The Archaeology of An Urban Landscape, The Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Project PDF

The Archaeology of an Urban Landscape,
The Whitehurst Freeway

Archaeological Project
Volume I: Prehistoric Sites
51NW103 (Peter House), 51NW117 (Ramp 3),

and 51NW117W (Whitehurst West),
Washington, D.C.
Client info
etc.
etc
Prepared for the

District of Columbia Department of Transportation
by
Parsons
August 2006
The Archaeology of an Urban Landscape,
The Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Project
Volume I: Prehistoric Sites
51NW103 (Peter House), 51NW117 (Ramp 3),

and 51NW117W (Whitehurst West),
Washington, D.C.
Dennis Knepper, John M. Rutherford, Daniel R. Hayes,

Carter Shields, and Christopher L. Bowen
Prepared for:
District of Columbia Department of Transportation
Prepared by:
Parsons
1133 Fifteenth Street, NW
Washington, D.C.
and
Vesar, Inc.
6850 Versar Center
Springfield, Virginia
August 2006
Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Studies
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The District of Columbia Department of Transportation conducted an extensive

program of archaeological investigation as part of the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement
Project, under a Memorandum of Agreement between the Federal Highway Administration,
District of Columbia Department of Public Works, District of Columbia Historic
Preservation Officer, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. The investigation
culminated in data recovery excavations in 1996 and 1997 at four archaeological sites within
the project corridor. This report details the prehistoric findings at three of the sites—the
Peter House (51NW103), Ramp 3 (51NW117), and Whitehurst West (51NW117W)—all
located at the Foggy Bottom end of the project corridor.
The sites lay on successive terraces on the east bank of Rock Creek at its confluence
with the Potomac River. Evidence from the investigations suggested that the terraces have
been occupied for at least 5,000 years. The most intensive occupations at each site occurred
during the latest prehistoric period, the Late Woodland (AD 900–1600). Use of the sites was
more variable in the preceding Middle Woodland (300 BC–AD 900), Early Woodland (1000
BC–300 BC), and Late Archaic (2500 BC–1000 BC) periods, and possibly earlier.
The Peter House site lay on the highest terrace above Rock Creek. The main
prehistoric deposits there occurred in a gully that had filled with sediment from the
surrounding hill slopes beginning in the Archaic period. The cultural deposits were roughly
stratified. The lower layers contained scattered Archaic and Early Woodland period artifacts,
while the uppermost layers contained concentrations of Late Woodland lithic and ceramic
artifacts, and a large amount of fire-cracked rock and charcoal. Wide variation was noted in
the ceramic types that were present in these layers, providing evidence that many population
groups had occupied the site during the period. Later, in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, brick houses and sidewalks were constructed directly over the prehistoric site,
causing relatively little disturbance to the underlying deposits and sealing the earlier site until
it was exposed in the current archaeological investigation. Another significant finding at the
Peter House site was a plow zone, a remnant of pre-urban, agricultural use of the land by
European colonists. The plow zone was found upslope from the gully beneath the remains of
nineteenth-century houses and their back yards. The plow zone contained artifacts from the
prehistoric occupations intermixed with artifacts from the turn of the nineteenth century.
The Ramp 3 site was located on an intermediate terrace, between the Peter House and
Rock Creek. The site contained portions of a Middle and Late Woodland prehistoric surface
over which lay a nineteenth-century alley. The most significant aspect of the site was a large
pit feature containing the remnants of a cremation burial. Osteological analysis indicated that
the burial was of a single individual, probably a female around 40 years of age. The burial
was secondary, originally cremated elsewhere, yet there was evidence of a fire-related ritual
associated with the interment at the Ramp 3 site. Grave goods included an incised antler
comb, carved antler disks, slate pendants, a stone phallic effigy, shark teeth, a large chert
point or knife, and remnants of woven fabric. Most of the artifacts are characteristic of burial
goods related to the Kipp Island complex, a Middle Woodland archaeological culture in
i
western New York and southern Canada. Radiocarbon dates confirmed the Middle
Woodland association of the deposits.
The Whitehurst West site was located on a terrace near the level of Rock Creek, the
lowest in elevation of the three sites investigated. The site had formed on a gravel bar and
may have been occupied initially during the Archaic period, as early as 5,000 years ago. The
majority of the archaeological evidence from the site was more recent, dating from the Late
Woodland period, while artifacts indicating substantial Early and Middle Woodland
occupations were also present. Cultural material recovered from the site included a large
amount of charcoal, along with fragments of calcined bone and shell, suggesting the presence
of an extensive midden deposit associated with the collection and preparation of foodstuffs.
Overall, the Whitehurst Freeway study resulted in a cross-sectional view of the Rock
Creek valley, showing occupations on consecutive valley terraces. A multi-disciplinary
research approach was taken throughout the investigation. Geoarchaeological work was
conducted in tandem with the archaeological excavations, while subsequent laboratory
analyses included paleobotanical, osteological, zooarchaeological, and mineralogical studies,
along with specialized textile and ceramic analyses. Together, the investigations provided
clear evidence of population movement through the region during the Middle Woodland
period and later. The migrations included the introduction to the region of ancestral
Algonquian-speaking groups, forebears of the populations that eventually greeted European
explorers in the seventeenth century. The studies also demonstrated the importance of the
fall line in the upper Potomac valley as a cultural cross roads in the latter part of the
prehistoric period, as groups from many regions came to the falls at the head of the estuary
for the rich, seasonal fish runs. And finally, the project demonstrated the survival of
significant archaeological sites in the midst of seemingly widespread and disruptive urban
development.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In light of considerable delays between the implementation of field work and the
submission of the technical report presented herein, many individuals involved in initiating
this project have moved on from their original positions. They are acknowledged here for
their efforts, along with the efforts those critical to the project’s recent completion.
We wish to thank Mr. Tom Burke of District of Columbia Department of Public

