factual; otherwise, they will simply compound their ignorance.
Teaching methods should encourage learners to enlarge their horizons; stimulate reflective
thinking; encourage personal moral choices; provide skills in logical thinking; provide
opportunities to apply knowledge to moral and social problems; stimulate interest in the
subject content; and encourage learners to accept the values of human civilization.

CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE
• Idealists feel that strict discipline is essential for self-realization. These is no situation in
which restraint is not required.
• Teacher's guidance is necessary at every step because he will impress upon his pupils the
importance of higher values by leading a virtuous life and they will try to follow his
example. In this way, the teacher will make the environment suitable for his pupils to
realize the higher values of life through self-discipline.
• It may, however, be noted that idealists are not against freedom. But for them freedom is
not a means as it is with the naturalist; it is an end. It is a well-deserved reward for the
youth who has learnt to live under self-imposed regulation and discipline.

LIMITATION OF IDEALISM
• Idealism may be considered to be outmoded in the prevailing scientific world-view.
Idealistic concepts like ‘spirit’, ‘mind’, ‘soul’, the ‘cosmos’ have little relevance in
classroom teaching.
 • The idealistic education stresses on imitation of models, but younger generation prefers
invention and originality rather than imitation.
• Too much emphasis on good manners and modesty may be mistaken for
diffidence/hesitancy.
• Idealistic scheme of education, by and large, pays less attention to physical, industrial,
electronic and social environment of today.

PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION
What we want and need is education: Pure and simple, and we shall make surer and
faster progress when we devote ourselves to finding out just what education is and what
conditions have to be satisfied in order that education may be a reality and not a name or a
slogan. Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.
—John Dewey, Experience and Education

INTRODUCTION TO PRAGMATISM
This philosophy deals with the practical utility of things. A pragmatist lives in the world
of facts and not in a world of ideas. In other word, pragmatism believes in practical and utilitarian
philosophy. The term ‘pragmatism’ derives its origin from a Greek word meaning ‘to do, to make,
to accomplish’. Meaning ‘action or practice or activity’. Beliefs and ideas are true, if they are
workable and profitable; otherwise false. Nothing is fixed in advance, everything is changing with
time.

CHIEF EXPONENTS
William James, John Dewey

PRAGMATIST AIMS OF EDUCATION

‘To have an aim is to act with meaning.’
—John Dewey, Democracy and Education
• According to pragmatism, the aim of education is dynamic in nature.
• According to pragmatists, the main focus of education is not the social heritage of the past,
but the good life in the present and in the future. The standard of social good is constantly
changing, so it should be tested and verified through changing experience. Life does not
stand still and there is a constant need for improvement.
 • Pragmatists believe that the aims are always determined by individual, not by any
organization or any structure.
• Activity and experience for the creation of new values, activity and experience are
essential, education should, therefore, provide physical, intellectual, moral and aesthetic
activities as the media for the creation of values.
• The main aim of education is, to direct the impulses, interests and abilities toward the
satisfaction of the felt needs of the child in the environment.
• Pragmatism emphasizes on adaptation to environment, construction and reconstruction of
experience and development of capacities to control the environment.
• It emphasizes on all round development of the individual. The individual must develop
physically, mentally, socially, morally and aesthetically.

PRAGMATISM AND EDUCATION

• Activity of curriculum: Pragmatism is not in favour for fixing curriculum in advance. An
outline of the activities may be kept in view in the beginning and a curriculum can be
evolved according to the requirement of the situations. Thus, it will be a flexible and
changing curriculum. While deciding it, the nature of the child and the multiple activities
of life must be taken into consideration.
• Utilitarian curriculum: Pragmatic curriculum is utilitarian. Only those experiences are
provided which give as much knowledge and skills to the child, as he requires for his
present and future life. At the elementary stage, reading, writing, arithmetic, nature-study,
drawing and handwork are provided. At a later stage, practical subjects like languages,
social studies, physical sciences, mathematics and hygiene are included in the curriculum.
Agriculture for boys and home science for girls is prescribed. Training in some craft or
vocation is also advocated.
• Principle of integration: While deciding the subjects of curriculum, the principle of
integration is kept in view. Instead of working at separate subjects, the pupil should be
encouraged to draw freely upon all knowledge that is relevant to the activity in which he
happens to be engaged.
• It neglects useful subjects as poetry and art.

PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM
• No ultimate values: The main principle of Pragmatic philosophy is that man creates his
values during the course of activity. There are no fixed values for all times to come. Even
truths are manmade products. There is nothing like absolute truth. According to
 pragmatism, whatever fulfils man's purpose and ‘desires and develops his life, is true. Truth
is that which gives satisfactory results when put into practice.
• Emphasis on experimentation: Pragmatism lays a special stress on the value of
experimentation. It stands for testing every statement by finding out its practical
implications. If these implications are desirable, the statement is accepted otherwise
rejected. Man is always carrying out various experiments in his life. But no judgment is
possible before an experiment is tested by experience
• Belief in practical philosophy: Pragmatism believes that philosophy is not simply wisdom
of the past. True philosophy is one that helps in the solution of practical problems of life.
It should be practical and useful in influencing the conduct of life and not a passive enquiry
or contemplation’. According to pragmatism, ‘philosophy is thinking what to do in a life
situation and it is brought into existence when problems occur’.
• Human development according to environment: Pragmatism believes that growth of
human personality takes place because of interaction with environment. Man tries to adjust
himself to his environment and this results in his growth. During the process of adjustment,
man not only adopts himself to his environment but he also tries to mould the environment
according to his needs, purposes and desires.
• Faith in democracy: Pragmatism has deep faith in democracy. It is only through
democracy that an individual can realize the maximum development of his personality.
This development is possible only in a social context. Individual development also leads
to the development of society. Thus a democratic social order is considered essential for
the healthy growth of individuals.
• Revolt against traditionalism: Pragmatism believes that reality is in the making truth
works in a practical situation. Whatever fulfils one's purpose and develops his life, is true.
So it is a revolt against traditionalism and absolutism.
• Pragmatism in education: This philosophy does not believe in imparting education for its
own sake. It is to be imparted with reference to human needs. It should enable the child to
solve his daily problems and also to lead a better and happier life by creating new values.
Education, therefore, must have its intellectual, moral, aesthetic, social and physical
aspects.

THE CONCEPT OF STUDENT

‘Children are to be treated as rational creatures.’
—John Locke’
• The Pragmatist views the student as a whole organism constantly interacting with the envi-
ronment. The school is both a part of this environment and a special man-made
 environment designed to provide the best possible educative experience to the learner. For
this reason, the student is especially involved in interaction with the school.
• The whole organism which is the child; consists of the biological child, the psychological
child, and the social child. The experiencing organism, which is the learner, brings to
school with him all the meanings, values, and experiences that constitute his personality:
his self.

THE CONCEPT OF TEACHER

Good teaching cannot be reduced to technique; good teaching comes from the identity and
integrity of the teacher.
—Parker J. Palmer, The Courage to Teach
• The teacher, for the pragmatist, is a member of the learning group who serves in the
capacity of helper, guide, and arranger of experiences. He is as involved in the educative
process as are these students.
• He advises and directs projects and activities that arise out of the felt needs of the students
rather than those of the teacher. He must arrange the conditions by simplifying, purifying,
ordering and balancing the environment in such a way as to provide the experiences that
will contribute the most to the growth of these students.

CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK
• The curriculum for the pragmatic philosophy supports a connection between knowledge
and experience. It is important for children to connect the two so that learning can become
meaningful.
• Pragmatists are of the opinion that the curriculum at the school should reflect the society.
They have rejected the traditional approach to subject matter curriculum which is
associated with formal schooling, where knowledge is separated from the child's own
interests, needs and experiences and fragmented or compartmentalized. They emphasize
the needs and interests of the children.
• Pragmatists believe in a broad and diversified curriculum. They endorse a more general
education as opposed to narrow specialization. Pragmatic curriculum is composed of both
process and content.
• Pragmatists focus some attention on process, because ends should not be dissociated from
means.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
• The widest variety of techniques have been justified in the name of pragmatic philosophy,
ranging from the almost complete laissez-faire to the relatively structured. Classroom
discussion in a free and open atmosphere is encouraged, as well as individual problem
solving research. All of this may well involve a tremendous amount of reading, studying,
and traditional subject matter mastery.
• This philosophy believes that not all children learn the same way, so it is important to vary
educational methods. This philosophy supports large print text, small desk, and things that
move easily. The classroom would be a functional atmosphere with the interest of the
children at hand. Problem-solving, themes, experiments are all parts of the pragmatic
philosophy.
• Pragmatic method is rooted in the psychological needs of the students rather than in the
logical order of the subject matter. Thus, method is nothing more than helping the students
to use intelligence and the scientific method in the solution of problems that are meaningful
to the child.

METHODS OF TEACHING
• Pragmatics believes in experimenting with new methods. These methods are devised by
the teacher in the light of real life situations. Education is not teaching or imparting
knowledge but to encourage learning through self-effort and creative activity. Knowledge
is not obtained from books but by actually doing things.
• Pragmatism stresses on “action rather than reflection“. The child should be put in real
situations so that he may himself solve the problem practically, which arise out of those
situations. He must be engaged in purposeful creative activity and problematic acts.
• The most important contribution of pragmatism to educational practice is the ‘project
method’, which is ‘a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting’. The child
is given a real and purposeful task to carry out. While doing so, he experiences the need of
certain principles, skills and methods which he acquires, not formally but incidentally.
Thus, the child gets knowledge and skills from the experiences gained in the
accomplishment of that task. Psychologically also, this method is sound because the child
is always interested in doing things with his own hands. In such a method, the school, the
curriculum and the subject-matter are all considered from the child's points of view.

PRAGMATISM AND DISCIPLINE

• The pragmatists believe that purposeful and cooperative activities, carried on in a free and
happy environment, are conducive to good discipline. Such activities create in children
 virtues like tolerance, mutual respect, self-control, initiative, and originality. They thus, go
a long way in the training of character and the establishment of self-discipline’.
• It is not imposed on the child by any external authority. On the other hand, the child
imposes it upon himself voluntarily. Hence this is the best type of discipline.
• Pragmatism also emphasizes social discipline through participation in cooperative
activities in the school society.

LIMITATIONS
• The pragmatic philosophy of education, by and large, ignores the place of spirit of the
essence.
• Problems selected by the students may be unreal, having no relation to real life situations.
• Pragmatism does not provide for regular and systematic instruction.
• Pragmatism leaves many curricular gaps and deficiencies in the learning process.
• Pragmatism puts heavy demands on the teacher. Only a few resourceful and gifted teachers
may be able to cope with the demands of teaching in an environment set up under pragmatic
conditions.