Works (DCDPW) for his patience, interest, and support as he monitored the project through
the initial phases of its completion. We also thank Mr. James Evans and the late Mr. Luke
DiPompo of DCDPW. Mr. Oliver Clemons, Project Manager, Mr. Dennis Stolldorf, Mr.
Everett Redmiles, and other employees of the Legion Design/Delon Hampton Joint Venture
deserve special thanks for their unfailing patience and interest. Mr. Ray Vittori and the staff
of Dick Enterprises were continuously gracious in spite of the fact that our work and theirs
sometimes conflicted. Under reinitiating of the project in 2004, we thank the following
District of Columbia Department of Transportation personnel for their support and oversight:
Mr. Daniel Tangherlini, Director (2000-2006), Mr. Ken Laden and Ms. Ramona Burns.
We are indebted to Dr. Stephen Potter, Regional Archaeologist of the National

Capital Region of the National Park Service. His continuing interest in the project, his
efforts to revive it, and his assistance in the field, as well as in the identification of prehistoric
ceramics and analysis of special artifacts from the site, have all been invaluable. Ms. Nancy
Kassner, of the D.C. Historic Preservation Division also was a frequent visitor to and
participant at the site. Her help and the insights she shared into the archaeology of the
District of Columbia are deeply appreciated.
Ms. Susan Trail, Cultural Resource Specialist for the C & O Canal National Park and
Mr. Stephen Strach, Cultural Resource Specialist for the Rock Creek National Park were
gracious with their assistance and interest, with Mr. Strach being a frequent visitor to the
sites in Rock Creek Park during the fieldwork portion of the project.
Others who deserve special recognition include the staff of the Washingtoniana Room
of the Martin Luther King Library; the staff of the Historical Society of Washington, D.C.;
the staff of the Geography and Maps Division, Manuscripts Division and the History and
Genealogy Reading Room at the Library of Congress; Mr. Philip Ogilvie of the D.C. Office
of Public Records; the staff of the Anthropology Library and the Anthropology Archives; and
Mr. Jim Krakker and Dr. Alfred Gardner at the National Museum of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution, for their assistance with research on comparative collections.
Saving the best for last, particular credit for the success of the project must go to the
field personnel. Bob Anderson, of Laurel Equipment, Laurel, Maryland, provided skilled
work with a backhoe and front-end loader, making it possible for archaeologists to safely
conduct delicate excavations as much as 14 feet below ground surface. And finally, we
would like to acknowledge the efforts of the archaeological field crew, who worked long
hours through Washington’s mid-summer heat and the remnants of two tropical storms to
carefully and accurately record the data that we have reported here. A complete list of field,
laboratory, and office personnel is included in Appendix A.
iii
iv
THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF AN URBAN LANDSCAPE

THE WHITEHURST FREEWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
VOLUME I: PREHISTORIC SITES
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................i

Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................................iii
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures........................................................................................................................vi
List of Tables .........................................................................................................................xi
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Description of the Project ................................................................................ 1
1.2 General Description and the Modern Physical Setting .................................... 3
1.3 Report Organization......................................................................................... 4
2.0 Background Research................................................................................................ 5

2.1 Physical Setting................................................................................................ 5
2.2. Paleoenvironment ........................................................................................... 8
2.3 Prehistory of the Region ................................................................................ 10
2.4 Relevant Historic Period Events .................................................................... 14
2.5 Previous Research in the Area ....................................................................... 17
2.6 Research Design............................................................................................. 25
3.0 Methods..................................................................................................................... 31
3.1 General Field Methods................................................................................... 31
3.2 Lab Methods .................................................................................................. 32
4.0 Peter House Prehistoric Site (51NW103): Archaeological Findings .................. 47

4.1 Phase I and Phase II Investigations................................................................ 47
4.2 Field Methods for Prehistoric Data Recovery ............................................... 48
4.3 General Site Description ................................................................................ 51
4.4 Stratigraphic Summary .................................................................................. 51
4.5 Data Analyses ................................................................................................ 56
5.0 Ramp 3 Prehistoric Site (51NW117): Archaeological Findings ......................... 99

5.1 Phase I and Phase II Investigations................................................................ 99
5.2 Field Methods for Prehistoric Data Recovery ............................................. 102
5.3 General Site Description .............................................................................. 104
5.4 Stratigraphic Summary ................................................................................ 105
5.5 Data Analyses .............................................................................................. 108
6.0 Whitehurst West (51NW117W) ): Archaeological Findings............................. 145

6.1 Phase I and Phase II Investigations.............................................................. 145
6.2 Field Methods for Prehistoric Data Recovery ............................................. 147
v
6.3 General Site Description .............................................................................. 149

6.4 Stratigraphic Summary ................................................................................ 149
6.5 Data Analyses .............................................................................................. 154
7.0 Synthesis and Conclusions

7.1 Timeframe: Chronology and Culture History............................................. 181
7.2 Material Culture: Lithic Tool Manufacture and Use .................................. 187
7.3 Material Culture: Ceramic Vessel Manufacture and Use ........................... 192
7.4 The Sites in an Integrated Landscape: Geoarchaeology, Landscape
Reconstruction, and Site Formation............................................................. 197
7.5 Whitehurst as a Crossroads: Settlement-Subsistence, Mortuary
Practices, and Implications for Regional Population Growth...................... 204
7.6 Management Considerations........................................................................ 244
7.7 Summary and Overall Contributions ........................................................... 248
8.0 References Cited..................................................................................................... 255
Appendices/Supporting Documentation
Appendix A List of Personnel

Appendix B Detailed Artifact Data
Appendix C Detailed Analytical Data
Appendix D Geoarchaeological Analysis
Appendix E Radioncarbon Data
Appendix F Paleoethnobotanical Analysis
Appendix G Lithic Catchment Study
Appendix H Mineralogical Analysis of Ceramic Tempers
Appendix I Technological Analysis of Textiles and Fibers
Appendix J Archaeobotanical Analysis of Textiles
Appendix K Microscopic Residue and Use-Wear Analyses
Appendix L Osteological Analysis
Appendix M Zooarchaeological Analysis
Appendix N Analysis of Shark Teeth
Appendix O Artifact Inventory
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Project Corridor Showing the Locations of Significant Archaeological