NATURALISM
From the solemn gloom of the temple children run out to sit in the dust, God watches them
play and forgets the priest‘
— Rabindranath Tagore
Naturalism is a concept that firmly believes that ultimate reality lies in the nature of the
matter. Matter is considered to be supreme and mind is the functioning of the brain that is made
up of matter. The whole universe is governed by laws of nature and they are changeable. It is
through our sense that we are able to get the real knowledge. The sense works like real gateways
of knowledge and exploration is the method that helps in studying nature.

INTRODUCTION TO NATURALISM PHILOSOPHY

Naturalism as a philosophy of education was developed in the 18th century. This
philosophy believes that nature alone represents the entire reality. There is nothing beyond nature,
behind nature and other than nature. According to this philosophy, human life is a part of scheme
of nature. It is a self-sufficient entity, having its own natural laws to the entire human experiences,
materials, rational or spiritual values. It emphasizes on ‘matter’ and the ‘physical world’.
According to naturalism ‘material world is the real world’. This material world is governed by
certain laws. So man, who is a creature of the material world, must submit to these laws.

CHIEF EXPONENTS
Democritus, Bacon, Herbert Spencer, Huxley

NATURALIST AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

• Self-preservation is the first of the five objectives. In order to live completely, as man has
first of all to live, he has to continue his own existence. While instinct is the chief guarantee
of this objective, education may also help by acquainting the learner with the laws of health
and enabling him to earn a living.
• Securing the necessities of life: It is especially in the realm of developing economic
efficiency that education helps in preserving life. Money is not life, but it is a necessity in
maintaining life. Education should train directly for success in this important function.
• Raising children: According to Spencer, the most important function that most men and
women have to perform is that of being parents. Therefore, education should deal
unashamedly both with the care of children in the nursery and the discipline of them as
growing boys and girls.
• Maintenance of social and political relations: Beyond the home in the far-reaching social
structure, man must have some understanding and mastery of social and political processes
if living is to be complete. He must be a wise citizen who is equipped for effective social
and political action.
• Enjoyment of leisure: Life is not all serious struggles, keeping physically strong, earning
a living, being a responsible parent and an earnest citizen. Complete living also includes
freedom from struggle, some of the time for ‘gratification of the tastes and feelings.‘

DIFFERENT FORMS OF NATURALISM

Naturalism as a philosophic doctrine has three distinct forms. They are:
• Physical naturalism: This form believes that the laws of physical nature govern the laws
of human life. Reality does not exist within the individual. It is rather outside him, in the
natural universe. Tagore calls ‘nature’ as ‘the manuscript of God’. Since human life is
moulded and controlled by external nature, it should be in accordance with the natural laws.
Such a philosophy throws man in the background and, as such, it has not influenced
educational theory and practice.
 • Mechanical naturalism: This form regards man as a mere machine. There is no spirit or
soul. The only matter is everything. The mind is also matter, which is made of atoms, empty
space and motion. Matter keeps on moving and changing and this change is governed by
the laws of physical science. Man is also matter. He is a mere machine, governed by
mechanical laws. He has no creative capacity, purpose or direction. This philosophy,
therefore, aims at training man as a good machine and keeping it in good working
conditions.
• Biological naturalism: This form seeks to explain man in terms of the lower form of life
from which he has evolved. According to this philosophy, body which he has in common
with other animals, is the real man. Man's natural endowments, including his instinct
emotions and temperament, are the real springs of his behavior. If our behavior is according
to our instincts, we feel happy, if not we feel unhappy and disappointed. Education should
try to sublimate these natural impulses for socially desirable ends. It is this form of
naturalism, which has made the most significant contribution to the development of
educational theory and practice.

THE CONCEPT OF TEACHER

• According to naturalists, the teacher is the observer and facilitator of the child's
development rather than a giver of information, ideas, ideals and will power or a moulder
of character.
• In the words of Ross, ‘Teacher in a naturalistic set up is only a setter of the stage, a supplier
of materials and opportunities, a provider of an ideal environment, a creator of conditions
under which natural development takes place. The teacher is only a non-interfering
observer‘.
• The teacher's role is to remain in the background. The natural development of the child
should be stimulated. Since, nature is considered to be the best educator.
• For Rousseau, the teacher, first of all, is a person who is completely in tune with nature.
He has a profound faith in the original goodness of human nature. He believes that human
beings have their own time-table for learning.
• Naturalists are of the view that teacher should not be one who stresses books, recitations
and massing/shaping information in literary form, ‘rather he should give emphasis on
activity, exploration, learning by doing‘.
• Great emphasis was placed upon the study, which teachers should base on the
environmental background of each student, since the unacceptable behavior was rooted
there rather than in the pupil's ill will.
• Teachers were advised to learn about the racial, national, and religious backgrounds of
their students. If a pupil caused trouble or lacked initiative in school, the home conditions
should be studied to see whether a home broken by divorce, death, or marital conflict is
 responsible for the child's difficulties. If a teacher was unable to manage a class, he was
held responsible because he lacked insight into child nature.

THE CONCEPT OF STUDENT AND CURRICULUM

‘I hate books; they only teach us to talk about things we know nothing about.‘
— Jean Jacques Rousseau
• The pupil is to the teacher what man is to the philosopher. For a man who is interpreted by
the philosopher also has various practical engagements, one of which is being a pupil at
school in his formative years, may be a student in institutions of advanced learning during
his more mature years, and we hope a learner throughout life. If a philosopher is also a
teacher and at the sometime is consistent in both thought and practice, he will view man as
a pupil in the classroom in the same way he thinks of him when philosophizing. So the
doctrine of the pupil is virtually the doctrine of man in the classroom.
• Its curriculum is usually based on the needs, interests and abilities of the child in relation
to its levels of development. So, a child-centered curriculum forms an amicable answer of
the Naturalist. It helps in recognizing individual differences and experiences of the child
should form the core element of the curriculum. The curriculum of the naturalists might be
classified as experience-centered.
• Professional courses in child and educational psychology became the center of the
educational program for teachers. ‘Know the child and you will know what to teach’
became the slogan of the naturalists.
• As a doctrine, naturalism does not favour in imposing any boundary on the children. They
think that each and every child has the power to and demand of his own to frame
curriculum.
• They have advised to include the following in the curriculum: Science dealing with nature
will include Physics, Chemistry, Botany, etc. These branches of science will help children
to be acquainted with nature. Mathematics and language will be included because these
will help to acquire the subjects of science. History and Social Science – In order to acquire
modern knowledge, one should practice the process of evolution. It will also help to realize
the importance of those in their present life. Agriculture and Carpentry will offer
opportunity for the children to act them in freedom and will increase their power of
observation.
• Naturalists felt the importance of Physical Education and Health Training for self-
protection. But they did not form any particular curriculum for this. They say that the
children should be given the opportunity for their free movement of bodies in natural
environments. They will thus acquire techniques of self-protection from nature and expose
themselves in nature.
 • They have included drawing as compulsory in the curriculum.
• Naturalists have also commented about ethical and spiritual training in the curriculum.
• They were against spiritual training as according to them children should pick their own
religion from experiences they acquire. They also said that ethical training should not be
imposed on children. They will build their own ethical sense in natural order, by receiving
rewards and punishments.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF NATURALISM

According to naturalism:
• The material world is the real world.
• The mind is subordinate to matter.
• Nature alone is the source of all knowledge.
• Values are created in terms of specific needs.
• All real values exist in nature in living close to nature.
• There is no possibility of any ‘supernatural being’.
• The individual is always given precedence.
• Man creates societies is always given precedence.
• Man creates societies only to meet some of his needs.
• Nature alone represents the entire reality. There is nothing beyond nature, behind nature
and, other than nature.
• Human life is a part of the scheme of nature. It is a self-sufficient entity, having its own
natural laws to the entire human experiences, material, rational or spiritual.

METHODOLOGY OF INSTRUCTION
• Methods of instruction should be inductive. This follows from Nature's advice that teaching
make fullest use of the self-activity of the pupil, telling him as little as possible and
encouraging him to discover as much as possible for himself. To tell a child this and to
show him that only makes him a recipient of another's observations. If the learning intellect
is to be guided to its appropriate food, children must master the art of independent
observation and direct acquaintance.
• The educational implications of the naturalistic theory holds that good education is
pleasurable, thus, methods of teaching should be based upon the belief that the child is not
 averse to learning, but enjoys it. Teaching methods and materials will appeal to student's
natural inclination to learn. Difficult tasks should be made pleasant.
• The natural mode of self-expression is play and learning should be done through cheerful
spontaneity and creativity of play. The process of discovery is given importance. The
activities like excursions, field trips and practical experiments are recommended to
enhance learning.
• Pupil activity should be in form of recitation or written and oral examinations.
• Naturalism maintains that all teaching methods should be based on experience. Since, they
rely on the inductive method; they insist that the first criterion for judging the value of a
teaching method should be based on self-activity of the pupil finding the answers for
himself.
• The pupil himself must observe nature in order to find facts and discover answers to his
problems. All teaching methods should be characterized by pupil activity involving direct
experience; the pupil must educate himself.
• A second characteristic of naturalistic teaching-learning methods is found in their
conformity to the natural development of the pupils. It means readiness of the organism for
any given learning. Negatively stated, this principle means that it is not the teacher or
society that determines what the child should learn, but his own developmental level.
Positively stated, it means that when the organism is ready for a certain type of learning
activity, it will seek in naturally, that is, without being forced by the teacher or by adult
society. Thus the pupil will learn about his physical environment when his interests and
instincts lead him to such learning; boy-girl relationships will be developed when children
reach the age for such relationships; pupils will learn to read when they are ready.
• A third characteristic of naturalistic methodology is that all educational activities should
be enjoyable to the child. The tasks assigned by traditionalist teachers were designed to
discipline the student and therefore were considered unpleasant by the student, but the
naturalist felt that any task that is against interest of pupil should be avoided.

METHOD OF TEACHING
• Learning by doing: Naturalists are not in favour of direct teaching through lectures of
textbooks. In place of book-learning, they emphasize the value of concrete objects. They
advocate the direct experience of things and believe in the principle of ‘learning by doing’.
Rousseau says, ‘Give to your pupil no verbal lesson’. He should be taught experience alone.
Teaching by doing whenever you can and fall back on words when doing is out of the
question. Book knowledge should be as little as possible. In the study of language, direct
method of teaching is advocated to ensure the vocabulary of a student. In the teaching of
science and mathematics, Heuristic method is emphasized, in a place of ‘chalk-and-talk’
 procedure. Geography is to be taught with practical through actual excursion and
observation.
• Play-way method: The naturalists advocate play-way as another important method of
imparting education. Its underlying principle is that all learning should take place in the
spirit and by the method of play-way. It is, therefore, regarded as the most natural and most
outstanding method of creative education. It creates the spirit of joyful, spontaneous and
creative activity.
• Observation and experimentation: The naturalists criticize the time-table, and disfavour
any type of rigidity in the daily time schedule. So they have devised such schedules as the
Dalton plan, which gives freedom to the pupils to choose his own schedule of work. They
learn through observation and experimentation.
• Self-government and self effort: The naturalists also emphasize open-air schools, self
government in schools and the establishment of coeducation in educational institutions.
Self-government will give direct experience of social life while coeducation will develop
the right type of family and community life. Thus, the contribution of naturalism to the
field of modern methodology of education is most outstanding and most abiding.

CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE
• Punishment should be constituted by the natural consequences of wrong deeds; should be
certain, but tempered with sympathy. As we should teach in accordance with the rhythms
of nature, so we should also punish as nature punishes.
• Naturalism aims at making education free from the bondage of rigid discipline under which
children were tortured.
• The freedom of child disciplines him and he is naturally controlled by his own learning and
experiences. It is believed that discipline is regulated by natural consequences.
• The situation will provide a form of innate discipline that should replace that of the teacher.
To illustrate, a child learns to avoid hot objects because he has experienced the discomfort
and pain which follow his touching them, the pupil learns to cooperate with other pupil
when he finds himself excluded by his classmates. For example, every time a child puts his
finger into the candle flames he gets a burn. Always it happens; always it is a burn. There
are no harsh words, no snapping and snarling, just a burn proportionate to the size of the
flame and the extent and duration of the contact. By this means nature quickly teaches the
normal child the dangers of fire, and exemplifies for parents and teachers what is desirable
in corrective relations with children.
WEAKNESS OF NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
• Naturalism in its extreme form neglects books and other media. It is very difficult to assume
that we can neglect the vast quantities of printed materials.
• Physical nature alone is not sufficient for providing, education.
• Absolute freedom to child is a myth. It cannot exist. Child cannot be allowed the freedom
to hang himself.
• Naturalism ignores the higher ends in the education process.
• It is very difficult to find naturalistic surroundings for locating educational institutions.
• Naturalism plays very little importance to the teacher in the educative process.

REALISM IN EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION
For the realist, the world is as it is, and the job of schools would be to teach students about
the world. Goodness, for the realist, would be found in the laws of nature and the order of the
physical world. Truth would be the simple correspondences of observation. The realist believes in
a world of things or beings (metaphysics) and in truth as an observable fact. The realist would tend
to view the learner as a sense mechanism, the teacher as a demonstrator, the curriculum as the
subject matter of the physical world (emphasizing mathematics, science, etc.), the teaching method
as mastering facts and information, and the social policy of the school as transmitting the settled
knowledge of western civilization.

AIMS OF EDUCATION AND REALISM

• Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. According to them, aims
are specific to each individual and his perspectives. The aim of education should be to teach
truth rather than beauty, to understand the present practical life. The purpose of education,
according to social realists, is to prepare the practical man of the world.
• The science realists expressed that education should be conducted on universal basis.
Greater stress should be laid upon the observation of nature and the education of science.
Neo-realists aim at developing all-round development of the objects with the development
of their organs.
• The realist's primary educational aim is to teach those things and values which will lead to
the good life. But for the realist, the good life is equated with one which is in tune with the
overarching order of natural law.
 • Thus, the primary aim of education becomes to teach the child the natural and moral law,
or at least as much of it as we know, so that his generation may lead the right kind life; one
in tune with the laws of the universe. There are, of course, more specific aims which will
lead to the goals already stated. For example, realists set the school aside as a special place
for the accumulation and preservation of knowledge.
• The aim of education, as the realist sees it, is fourfold: to discern the truth about things as
they really are and to extend and integrate such truth as is known, to gain such practical
knowledge of life in general and of professional functions in particular as can be
theoretically grounded and justified; and, finally, to transmit this in a coherent and
convincing way both to young and to old throughout the human community.

REALISM AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

The objectives of education according to Realism are as follow:
• Equipping students with knowledge and skill needed to understand and master their
physical environment.
• Enabling students to adjust themselves to the realities of the physical world and to adjust
with adult approved behaviour.

REALISM AND THE CHILD

• Realism in education recognizes the importance of the child. The child is a real unit which
has real existence. He has some feelings, some desires and some powers. All these cannot
be overlooked. Child can reach near reality through learning by reason. Child has to be
given as much freedom as possible. The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of
facts. The child can learn only when he follows the laws of learning.
• The child is to be understood a creature of the real world there is no sense in making him
a God. He has to be trained to become a man only. To the realist, the student is a functioning
organism which, through sensory experience, can perceive the natural order of the world.
The pupil, as viewed by many realists, is not free but is subject to natural laws.
• The pupil must come to recognize and respond to the forced order of nature in those cases
where he cannot control his experiences, while learning to control his experiences where
such control is possible. At its most extreme, the pupil is viewed as a machine which can
be programmed in a manner similar to the programming of a computer.

REALISM AND THE TEACHER

• According to realist, the teacher is simply a guide. The real world exists, and the teacher is
responsible for introducing the student to it. To do this he uses lectures, demonstrations,
 and sensory experiences, The teacher does not do this in a random or haphazard way; he
must not only introduce the student to nature, but show him the regularities, the ‘rhythm‘
of nature so that he may come to understand natural law.
• Both the teacher and the student are spectators, but while the student looks at the world
through innocent eyes, the teacher must explain it to him, as well as he is able, from his
vantage point of increased sophistication. For this reason, the teacher's own biases and
personality should be as muted as possible. In order to give the student as much accurate
information as quickly and effectively as possible, the realist may advocate the use of
teaching machines to remove the teacher's bias from factual presentation.
• The whole concept to teaching machines is compatible with the picture or reality as a
mechanistic universe in which man is simply one of the cogs in the machine. A teacher
should be such that he himself be educated and well-versed with the customs of belief and
rights and duties of people, and the trends of all ages and places.
• He must have full mastery of the knowledge of present life. He must guide the student
towards the hard realities of life. He is neither pessimist, nor optimist. He must be able to
expose children to the problems of life and the world around.
A teacher should always keep in mind:
• Education should proceed from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract.
• Students to be taught to analyze rather than to construct.
• Vernacular to be the medium of instruction.
• Individual's experience and spirit of inquiry is more important than authority.
• No unintelligent cramming. More emphasis on questioning and understanding.
• Re-capitulation is necessary to make the knowledge permanent.
• One subject should be taught at one time.
• No pressure or coercion is brought upon the child.
• The uniformity should be the basic principle in all things.
• Things should be introduced first and then the words.
• The entire knowledge should be gained after experience.
• There should be a correlation between utility in daily life and education.
• The simple rules should be defined.
• To find out the interest of the child and to teach accordingly.
REALISM AND CURRICULUM
‘According to humanistic realism, classical literature should be studied but not for studying
its form and style but for its content and ideas it contained.’
• Subject matter is the matter of the physical universe-the real world-taught in such a way,
as to show the orderliness underlying the universe. The laws of nature, the realist believes,
are most readily understood through the subjects of nature, namely the sciences in all their
many branches.
• The highest form of this order is found in mathematics. Mathematics is a precise, abstract,
symbolic system for describing the laws of the universe. Even in the social sciences we
find the realist's conception of the universe shaping the subject matter, for they deal with
the mechanical and natural forces which bear on human behaviour.
• Sense-realism focuses on more importance to the study of natural sciences and
contemporary social life. Study of languages is not so significant as the study of natural
sciences and contemporary life.
• Neo-realism gives stress on the subject physics and on humanistic feelings, physics and
psychology, sociology, economics, ethics, politics, history, geography, agriculture varied
arts, languages and so on, are the main subjects to be studied according to the neo-realists.

REALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

• The method of the realists involves teaching for the mastery of facts in order to develop an
understanding of natural law. This can be done by teaching both the materials and their
application. In fact, real knowledge comes only when the organism can organize the data
of experience.
• The realist prefers to use inductive logic, going from the particular facts of sensory
experience to the more general laws deducible from these data. These general laws are seen
as universal natural law.
• When only one response is repeated for one stimulus, it is conditioned by that stimulus.
Now wherever that situation comes, response will be the same; this is the fact.
For Herbart, education was applied psychology. The five-step method he developed was as
follows:
Preparation: An attempt is made to have the student recall earlier materials to which the new
knowledge might be related. The purpose of the lesson is explained and an attempt is made to
arouse interest in the learner.
Presentation: The new facts and materials are set forth and explained.
Association: A definite attempt is made to show similarities and differences and to draw
comparisons between the new materials and those already learned and absorbed into the
apperceptive mass.
Generalization: The drawing of inferences from the materials and an attempt to find a general
rule, principle, or law.
Application: In general, application means working of academic exercises and problems based on
both the new and relevant information.

REALISM AND DISCIPLINE

• Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust
himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out change in the real
world is impossible. The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact
and adjust himself to the world.
• A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies, hardships
and shortcomings pervading the world. One has to adjust oneself to this material world.
• The student must be disciplined until he has learned to make the proper responses. One
tiny grain of truth is worth more than volumes of opinion.

HUMANISM IN EDUCATION
‘The four characteristics of humanism are curiosity, a free mind, belief in good taste, and
belief in the human race.’
—EM Forster

INTRODUCTION
Humanism is a belief that individuals control their own destinies through the application
of their intelligence and learning. According to Humanism, Fundamental principles of education
in Humanism are self evaluation, feelings and environment. Self-evaluation is the only meaningful
evaluation of a student's work, Feelings are as important as facts, Students learn best in a non-
threatening environment. Humanism believes in respect for ancient culture, respect for
intellectuals and literary scholarship and respect for language.
HUMANISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
As described by Gage and Berliner (1991), there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view
of education:
• According to humanism, teacher is expected to be well read, well trained in humanities,
and all subjects.
• Promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system).
• Develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective
systems).
• Develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition).
• Curiosity (exploratory behaviour, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of the
systems).
• An interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system).

HUMANISM AND CONCEPT OF TEACHER

There are a variety of ways teachers can implement the humanist view towards education. Some
of these include:
• Allow the student to have a choice in the selection of tasks and activities whenever possible.
• Help students learn to set realistic goals.
• Have students participate in group work, especially co-operative learning, in order to
develop social and affective skills.
• Act as a facilitator for group discussions when appropriate.
• Be a role model for the attitudes, beliefs and habits you wish to foster. Constantly work on
becoming a better person and then share yourself with your students.
• Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and
affective domains.

HUMANISM AND CURRICULUM

• This philosophy emphasize on music, literature and education about moral values.
• The classical part of the curriculum is made up of at least two-thirds of the program.
History, philosophy, and mythology were normally treated in the context of the classical
literature. Religion was taught as a separate subject.
 • Physical education was extracurricular and usually part of organized sports activities.
Attendances at mass and devotional exercises were required at boarding schools and
sometimes of day scholars.
• These schools have no place for ‘intellectual lightweights. ‘ Satisfactory completion of this
course of studies opened the door to the universities and to positions of leadership in the
government.