Sites Investigated in the Phase III Mitigations Reported Herein .....................2
Figure 2-1 Detail of John Smith’s 1608 Map of the Chesapeake Bay Showing
the Upper Potomac Estuary and with Villages and Settlements near
the Whitehurst Freeway Sites.........................................................................14
Figure 2-2 View Eastward Across of the Foggy Bottom Area from Analostan Island
in 1927, with the Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Sites and Several
Landmarks Noted ...........................................................................................16
Figure 2-3 Phase II Excavations, Georgetown .....................................................................21
Figure 2-4 Phase II Excavations, Foggy Bottom..................................................................22
Figure 3-1 Monitoring Overburden Removal at the Whitehurst West Site..........................31
Figure 3-2 Unit and Block Excavations at the Whitehurst Freeway Sites ...........................33
Figure 3-3 Patterson’s Experimental Biface Reduction Flake Size Distribution .................38
Figure 3-4 Flake Size Distribution, Experimental Site 34....................................................45
Figure 4-1 Cleaning and Documenting Brick Walls of Row Houses Adjacent to
the Peter House during Phase II Investigations, 1993....................................47
Figure 4-2 Removing Overburden at the Peter House Site ..................................................49
Figure 4-3 Locations of Phase III Data Recovery Excavations, Peter House ......................50
Figure 4-4 Geoarchaeological Documentation and Sampling in the Main
Excavation Block, Peter House ......................................................................51
Figure 4-5 Initial Units of Block Excavation in Eroded and In-filled Gully at
Base of Slope, Peter House ............................................................................52
Figure 4-6 Cross Section through the Hill Side Containing the Peter House Site ...............53
Figure 4-7 Stratigraphic Profile of Excavation Block, Peter House.....................................54
Figure 4-8 Stratigraphic Profile in Excavation Block at Base of Slope, Peter House..........54
Figure 4-9 Plow Zone (Ap) in Row House Area on Slope, Peter House .............................56
Figure 4-10 Feature 363, Peter House, Oblique View............................................................56
Figure 4-11 Feature 363, Peter House, Plan View .................................................................57
Figure 4-12 Feature 363, Peter House, Profile Section ..........................................................58
Figure 4-13 Feature 374, Peter House, Oblique View............................................................59
Figure 4-14 Feature 374, Peter House, Plan View .................................................................59
Figure 4-15 Feature 374, Peter House, Profile Section ..........................................................60
Figure 4-16 Plot of Radiocarbon Data from the Peter House Block Excavation ...................62
Figure 4-17 Sample of Points from Ah Stratum, Peter House ...............................................70
Figure 4-18 Sample of Points from Ab Stratum, Peter House ...............................................73
Figure 4-19 Sample of Points from AC Stratum, Peter House...............................................77
Figure 4-20 Sample of Points from Cg1 Stratum, Peter House..............................................80
Figure 4-21 Frequency Distribution of Diagnostic Ceramics by Universal Stratum,
Peter House.....................................................................................................83
Figure 4-22 Chronologically Diagnostic Points Grouped by Time Period and Stratum,
Peter House.....................................................................................................84
vii
Figure 4-23 Block Excavation in the Eroded and In-filled Gully at of the Base of
Peter House Slope ..........................................................................................86
Figure 4-24 Horizontal and Vertical Distributions of Refitted Lithic and Mended
Ceramic Artifacts from the Peter House Excavation Block...........................88
Figure 4-25 Distribution of Ceramic Lot #5, Block Excavation, Peter House.......................90
Figure 4-28 Fire-Cracked Rock Clusters and Concentrations of Late and Middle
Woodland Ceramics in the Ab Stratum. Peter House ....................................93
Figure 4-29 Fire-Cracked Rock Clusters and Concentrations of Middle and Early
Woodland Ceramics in the AC Stratum, Peter House....................................95
Figure 4-30 Fire-Cracked Rock Clusters and Concentrations of Early Woodland
Ceramics in the Cg1 Stratum, Peter House ....................................................96
Figure 4-31 Comparison of Fire-Cracked Rock Clusters in the Cg1 Stratum and
Artifact Concentrations in the Cg2 Stratum, Peter House..............................97
Figure 5-1 Locations of Phase I and Phase II Excavations at Ramp 3 .................................99
Figure 5-2 Phase II Excavations at Ramp 3........................................................................101
Figure 5-3 Locations of Phase III Data Recovery Excavations at Ramp 3 ........................102
Figure 5-4 Block Excavation, Ramp 3 ...............................................................................103
Figure 5-5 Ramp 3 Excavation Area ..................................................................................104
Figure 5-6 Reconstructed Stratigraphic Section through Ramp 3 Site...............................106
Figure 5-7 Stratigraphic Profile Section, Feature 283 and Overlying Deposits,
Ramp 3 Excavation Block............................................................................107
Figure 5-8 Feature 283, Profile Section at 193 E, Ramp 3.................................................109