HUMANISM AND CONCEPT OF STUDENT

• Learner must be taught to respect language, and must gain perfection in language.
• Learner is highly motivated and self-directed; assumes responsibility for learning and self-
development. His experience has some continuity throughout changing events and places
and in order to explain this, we must recognize that the self is a common factor in all of
these experiences.
• The learner possesses a unique selfhood, self-realization supplements, and freedom as such
with value concerns.
• The student is an experiencing organism capable of using intelligence to resolve its
problems. He learns as he experiences; as he does and as he undergoes. As a thinking
organism his experiences and his reflections upon those experiences become a part of him
determining his likes, dislikes, and the future direction of his learning.
• The humanist views the student as a whole organism constantly interacting with the
environment.
• Humanism in education recognizes the importance of the child. The child is a real unit
which has real existence.

HUMANISM AND CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE

• Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust
himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out change in the real
world is impossible.
• The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact and adjust himself to
the world. A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies,
hardships and shortcomings pervading the world.
• According to Humanism, One has to adjust oneself to this material world.
HUMANISM AND ACHIEVEMENT EVALUATION
• Very vigorous oral and written exams were administered to determine whether the student
should pass on to the next level. For these tests the student was expected to know all the
vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and literary selections of each level.
• Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only self-evaluation is
meaningful.
• Grading encourages students to work for a grade and not for personal satisfaction.
• Humanistic educators are opposed to objective tests because they test a student's ability to
memorize and do not provide sufficient educational feedback to the teacher and student.

EXISTENTIALISM IN EDUCATION
Introduction: Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth
about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for determining
for themselves what is ‘true‘ or ‘false,‘ ‘right‘ or ‘wrong,‘ ‘beautiful‘ or ‘ugly.‘ For the
existentialist, there exists no universal form of human nature; each of us has the free will to develop
as we see fit.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION AND EXISTENTIALISM

• Existentialism is concerned with liberal education, freeing man from his isolation and his
anonymity, freeing his mind from the confusions that prevent him from seeing his
situations and his powers.
• According to existentialist, education should make a man subjective and should make him
conscious for his individuality or ‘self’. Being self conscious he will recognize his ‘self’
and he will get an understanding of his ‘being’. Individuality lies on self-realization, a
motivating force, from an existential perspective; a sense of self-identity is gained by how
an individual relates to and values his or her relations.
• The purpose of education is to build character, to optimize potential and creativity and to
enhance the quality of life through knowledge, and then from an existentialist perspective
bureaucratization needs to be replaced by humanization.
• Every individual is unique. Education must develop in him this uniqueness. It must cater
to individual differences. Education must make pupil aware of the infinite possibilities of
his freedom and the responsibilities he must bear in life.
• The most important aim in education is becoming of a human person as one who lives and
makes decisions about what he will do and be. ‘Human existence and the value related to
it is the primary factor in education.
 • The ultimate aim of education is to make man conscious of his destination, to give
understanding of his ‘being’ and ultimately lead him to his heavenly abode.

CURRICULUM OF EXISTENTIALISM
• The curriculum should be chosen, sorted out and owned by the learner.
• According to existentialist, Curriculum can be explored as a means of providing students
with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression.
For example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus upon the
actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models for the students’
own behavior.
• Existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and
imitating established models. In an existentialist curriculum, students is given a wide
variety of options from which to choose.
• Existence of individuals must constitute the ‘core of studies‘ both in and out of school.
• The existentialist has made extensive use of the art forms as the media for conveying their
beliefs about philosophical matters. The existentialist is not much concerned with the actual
courses or subjects in a curriculum.
• The central place is given to ‘humanities’, poetry, drama, music, art, novels etc. as they
exert the human impact in revealing man's inherent guilt, sin, suffering, tragedy, death, hate
and love. Humanities have spiritual power. Art and literature, they say should be taught, as
they represent power of human nature.
• History should be taught in order to help the students to change the course of history and
to mould future.
• Scientific subjects and mathematics should be included in the curriculum but they should
not be given more stress, as they deal with objective knowledge. Self-knowledge precedes
universal knowledge.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
• In reality, the way in which subject matter is handled seems to be more important to the
existentialist than the subject matter itself.
• Existentialist methods focus on the individual. To recognize the ‘individual differences’
and wish to have diverse curricula suiting the needs, abilities and aptitudes of the
individual, Learning is self-paced, self-directed, and includes a great deal of individual
contact with the teacher, who relates to each student openly and honestly.
 • Any teaching method must place the responsibility for choosing what to learn and learning
depends on the individual. This assumption is entirely in harmony with the existentialist's
insistence upon the absolute freedom of the individual. Obviously, an self-respecting
existentialist would employ the traditional lecture-recite-assign-test method. He would
reject with equal zeal the problem-solving method of instrumentalism because of its social
emphasis. Any method which fosters group thinking or group action would be alien to the
existentialist.

CONCEPT OF TEACHER
• The teacher's role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various
paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose
their own preferred way.
• There are five characteristics of this ideal that are formulated by this existential framework.
These include becoming more authentic, more spiritual, having a critical attitude, having a
clear sense of personal identity and a developing empathetic awareness towards others.
• The teacher's characteristic of being ‘open’ to possibilities includes a willingness to allow
others to re-evaluate those aspects of one's understandings that can be articulated. If one
chooses to ‘close’ oneself off from the criticisms of others, one is no longer teacher.
Having, openness, in this regard allows one to come to an understanding of self and others.
• An important characteristic of a teacher is that they have the ability to make judgments
with regards to what is worthwhile and valuable in them and in others.
• The teacher must build positive relationships between himself and his students. He should
avoid applying labels to children (such as ‘lazy’, ‘slow learner’, etc.) for individuals may
indeed come to think of themselves this way. The teacher is also changing and growing as
he guides the pupil in his discovery of self.

CONCEPT OF STUDENT
• The existentialists want to give full freedom to the child. But the child should know the
nature of his ‘self’ and recognize his being and convert imperfection into perfection.
• They do not want the child to become selfish, autocratic and irresponsible. Freedom is
needed only for natural development. Education should be provided according to the child's
powers and the needs. The child has to make ‘choices’ and decisions.
• Child thrives better when relieved from intense competition, harsh discipline, and fear of
failure. Thus each child can grow to understand his own needs and values and take charge
of the experiences for changing him. In this way self-evaluation is the beginning and end
of the learning process, as learning proceeds, child is freely growing, fearless,
understanding individual.
 • Primary emphasis must always be on the child, as learner and not on the learning
programmed. Child needs positive evaluation, not labels.

CONCEPT OF SCHOOL
• The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals develop in a healthy way.
Any subject in school (even extra activities like athletics, music, etc.) can present
existential situations for teaching and the development of human beings. The aim of school
tasks should be to nurture self-discipline and cultivate self-evaluation.
• Democratic ideals should pervade the school. Democracy must be the soil in which the
individual grows. It should be the democracy of unique individuals who value differences
and respect one another. Self-government, pupil participation in planning and the
encouragement of a free atmosphere characterize the school.
• Mechanization and impersonality should be counteracted in school. Student's timetables
and work programmers are computerized. And thus the relationships between the
individual students and the school programme become an impersonal one. Besides this, the
use of programmed instruction, teaching machines and other equipments tend to decrease
the personal contact between teachers and pupils.
• Concern and respect for the individual student should be a feature of the school.

ECLECTICISM
‘Eclecticism is the synthesis or harmonious blend of the diverse philosophies of
education. It is the process of pulling out and putting together of the useful and essential
aspect of various philosophies of education.’
Introduction: In education eclectic tendency is the tendency to familiarize with different
philosophies, to draw best and essential points out of them and to make one harmonious whole and
make one new philosophy of education. No school of philosophy meets the entire requirement of
varied situations of life. In fact, no educator can be exclusively idealistic, naturalist, or pragmatist.
For the modern educationist, it will be beneficial and effective if they make a thorough study of
these different schools of philosophy and then relate and rearrange the essential principles into one
harmonious whole and thus build their own theory of education with the best material. This would
be the basis for eclectic tendency in education.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT OR ECLECTIC TENDENCY AT WORK IN EDUCATION

• Respect for the child's personality: The respect for the child as an individual and placing
him at the centre of educational process, which is the common feature of the most of the
modern philosophies of education. Idealism stressed spirituality and absolute values;
 naturalism emphasizes the matter in man; pragmatism is regarded as sort of compromise
between spiritualism and materialism. Eclectic philosophy was formed to make the learner
perfect with creative values and adjusting to the changing demands of the society.
• Powerful force of mind: mind is the powerful force in the life of man. Idealists consider
mind as the creator of its objects and a discoverer of its own laws. Naturalists believe in
the impact of environment on mind. The external world within the environment influences
the mind and intellect. Pragmatists view the mind as a functional behavior.
• Free discipline: discipline is only a means and not the end in itself. Self-govt is acceptable
of all as a powerful means of inculcating discipline.
• Individual and social development: Individual and social development are important
aims of education. Health; command of fundamental processes; worthy home membership;
vocation; citizenship; ethical character; enjoyment in freedom; integrating personality.
• Curriculum: Eclectics focusses on life centered curriculum for providing total
experiences. It believes in unity of mind in heart of people as divergent tradition of country.
Humanities, language skill, mathematics, geography, sciences, grammar, essential skills,
desirable attitude and social virtues are included in various curricula.

METHODS OF TEACHING
• Play way method.
• Learning by doing
• Direct experiences through project and problem-solving, etc.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
• Education should give a child a command of the basic processes of learning.
• The child should become an efficient member of the society.
• The development of moral character.
• Promotion of good health.
• Skilful training.
• To prepare a person to take his place in life.
• To be able to think, reason and to adapt himself to his environment.
• Interests and motivation of the child has to be improved.
• The child should be educated in the favourable and congenial environment.
PROGRESSIVISM
‘A typical progressivist slogan is ‘Learn by Doing!’’
Introduction: It is an American philosophy which is a revolt against the formal/
conventional/traditional system of education. It became popular in USA, in year 1929 which
adversely affected the educational system of the country. Education is centered around present life
itself. The development of an individual and the society is only possible, when education facilitates
the growth of every phase of child.

EXPONENTS
John Dewey; William James; G Thomas Lawrence; William Kilpatric.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PROGRESSIVISM

• Emphasis on learning by doing-hands-on projects experimental.
• Strong emphasis on problem-solving and critical thinking.
• Makes students involve in group work and development of social skills.
• Emphasis on practice rather than knowledge.
• Education for social responsibility and democracy.
• Integration of community service and learning projects into the daily curriculum.
• Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future
society.
• De-emphasis on textbooks.
• Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills.
• Assessment by evaluation of child's projects and productions.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
• To develop the personality of an individual by providing a democratic environment in the
educational institutions.

PROGRESSIVISM AND CURRICULUM

• It should be based on the actual environment of child. It must reflect his daily life.
• Curriculum includes Political; Moral; Social; Vocational; intellectual; Mathematics;
General science, Languages; Integration of experiences.
PROGRESSIVISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING
• Project method: Active participation of the pupils in learning.
• Socialized methods: To bring all the individuals into a group system of interaction.
• Conferences, Consultation, Planning and participation in the activities.

PROGRESSIVISM AND TEACHER

• The human elements human beings are given more importance. The teacher has to meet
the needs of pupil as good human being.
• The teacher who is vital in education process and having richer, superior experience and
can analyze the present situation.
• Teacher will act as a stage setter, guide and coordinator but he is not total authority, just he
guides the situation.

PROGRESSIVISM AND THE SCHOOL

School is a cooperative enterprise, it provide conducive environment for democratic growth of the
child.

BEHAVIORISM
Person's behavior is the result of environmental conditioning. Man is a passive recipient,
who reacts to external stimuli, in his external environment. According to Skinner, each individual
is having any ego/‘mind’ centre of consciousness which enable him to choose any course of action,
that he wanted to do. Individual's actions are predetermined by his heredity or immediate
surroundings because man is not separate from his surrounding environment.
Techniques/Methods of Teaching
• Reinforcement provided by correct answers is a source of encouragement to the slow
learners.
• It requires technical proficiency.
• Goals are not kept in mind, in controlling human behavior.
• Modelling, Self-control technique, Assertiveness training, Punishment
• Relaxation technique.
RECONSTRUCTIONALISM
Introduction: Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social
questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist
educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education.

MAIN ELEMENTS OF RECONSTRUCTION

• National culture and philosophy of life: The aim of reconstruction philosophy shall be to
acquaint our students with our culture, customs, civilization, literature and history. A
person should be acquainted with his national culture and philosophy for his all-round
development.
• National education: In our education we have to include national education policy means
narrow but broader nationalism. The aim of national education should also be a
development of mind and personality which may give rise to the feelings of self-control,
self-regard, human love and sympathy in man. It should be the main aim of national
education to acquaint man with his duties.
• Duty of government: Educational reconstruction is a difficult task. For that help and
interest of the government is necessary. Education takes the nation to the path of progress.
So the Government has a great responsibility in this regard. The Government has to come
forward in education reconstruction and it has to provide money in its budget.
• Duty of countryman: Along with Government, The leaders in the field of social, political,
and educational activities will have to take the lead and participation in educational
reconstruction. They will also have to change their outlook and will have to adopt an
attitude of respect and honor towards their culture, philosophy, and traditions.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
• The primary aim of education is an all-round development of personality. It mainly
includes physical, mental, moral and spiritual development. Along with it, reasoning,
thinking, and intelligence should also be developed.
• The aim of education is to develop faith in democratic principles. To inculcate the feelings
of social service in the student and create in him the capacity for adoption to environment
and earning his living.
• Emotional integration with the people of other states should also be developed. People
should also be taught the skill of utilizing their leisure in constructive activities.
CURRICULUM
• The curriculum will be based on the age, capacity, social status, environment and
geographical conditions.
• Free Education: The education should be entirely free and this expenditure should be
done by the state up to secondary stage. It is necessary to adopt democratic principles in
curriculum and in the administration of educational institutions.

DISCIPLINE
• Education should be so organized and conducted that the problem of indiscipline may not
arise at all, in the educational institution. For this, qualities like liberalism, tolerance and
discretion may be developed in students.

PERENNIALISM
Exponents: Advocates of this educational philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who
developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
• For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understanding
about the great ideas of Western civilization.
• These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas
that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural
and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging
principles is critical.
• Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the
intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education.
• The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students’
growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are
emphasized– the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science.

PHILOSOPHY OF NURSING EDUCATION

Definition
‘Philosophy of nursing education is the written statement of the believes, values, attitudes and
ideas which the faculty as a group agreed upon in relation of the nursing educational program,
 such as health, disease, nursing, nurse, nursing as a profession, education, learner society, patient,
nursing education and preparation of nurse‘.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy of nursing education is a perfect combination of philosophy of nursing and
philosophy of education, more precisely, philosophy of nursing education is the application of the
fundamental belief of nursing and education in the field of nursing education. In the philosophy of
education, importance is given to the students. Objectives formulated with a philosophical basis
of education focus on the student life and the all round development of student.

Summary of all philosophies

Philosophy Idealism Pragmatism Naturalism Realism Humanism

Concept of Increasing Dynamic in ‘Material world is To prepare the Promote positive self-
aims of spiritual values nature. the real world’ practical man of direction, independence
education by developing the world.
Self-preservation Develop the ability to
moral values
take responsibility for
Securing the
Self-realization what is learned
necessities of life
Character Develop creativity
development.
Curiosity

Concept of Ideal. Involved in Non-interfering The teacher is Allow the student to

teacher the educative observer. simply a guide. have a choice in the
Role model
process as are selection of tasks and
Facilitator of the The real world
Intellectually these activities whenever
child's exists,
and morally students. possible.
development
excellent. The teacher is
Helper, Help students learn to
Nature is responsible for
set realistic goals.
Guide, considered to be introducing the
the best educator. student to real Facilitator
Arranger of
world.
experiences Role model
Concept of Strives for a whole The natural The child is a Highly motivated and
student perfection organism development of real unit which self-directed
constantly the child. has real
Ambitious Experiencing organism
interacting existence.
capable of using
with the
Child can reach intelligence to resolve
environment
near reality its problems
through learning
The child is a real unit
by reason
which has real
existence.

Curriculum Based on Not Fixed Child –oriented Mathematics is a Emphasis on music,

spiritual nature Curriculum precise, abstract, literature and education
According to
of man symbolic system about moral values.
the Science dealing
for describing
requirement with nature will
the laws of the
of the include Physics,
universe.
situations Chemistry,
Botany
Physical
Education and
Health Training
drawing as
compulsory

Concept of Strict discipline Purposeful Education free Discipline is Discipline is adjustment

discipline and from the bondage adjustment to to objectivity.
cooperative of rigid discipline objectivity.
It is necessary in order
activities,
Punishment It is necessary in to enable the child to
carried on in a
should be order to enable adjust
free and
constituted by the the child to
happy himself to his
natural adjust himself to
environment, environment and
consequences of his environment
are conducive concentrate on his work.
wrong deeds and concentrate
to good
on his work. Bringing out change in
discipline.
the real world is
impossible.
• In the philosophy of nursing, emphasis is placed on the patients. Objectives may have to
be formulated to provide comprehensive nursing care by identifying the patient needs,
meeting those needs and evaluating the care.
• Philosophy looks at whole and nursing education prepares the students to react to a
situation as a whole rather than fragments. For example, while caring a patient with
cerebrovascular accident, nursing student has to consider the protective, curative and
rehabilitative aspects rather than concentrating in any one aspect.
• Since the objectives, policies, academic and administrative control of the institution is
based on the reality stated philosophy; statement of philosophy is regarded as the
foundation for starting a nursing institute or a nursing educational program. To formulate
the philosophy, staff may have to hold several discussions and reach a conclusion regarding
what is feasible for students, institution, society and profession.
• The faculty of an institute enjoy all rights to formulate the philosophy based on their
beliefs; so a thoughtfully coined philosophy must include the philosophical aspects like
learner, society, man, nursing education, health and institution.
• The philosophy will decide the type of student selection process, objectives of the
educational programs, curriculum development, type of practical experiences provided to
the students, selection and placement of staff, teaching methods and evaluation system.
• Nursing prepare its members professionally through a variety of educational programs and
these programs differ from each other in multiple aspects like entering criteria, duration,
specialization, program evaluation, etc. each educational program in turn depends upon the
philosophy. different for all nursing courses. Hence, philosophy has much importance in
nursing education.
• Build right attitude. Even though every phase of nursing education is influenced by the
philosophy, the most significant and everlasting influence of philosophy is noticed in the
development and nurturing of proper attitude among nursing students towards the patient,
community, fellow human beings and professional development. Through cultivating
proper attitude, philosophy, plays a dominant role in uplifting the professional image of
nursing.
• Advances with time. In the beginning, nursing and nursing education was solely under the
influence of super naturalism but the changes in the education system, socioeconomic
condition, scientific and technological advancements, and innovations in the health care
sector and knowledge explosion motivated the nursing education to consider other
philosophies also.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PHILOSOPHY OF NURSING EDUCATION
There are various factors influencing philosophy of Nursing Education. Here is list of factors
affecting nursing education:

Fig. 1.3: Factors influencing philosophy of nursing education

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION
Education has following characteristics:
• A tripolar process
• A bipolar process
• A continuous and life long process
• A process of individual development
• A deliberate process
• A dynamic process
• Preserver and transmitter of heritage
• A science as well as an art
• It is progressive
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN INDIVIDUAL IN PRESENT CONTEXT –
INDIVIDUAL AND NATIONAL CONTEXT

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN INDIVIDUAL LIFE

1. Adaptation to Environment
2. Making the man civilized
3. Satisfaction of Needs
4. Vocational efficiency
5. Achievement of material prosperity
6. Achievement of self sufficiency
7. Development of character
8. Development of personality
9. Preparation for life
10. Creation of Good citizens

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN NATIONAL LIFE

1. Training for leadership
2. National development
3. Emotional integration
4. Inculcation of civil and social duties
5. National Integration
6. Training for Morality
7. Supply of skilled manpower
8. Priority of National Interest
9. Promotion of social efficiency
DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ARE MAINLY FOUR-FOLD
• Economic Functions:
o Building a socialistic pattern of society
o Ensuring increased wages for all
o Bridging the gap between the rich and the poor
o Village and rural upliftment
o Urban development
o Ensuring full and proper employment for every individual
• Political Functions:
o Individual liberty of thought and speech
o Freedom of association
o Due process of law and equality before law
o Right to vote
o Parliamentary democracy
• Social Functions:
o Rising above caste system
o Respect for women
• Cultural Functions:
o Basis of entire fabric of national progress
o Integration and solidarity
o Signifies the implementation of the principles of unity in diversity
o Values ingrained – Co-operation, Co-existence, Spirit of harmonious living.
o Every individual – a significant link in human chain
o Developing a global concern for mankind as promoting modernization and Social
change (modern civilized social order).
IMPACT OF SOCIAL, ECONOMICAL, POLITICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL
CHANGES ON EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION
Change is the law of nature. The word ‘change’ denotes the difference in anything observed
over some period of time. Everything changes, every organism grows, every life flows. The society
composed of human beings also undergoes changes. These changes occur in its cultural pattern, in
its structure and consequently in its members. Society is the web of social relationships, therefore
observable differences in any social phenomena over any period of time. This process of change
is quite complicated and needs a careful understanding. Education and society are closely related
to each other. The report of the Indian Education Commission, appropriately entitled Education
and National Development 1966, forcefully stated, ‘Education cannot be considered in isolation
or planned in a vacuum. It has to be used as a powerful instrument of social, economic and political
change.’ Let us understand the impact of various changes such as social, economical, political and
technological changes on Education.

IMPACT OF SOCIAL CHANGES ON EDUCATION

Education performs several social functions. Starting from the socializing role in a family, its
tasks cover areas like economic organization, social stratification and political ideas. Education
emerges out of the needs of society. Social change means replacing the old with new in the society.
It can be a modification of the old also if not total replacement. It can be a new mode of thought,
a new attitude towards work, wealth, worship, a new behaviour pattern and so on. Education also
plays a dynamic role in society. It performs the function of an initiator of social change. It not only
generates new ideas and values, but also transmits them to the younger generation.
• The formal educational agencies such as the school has become a social necessity for
providing special learning. It makes possible the accumulation and transmission of
knowledge on a large scale. Whatever a student learns in school is a part of the cultural
heritage of the society. This process of learning moulds and develops the personality of the
young members of the society.
• Education trains people to develop new ideas and adjust to a changing environment.
Parents and family play an informal role in education. In every society, the process of
socialization of a child occurs within the family. But, the complex skills and specialized
tasks cannot be provided to a child at home. Therefore, the role of the family gets restricted
to only primary socialization.
• Modern education fosters liberal values such as equality, freedom and scientific temper. It
cultivates awareness against inequality, social deprivation and all sorts of discrimination.
Education thus empowers people to demolish the closed system of stratification and opens
 it up for social transformation. Moreover, modern education facilitates occupational
mobility by creating new occupational opportunities.
• There is a direct relationship between culture and education. While culture gives identity
to a society, education sustains it. Cultural elements of society are preserved and
disseminated through education from one individual to another and also from one
generation to another.

IMPACT OF POLITICAL CHANGES ON EDUCATION

The political system is another important dimension in which education plays an important
role. Both political system and educational system directly influences each other. In other words,
ideology, values and goals work upon the politics of the time. The ideals of democracy, socialism,
secularism and social justice have essentially grown in the modern times because of educational
development. In India, the educated and enlightened people, for example, provided the leadership
in the struggle for freedom.

IMPACT OF ECONOMICAL CHANGES ON EDUCATION

The educational system also diversifies the economic system. Education helps to promote
economic growth in terms of human resource development. The educational system provides skills
and training for different occupations. It prepares younger people for occupying different positions
according to education and skills. It is because of the specific economic needs of different countries
that they have different educational priorities. In order to achieve this goal, investment in education
is regarded as a means to improve human resources that promotes economic growth.

IMPACT OF MODERNIZATION ON EDUCATION

Education can perform the function of an initiator of change. It inculcates in the younger
generation, whatever changes are desirable for rebuilding a society. Education cultivates necessary
intellectual and emotional readiness to deal with the challenges of change. Education is an
important instrument of modernization. Modern values in social, economic and political spheres
have to be instilled in the minds of people to achieve the goal of modernization. Values such as
equality, liberty, scientific temper, humanism pave the way for modernization. This task can be
effectively performed by education.

EDUCATIONAL REFORMS AND NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY

After independence the Indian leaders realized the inherent defects in the system of
education introduced by the British. Universalisation of education was the need of the hour.
Education must be linked with national development in all directions. With these national goals in
view, the government in independent India set-up different committees and commissions for
educational reforms in the desired lines. These committees and commissions have formulated
educational aims and objectives.

DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION REFORMS

Indian University Commission: Just after independence, an education commission was
set up to inquire into the various problems of education, particularly higher education, and to
recommend proposals for its improvements. It is commonly known as Radha Krishnan
Commission as in 1948-1949. This Commission has given many important recommendations
regarding higher education. It has also formulated the aims of education in India.
Secondary Education Commission
For reconstruction of Secondary Education
• Secondary Education Commission was set-up (1952-53) under the chairmanship of Dr
Lakshmanswami Mudaliar, a noted educationist and Ex-Vice Chancellor of the Madras
University. The Commission has made important recommendations for the reconstruction
and development of secondary education in the country.
• The Indian Education Commission on Educational Aims (1964-66): In July 1964, the
Government of India set-up an Education Commission to overhaul and reconstruct the
entire field of Indian education under the chairmanship of Dr DS Kothari. The Commission
submitted its comprehensive report on July 1966.
• National Policy of Education, 1968: The government of India after considering the report
of the Education Commission tried to formulate a national policy of education. With this
report, the Parliamentary Committee on education was set-up in 1967. This Committee
approved the recommendations of the Education Commission and formulated a national
policy of education in 1968.
• The National Policy on Education was framed in 1986 and modified in 1992. NPE was
based on a national curricular framework which contains a common core (which was
flexible), consisting of history of India's freedom movement, the constitutional obligations
and other content essential to nurture national identity. It was designed to promote values
such as democracy, secularism, equalities of sexes, protection of environment, removal of
social barriers etc.
• Since then several changes have taken place that calls for a revision of the Policy. The
Government of India would like to bring out a National Education Policy to meet the
changing dynamics of the population's requirement with regards to quality education,
innovation and research, aiming to make India a knowledge super power by equipping
its students with the necessary skills and knowledge and to eliminate the shortage of
manpower in science, technology, academics and industry.
 • For the first time, the Government of India is embarking on a time-bound grass roots
consultative process, which will enable the Ministry of HRD to reach out to individuals
across the country through over 2.75 lakh direct consultations while also taking input from
citizens online A forum for involving citizens in the public policy and governance process
was launched by Prime Minister on 26th July, 2014. Thirty three thematic topics already
under discussion since 26th Jan., 2015.
• These themes are for consultation on Higher Education are Governance reforms for quality,
Ranking of institutions and accreditations, Im-proving the quality of regulation, Pace
setting roles of central institutions, Improving State public universities, Integrating skill
development in higher education, Promoting open and distance learning and online
courses, Opportunities for technology enabled learning, Addressing regional disparity,
Bridging gender and social gaps, Linking higher education to society, Developing the best
teachers, Sustaining student support systems, Promote cultural integration through
language, Meaningful partnership with the private sector, Financing higher education,
Internationalization of higher education, Engagement with industry to link education to
employability, Promoting research and innovation, New knowledge.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
Entire country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1.1 million habitations.
The scheme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) was launched in 2001. The goals of SSA are as
follows:
1. All 6–14 age children in school/Education Guarantee Scheme Center/bridge course by
2003
2. All 6–14 age children complete five year primary education by 2007
3. All 6–14 age children complete eight years of schooling by 2010
4. Focus on elementary education on satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life
5. Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary
education level by 2010
6. Universal retention by 2010.
The programme covers the entire country with special focus on education needs of girls, SCs/
STs and other children in difficult circumstances. The programme seeks to open new schools in
habitations which do not have schooling facilities and strengthen existing school infrastructure
through provision of additional classrooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school
improvement grant. The SSA has a special focus on girls and children of weaker sections.
Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education
Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education (EGS and AIE)
are an important component of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) to bring out school children in the
fold of elementary education. EGS addresses the inaccessible habitation where there is no formal
school within the radius of one km and at least 15–25 children of 6–14 years age group. Alternative
education intervention for specific categories of very deprived children e.g., child street children,
migrating children, working children, children living in difficult circumstances and older children
in the 9+ age group especially adolescent girls are being supported under EGS and AIE all over
the country.
Mid-Day Meal Scheme
The National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NPNSPE),
popularly known as the Mid-day Meal Scheme, was formally launched on 21st, August 1995. The
objective of the programme is to give a boost to universalization of primary education by
increasing enrollment, attendance and retention, and also improving nutritional status of children
in primary classes studying in government, local body and government-aided schools. From
October 2002, the programme has been extended to children studying in Education Guarantee
Scheme (EGS) and other Alternative and Innovative Education (AIE) Learning Centers also.
Under the scheme central assistance is provided to states for the following: (a) 100 grams of food
grains per child per school per day where there is a meal programme, alternatively three kg per
child per month for 10 months, and (b) admissible transport subsidy for transport of food grains
from the nearest FCI depot to the school subject to a ceiling of ` 50 per quintal.
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
The centrally sponsored Scheme of District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was
launched in 1994 as a major initiative to revitalize the primary education system and to achieve
the objective of universalization of primary education. DPEP adopts a holistic approach to
universalize access, retention and improve learning achievement and to reduce disparities among
social groups. DPEP is based on the principle of ‘additionally’ and is structured to fill in the
existing gaps. The programme components include construction of classrooms and new schools,
opening of non-formal/ alternative schooling centers, appointment of new teachers, setting up early
childhood education centers, strengthening of State Councils of Educational Training through
District Institute of Education and Training (DIETs), setting up of Block Resource Centers/Cluster
Resource Centres, teacher training, development of teaching learning material, research based
interventions, special interventions for promoting education of disadvantaged groups, girls,
SC/ST, etc. initiatives for providing integrated education to disabled children and distance
education for teacher training have also been incorporated in the DPEP Scheme.
Operation Blackboard
The scheme of Operation Blackboard (OBB) was launched in 1987-88 with the aim of
improving human and physical resource available in primary schools of the country. Provision of
at least two reasonably large rooms, at least two teachers and essential teaching/learning materials
for every existing primary school were the components of the scheme. The scheme has been
merged in Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) from 2002-2003.
Lok Jumbish Project
An innovative project ‘Lok Jumbish‘ with assistance from Swedish International
Development Agency (SIDA) was launched in Rajasthan to achieve education for all through
peoples mobilization and their participation. Lok Jumbish Project (LPJ) has set-up innovative
management structures incorporating the principles of decentralization and delegation of authority.
Services under LPJ includes building partnership as well as building partnership with local
communities and the voluntary sectors, intensive community mobilization, and schools mapping,
processing as well as development of innovative design for community center school buildings
programme.
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (Integrated)
RMSA was launched in March, 2009 with the vision of making secondary education of
good quality available, accessible and affordable to all young persons in the age group 15-16 years.
The objective of the scheme is to enhance access and improve quality of education at secondary
stage, while ensuring equity. The scheme envisages enhancing the enrollment for classes IX-X by
providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of every habitation, improving quality
of education imparted at the secondary level through making all secondary schools conform to
prescribed norms, removal of gender, socio-economic and disability barriers, universal access to
secondary level education by 2017, and universal retention by 2020.
Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)
It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS), launched in 2013 aims at providing strategic
funding to eligible state higher educational institutions. The salient objectives of RUSA are to
• Improve the overall quality of state institutions by ensuring conformity to prescribed norms
and standards and adopt accreditation as a mandatory quality assurance framework.
• Usher transformative reforms in the state higher education system by creating a facilitating
institutional structure for planning and monitoring at the state level, promoting autonomy
in State Universities and improving governance in institutions.
• Ensure reforms in the affiliation, academic and examination systems.
• Ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher educational institutions and
ensure capacity building at all levels of employment.
• Create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to devote themselves
to research and innovations.
• Expand the institutional base by creating additional capacity in existing institutions and
establishing new institutions, in order to achieve enrolment targets.
• Correct regional imbalances in access to higher education by setting up institutions in un-
served & underserved areas.
 • To improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities of higher
education to SC/STs and socially and educationally backward classes; promote the
inclusion of women, minorities, and differently abled persons.
Janshala Programme
Janshala (GOI-UN) Programme is a collaborative effort of the Government of India and
five UN agencies – UNDP, UNICEF, UNESCO, ILO and UNFPE to provide programme support
to the ongoing efforts towards achieving UEE. Janshala, a community based primary education
programme, aims to make primary education more accessible and effective, especially for girls
and children in deprived communities, marginalized groups, SC/ ST minorities, working children
and children with specific needs.

National Council for Teacher Education

The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) was established in August 1995 with
a view to achieve planned and co-ordinate development of teacher education system throughout
the country and for regulation and proper maintenance of norms and standards of teacher
education. Four Regional Committees of the Council have been set-up at Jaipur, Bangalore,
Bhubaneswar, and Bhopal for Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western regions respectively.
National Bal Bhavan
National Bal Bhavan (NBB), New Delhi is an autonomous body fully funded by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development, which was established for children in the age group
of 5–16 years. Objectives of the NBB are to enhance the spirit challenge, experiment, innovate
and create. National Bal Bhavan was founded by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru in 1956.

DEVELOPMENT TOWARDS EDUCATION OF SCHEDULED CASTES AND

SCHEDULED TRIBES
• Article 46 of the constitution states that, ‘The State shall promote, with special care, the
education and economic interests of the weaker sections the people, and in particular of the
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all
forms of social exploitation.‘ After independence, the Government of India has taken a
number of steps to strengthen the educational base of the persons belonging to the
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
• Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is a historic stride towards achieving the long cherished goal of
Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) through a time bound integrated
approach, in partnership with the State. SSA, which promises to change the face of
elementary education sector of the country, aims to provide useful and quality elementary
education to all children in the 6–14 age group by 2010.
 • District Primary Education Programme (DPEP): The thrust of the scheme is on
disadvantaged groups like girls, SCs/STs. Working children, urban deprived children,
disabled children, etc.
• Janshala: The objective of Janshala is to support the efforts for UEE by providing primary
education to the children from SCs, minorities, working children and children with special
needs. Janshala emphasizes on active involvement of community in primary education
programmes and training viz. Karnataka, Janshala programme is in operation in 139 Blocks
of 9 States Orissa, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The programme also covers
the cities of Hyderabad, Bhubaneswar, Puri, Cuttack, Jaipur, Lucknow, Ajmer, Bharatpur,
Jodhpur and Bhilai.
• National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): The SC/ST students are given concession
in admission fees to the extent of Rs 200 for bridge courses, Rs 250 for secondary courses
and Rs 300 for senior secondary courses.

DEVELOPMENT TOWARDS QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

During the Tenth Plan, it has been decided to introduce a composite Centrally Sponsored
Scheme ‘Quality Improvement in Schools‘. The National Population Education Project (NPEP)
was launched in April 1980 with a view to institutionalize population education in the school
education system. This was an externally aided project, which was fully funded by United Nations
Population Fund. This project is also being implemented in higher and adult education sector.

ENVIRONMENTAL ORIENTATION TO SCHOOL EDUCATION

• Centrally-sponsored Scheme ‘Environment Orientation to School Education‘ was initiated
in 1988-89. The scheme envisages assistance to voluntary agencies for conduct of
experimental and innovative programmes aimed at promoting integration of educational
programmes in schools with local environmental conditions.
• Improvement of Science Education in Schools: To improve the quality of science education
and to promote the scientific temper, as envisaged in the National Policy on Education,
1986, Centrally sponsored Scheme; ‘Improvement of Science Education in Schools‘ was
initiated during 1987-78 under the scheme financial assistance was being provided to
States/UTs and voluntary agencies. While voluntary agencies were provided assistance for
conducting experiments and innovative programmes. States/Union Territories were
assisted for provision of science kits to upper primary schools, setting up/upgradation of
science laboratories in Secondary/Senior Secondary Schools, library facilities in
Secondary/Senior Secondary Schools and Training of Science and Mathematics teachers.
DEVELOPMENT TOWARDS INTEGRATED EDUCATION FOR DISABLED
CHILDREN
The scheme of IEDC was started in 1974. This scheme provided 100% financial assistance
to state, UTs and NGOs to provide facilities for disabled children integrated in the normal schools
for books and stationary, uniform, transport allowance, escort allowance, readers allowance for
blind children, equipment, and salary of teachers recruited for teaching disabled children.

DEVELOPMENT IN UNIVERSITY AND HIGHER EDUCATION

Indira Gandhi National Open University
The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) established in September 1985
played very vital role in promotion of open university and distance education system in the
educational pattern of the country and for coordination and determination of standards in such
systems. The major objectives of the university include widening access to higher education to
larger segments of the population, organizing programmes of continuing education. The target
groups includes women, physically challenged and people living in backward regions and hilly
areas, such as NE, KBK and those predominantly inhabited by tribals and SCs.

DEVELOPMENT IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION

The technical education system in the country covers courses in engineering, technology,
management, architecture, pharmacy, etc. The Ministry of Human Resource Development caters
to programmes at undergraduate, postgraduate and research levels. The technical educational
system at the central level comprises, among others, the following: (a) The All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), which is the statutory body for proper planning and coordinated
development of the technical education system; (b) Seven Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs);
(c) Six Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs); (d) Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangolore;
(e) Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management (IITM), Gwalior; Indian Institute
of Information Technology (IIIT), Allahabad; and its Extension Campus at Amethi; and Pt.
Dwarka Prasad Mishra Institute of Information Technology Design and Manufacturing Jabalpur;
and (f) Eighteen National Institutes of Technology (NITs) (converted from RECs with 100 percent
central funding).

RECOMMENDATIONS OF VARIOUS COMMITTEES PERTAINING TO NURSING

EDUCATION
The recommendations given by committees and commission provided guidelines for improvement
and growth of nursing education.
Health survey and development committee (Bhore committee 1946)
 • Establishment of nursing college
• Creation of an all India nursing council.
• Introduction of a pre –nursing course in the final year curriculum in high schools as an
optional subject.
• The training component for nursing was suggested to be divided into junior grade (3 year
course with entry qualification as completion of middle school) and Senior grade ( 4 year
course inclusive of 1 year midwifery with entry qualification as matriculation.)
Shetty committee (1954)
• The placement of one nurse to 3 patients in teaching hospital and one nurse to 5 patients in
other hospitals.
• One midwife to 100 births in rural areas, and one midwife to 150 births in towns, cities,
and in contact areas.
• For the public health field, it was recommended to have one public health nurse/ health
visitor for 10,000 population.
• Improvement in conditions for training of nurses
• The minimum requirement for admission to be in accordance with regulation of the INC.
Health survey and planning committee (Mudaliar committee 1959-61)
• Three grades of nurses viz. the basic nurses (4 yrs), auxillary nurse midwife (2 yrs) and
nurses with a degree qualification
• For GNM, minimum entrance qualification matriculation
• For degree course, passed higher secondary or pre-university
• Medium of instruction preferably English in general nursing
• Degree course should be taught only in English.
• It was recommended to have a department of health administration at the state level, headed
by the Director of Health Services.
Mukherjee committee, 1966.
• Training of nurses and ANM'S required for family planning.
Kartar Singh committee, 1972-73
• The course of ANM of two years duration was reduced to 18 months.
• LHV course was reduced to two years from two and a half years.
• Multipurpose health worker scheme
 • Change in designation of ANM's and LHV
• Setting up of a training division at the ministry of health and family welfare.
Sarojini Varadappan committee, 1990
(A high power committee on nursing and nursing profession.)
• Two levels of nursing personnel
• Post basic BSc nursing degree to continue
• Masters in nursing programme to be increased and strengthened
• Doctorate in nursing programme to be started in selected university
• Continuing education and staff development for nurses.
Working group on nursing education and manpower, 1991
• By 2020, GNM programme to be phased out
• The curriculum of BSc nursing to be modified
• Staffing norm should be as per INC
• There should be a deliberate plan for preparation of teachers MSc/M Phil and PhD degrees.
• Improvement in functioning of INC
• Importance of continuing education for nurses.
Fig. 1.4: Impact of various committees on the evolvement of the status of nursing and midwifery
in India
Key: CNE: Continuing Nursing Education; NABH: National Accreditation Board for Hospitals
and Healthcare Providers; ISO: International Organization for Standardization; JCI: Joint
Commission International; HR: Human Resources.
(Bagga Rajni, Tiwari Ritika, Jaiswal Vaishali, Abraham Asha. The Changing faces of Nursing and
Midwifery from ancient to the post-independence period in India. Indian Journal of Continuing
Nursing Education. Vol. 14. No. (1), Jan-June 2013. pp. 18)
Fig. 1.5: Trends in nursing (Twelve five year plan)

Fig. 1.6: The changing faces of nursing and midwifery in India over the year
CURRENT TRENDS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION
Trends means movement in a particular direction. When we speak of a trend in nursing
education, we mean a change currently taking place in nursing education and influencing the
profession as a whole. For example, the present trend in nursing education is towards a higher
level of education in the basic preparation of a professional nurse. This is a change happening right
now and causing the entire profession to move in the direction of higher education for the
professional nurse. The knowledge of trends is important for all members of nursing profession
Planning for nursing education and nursing services as well as controlling the direction in which
the profession moves are only-possible if we are aware of current trends.

NURSING EDUCATION IN INDIA

At the beginning, people giving nursing care were not formally prepared. They had
motivation to serve, but lacked knowledge and reason to serve. However, slowly social reforms
led the way for education in all fields. Women were not encouraged to undergo formal education.
The social reforms of the 9th century in European countries led to formal preparation of nurses
through education. As the medical profession progressed, the importance was laid on formal
preparation of nurses.
Modem nursing education started on the basis of Florence Nightingale's work and training
plan developed in a school of nursing in London. It is hard to rely that recognized preparation for
modern nursing education began with the establishment of Nightingale School of Nursing in
London. Nightingale stressed that nursing was not domestic and charitable service, but a respected
occupation requiring advanced education.
Evolution of Nursing Education in India
We can summarize the history of nursing education in India as follows:

1871 School of nursing started in general hospital, Madras.

1886 School of nursing in a full-fledged form was started in JJ hospital, Bombay.

1892 Many hospital in Bombay started nursing associations which were intended to provide
additional facilities for the training of local nurses.

1908 TNAI established.

1909 Bombay presidency nursing association was formed.

1910 United board of examination for nurses was organized.

1913 South India Board was organized.

1926 First nurse's registration act passed in Madras.
1935 Madras and Bombay nursing council were established.

1942 ANM program started.

1943 School of nursing at RAK College, New Delhi.

1943 Diploma program in nursing administration started in New Delhi.

1946 Four year BSc nursing program was started in RAK College, New Delhi and CMC,
Vellore.
1947 INC act was passed.

1949 INC was established.

1959 MSc nursing programme was started at RAK College.

1963 Post basic BSc nursing program started in various institutions.

1968 MSc nursing in CMC, Vellore.

1972 Basic degree program started in Kerala.

1985 MSc nursing started in CMC, Ludhiana.

1985 IGNOU established.
1986 Curriculum changes for GNM program from three and half years to three years.
1986 M Phil programme started in RAK, Delhi.

1987 MSc nursing started in Kerala.

1987 Separate directorate of nursing was created in Karnataka state.

1988 MSc nursing in NIMHANS, Bangalore.

1992 PhD in RAK College, New Delhi.

1992 Post BSc program started under IGNOU.

1994 MSc nursing at MAHE, Manipal.

1994 Basic BSc nursing program under school of medical education at Mahatma Gandhi
University, Kottayam.
1996 M Phil and PhD at MAHE, Manipal and Kottayam.

2001 PhD at NIMHANS, Bangalore.

2005 PhD in RGUHS, Bangalore, Vinayaka mission, Tamil Nadu.

2005 to Increased duration GNM from 3 years to 3.5 years.

2006
2006 to Revised syllabus of ANM.
2007
2011 PhD in Baba Farid University of Health Sciences, Faridkot.

2015– Revision of GNM syllabus and decrease duration from 3.5 years to 3 years by INC.
2016:

Trends in Nursing Education

A profession is a dynamic integration of the various faculties of knowledge. Since nursing
education is a professional education, it is dynamic by its own nature and thereby giving rise to
trends. Let us see some of the current trends in nursing education.
• Periodic Revision of Curriculum: Flexible curriculum designs are evolving to facilitate
diversity of educational opportunity and overcome barriers of distance and time. These
curricula are often competency based, focused on outcome and emphasize on student
participation and responsibility for learning. E.g Curriculum duration of diploma GNM has
been changed from 3 years and 6 months (internship) to 3 years in 2015.
• Innovation in Teaching and Learning: In nursing education, lots of innovations are taking
place in the areas of teaching and learning. Invariably, these innovations lead to intellectual
development, personal development and career development. E.g. use of concept mapping.
• Educational Quality Assurance: Educational quality assurance is a process for monitoring
and evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of educational provision and to institute
remedial measures as and when needed. In India, Nursing Education is flourishing at
greater pace; naturally this will lead to dilution in the quality of nursing education in the
absence of proper quality control measures. Motivated by this situation, accrediting bodies
and nurse educators are expressing deep concern regarding the quality of nursing
education. It is high time to prepare a quality index of nursing institutions all over the
country by categorizing them into different grade based on the infrastructure and faculty
profile.
• More Reliance on Technology: Technology exerts greater influences on nursing education
as a tool for teaching and learning. Judicious use of educational psychology in the
development and practice of educational technology has increased its user friendly nature
considerably.
• Emphasis on High-Tech-High-Touch Approach: High-tech-high-touch approach in
nursing care was devised to preserve the human component of nursing care without
undermining the advantages of technological advancements in the field of patient care.
Present day nursing education is preparing the students to maintain the human elements of
nursing while caring the patients with the help of sophisticated gadgets.
• Preparation of Global Nurses: Nursing education is all set to reap benefits created by
globalization and liberalization by way of preparing global nurses. Many institutions are
preparing students with a global perspective through providing learning experience to each
student's knowledge in English along with the attainment of other objectives.
• Trans-National Acceptance: Nursing educational programmes in one nation are widely
accepted by other nations. In fact, this trans-national acceptance is the main reason for the
development of nursing education in the countries like India.
• Emergence of New Specialties: As par with the development in the medical and new
specialties new specialities, the education is also offering new specialties to meet the needs
of the community. e.g Medical Surgical Nursing further has various sub-specialities such
as cardio nursing, orthopaedic nursing and many more.
• Increased opportunities for higher education/studies: Nowadays, many institutions are
offering various programs such as post certificate BSc nursing, MSc nursing, M Phil, and
PhD. An eligible candidate can easily pursue higher education without much time lag.
• Preference of Short-term Clinical Programs Many graduate nurses prefer short term
clinical programs of six months like trauma nursing, critical care nursing to upgrade their
basic qualification for better career opportunities prevailing in the service sector.
• Potential Shortage of Nurse Educators: As a result of the existing career opportunities in
the service sector when compared to the educational side, talented nurses are now opting a
career in the service side for better prospects. This may lead to a shortage of nurse educators
in the near future. Since the presence of talented nurses in the service sector will do a lot
in uplifting the public image of our profession.
• Diminishing Government Role: Shortage of funds coupled with certain policy decisions
has prevented the government from investing further in the field of nursing education.
Now, the private sector is playing a dominant role in the development of nursing education.
• Uniformity and Standardization: Various universities and nursing boards are conducting
nursing programs in a different manner. Even though efforts are on the way bringing about
the much needed uniformity and standardization, nothing significant has been achieved so
far.
• Enrollment of Men as Nursing Students: Previously, nursing was considered as a
profession of females only. Less number of males was entering this profession. But now
the trends in changing Males are also becoming members of this profession.
• Diversification of Nursing Students: Students have become greatly diverse in terms of
age, race, gender, economic status, learning style etc.
• Computers in Nursing Education: Computers are used in all the fields with the advent of
advanced technology. Also, in nursing there is wider use of computers for different
purposes. That's why computer education has been introduced in nursing curriculum
• University based Education: Previously, the GNM and ANM courses were offered in
Schools of Nursing that were not affiliated to any University. Now, B.Sc. Nursing and
M.Sc. Nursing courses are being offered to nursing students in the colleges of Nursing
affiliated to universities, e.g.: Baba Farid University of Health Sciences, Faridkot in Punjab
• Expanded Nursing Literature: Nursing literature has greatly expanded with new books,
journals, annual reviews, standards and policy statements
• Advanced Nursing Courses: Previously, the nursing courses offered to nursing students
were preparing them for first line nursing posts, i.e. clinical nursing. But now the advanced
nursing courses like M.Sc. Nursing and Ph.D Nursing have been started which prepare
nurses for the posts of nursing educators and nursing administrators
• Community Health Oriented Nursing Education: Previously, there was more emphasis
on education related to care of hospitalized patients. Nowadays community health oriented
nursing education has also been given emphasis in curriculum of nursing education.
• More Experienced Teaching Staff: More experienced and educated staff is now available
in nursing institutes for teaching nursing students. This has been possible due to the
introduction of advanced courses in nursing.
• Proficiency Scoring: Nursing is a profession which develops and refines the skills of
students; clinical performance appraisal of nursing students is a tough challenge for the
evaluators. The introduction of proficiency scoring in nursing education has eased the job
of nurse educators.
• Research in Nursing Education: one of the criteria for a profession is research. The
nursing profession is evolving at a rapid pace, not only in service domain, but also in
education and research field. Nurses should be prepared to do research so that they can
gain insight into nursing problems. Research has become a major area in curriculum of
nursing education.
• Periodic Revision of Curriculum: Accrediting bodies of respective countries are revising
the curriculum of nursing education from time to time, for example, INC in India. This is
required so that the nurses can be prepared according to the changing needs of society,
emerging health problems, advanced technology used in healthcare facilities etc.
• Distance Education in Nursing: Different universities all over the world have started
offering nursing courses through distance education. For example, in India IGNOU has
started the B.Sc. Nursing post basic nursing course.
• Collaboration with Foreign Universities: Collaboration with different foreign universities
has been established. The students who have successfully completed the basic course in
nursing and fulfil the requirements are sponsored to foreign universities for further
education.
• Privatisation of Nursing Education: A large number of nursing institutes are being
established in private sector. This has resulted in flourishing of nursing education thus
strengthening the nursing profession.
• Integration of Theory and Practice in Nursing Education: Nursing is a profession, which
emphasizes the knowledge and skills related to patient care. Therefore, nowadays there is
more stress on integration of theory and practice in nursing education.
• Nursing Theories in Nursing Education: Nursing theories should be applied for providing
effective nursing care to patients. So, the nurses should be equipped with knowledge of
these nursing theories. Nursing theories have become an important component in
curriculum of for nurses.
• Advanced Educational Technology: Advanced educational technology, media like OHP's,
slide projectors, computer models etc. are now used by nursing teachers to provide
effective learning experiences to students.
• Emphasis on Legal Aspects in Nursing: Consumers in today's world have become more
aware due to the Consumer Protection Act. Therefore, the nurses should be provided in
depth information about legal aspects in nursing. Legal aspects in nursing are also included
in the curriculum for nurses.
• Introduction of OSCE: For making the clinical evaluation more objective, Objective,
Structured Clinical Evaluation has been introduced by nursing teachers. This has proved to
be very beneficial.
• Accreditation of Nursing institutes: All the nursing institutes need to get accreditation
from State Nursing Council and INC periodically. This is required for checking that all the
required facilities for providing nursing education are being fulfilled..
• Quality Assurance in Nursing Education: More emphasis on provision of quality
education to the nursing students is also an important trend. for achieving this, the
governing bodies have established the standards of nursing education. Periodic inspections
of nursing institutes are also carried to see whether the education is provided according to
these standards. Universities and SNRC has made facilities for surprise inspections to
maintain standards as established by INC
• Self-Evaluation: Previously, the evaluation was totally the duty of teachers. But as the
trend is changing. Self-evaluation by students is also given emphasis so that the students
will get more insight of his or her performance.
• Financial Assistance from Government and International Agencies: Government
agencies and international agencies have started giving financial aid to the nursing
institutes for promotion of nursing education for example. Ministry of health and family
welfare and WHO are providing funds to National Institute of Nursing Education,
PGIMER, Chandigarh for organizing workshop.
• Scholarships and Awards for Students: Scholarships and awards are given to the students
who secure distinguished positions at different levels like college level, university level,
state level and national level. For example, TNAI grant scholarships like TATA Memorial
Scholarship Fund, Kapadia Memorial Fund etc.
• Pedocentric: Student is a focus of the present day education system. The interest is shifted
from the subject matter to student and the teaching learning process is largely directed by
the nature and needs of learners.
• Teacher's role: This shift in emphasis from the teacher to the pupil in the process of
education and the carrying out of instructional activities with the realization of specific and
clear cut learning outcomes.
• Education for equality.
• Evidenced based teaching-learning/research in education.
• Tele-education: Activity centered and Creative education
• Increased acceptance of non-formal type of education
• Women education.
• Adult education
• Vocational education
• Methods of appraisal: e.g. replacement of scoring system with grading system
• Innovation in teaching-learning methods
• Commercialization of education
• International nurses mobility.
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