Figure 5-9 Feature 283, Plan View at Top of Cobble Layer, Ramp 3................................110
Figure 5-10 Feature 283, Plan View, Artifact Distribution below Cobble Layer,
Ramp 3 .........................................................................................................112
Figure 5-11 Plot of Radiocarbon Data from the Ramp 3 Block Excavation ........................114
Figure 5-12 Sample of Points from 2Ad Stratum, Ramp 3 ..................................................119
Figure 5-13 Point from 2Ab Stratum, Ramp 3 .....................................................................121
Figure 5-14 Points from 2AB Stratum, Ramp 3 ...................................................................123
Figure 5-15 Artifact Assemblage at the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3 ................................126
Figure 5-16 Pendants from Feature 283, Ramp 3.................................................................127
Figure 5-17 Phallus Effigy from Feature 283, Ramp 3 ........................................................128
Figure 5-18 Hammerstones from Feature 283, Ramp 3 .......................................................129
Figure 5-19 Antler Comb from Feature 283, Ramp 3, Reconstruction with Inset
Detailing Incised Decoration........................................................................130
Figure 5-20 Antler Disks from Feature 283, Ramp 3...........................................................130
Figure 5-21 Selection of Textile Fragments from Feature 283, Ramp 3..............................133
Figure 5-22 Shark Teeth from Feature 283, Ramp 3............................................................133
Figure 5-23 Wooden Bead from Feature 283, Ramp 3 ........................................................134
Figure 5-24 Frequency Distribution of Diagnostic Ceramics by Universal Stratum,
Ramp 3 .........................................................................................................137
Figure 5-25 Distribution of Prehistoric Artifacts by Count per Unit, 2Ad Stratum,
Ramp 3 .........................................................................................................138
viii
Figure 5-26 Distribution of Prehistoric Artifacts by Count per Unit, 2AB Stratum,
Ramp 3 .........................................................................................................139
Figure 5-27 Distribution of Prehistoric Artifacts by Count per Unit, 3Bt Stratum,
Ramp 3 .........................................................................................................141
Figure 5-28 Three-Dimensional Surface Rendering of Natural Topography at the
Ramp 3 Site Prior to Historic Period Filling, Showing the Locations
of Phase I and II Archaeological Excavations..............................................142
Figure 5-29 Superimposed Artifact Distribution Maps by Stratigraphic Deposit,
Block Excavation, Ramp 3...........................................................................143
Figure 6-1 Location of Phase I Trenches between Rock Creek Parkway and
Rock Creek, at Whitehurst West ..................................................................145
Figure 6-2 Backhoe Excavation at the Whitehurst West Site.............................................148
Figure 6-3 Excavation Crew in Trench with Heavy Shoring in Background.....................148
Figure 6-4 Installing Well Points........................................................................................148
Figure 6-5 Installing Well Points and a Shelter..................................................................148
Figure 6-6 Phase II Excavation Block at Whitehurst West ................................................149
Figure 6-7 The Bike Path along Rock Creek Parkway Was Diverted around the
Excavation and Remained Open throughout the Investigations,
Attracting a Variety of Visitors Each Day ...................................................150
Figure 6-8 North Profile Section , Trench 2, Whitehurst West ..........................................150
Figure 6-9 North Profile Section Detail at 34N Grid Line, Whitehurst West ....................151
Figure 6-10 North Profile Section, 34N Grid Line, Whitehurst West..................................152
Figure 6-11 Central Portion of Feature 502 in the 2Ab2 Stratum. Whitehurst West ...........154
Figure 6-12 Plan View of Feature 502, Whitehurst West ....................................................155
Figure 6-13 Plot of Radiocarbon Data from the Whitehurst West Block Excavation..........157
Figure 6-14 Point from the Aw Stratum, Whitehurst West ..................................................162
Figure 6-15 Sample of Points from the 2Abo Stratum, Whitehurst West ............................164
Figure 6-16 Sample of Points from the 2Ab1 Stratum, Whitehurst West ...........................167
Figure 6-17 Sample of Points from the 2Ab2 Stratum, Whitehurst West ............................170
Figure 6-18 Sample of Points from the 2AB Stratum, Whitehurst West .............................173
Figure 6-19 Comparison of Prehistoric Artifact Distributions in 2Ab1 and 2Ab2
Strata , Whitehurst West...............................................................................177
Figure 6-20 Comparative Analysis of Late Woodland Ceramics and Associated
Artifact Distributions in 2Ab1 and 2Ab2 Strata, Whitehurst West..............178
Figure 6-21 Comparative Analysis of Middle Woodland Ceramics and Associated
Artifact Distributions in 2Ab1 and 2Ab2 Strata, Whitehurst West..............179
Figure 7-1 Sequence of Radiocarbon Determinations from the Whitehurst Sites..............185
Figure 7-2 Triangular Points from Whitehurst Sites Showing Patterns of Transverse,
Oblique, and Bending Snap Breaks..............................................................193
Figure 7-3 Representative Cross Section through Rock Creek Valley near Its
Confluence with the Potomac River.............................................................197
Figure 7-4 Depositional Model for the Whitehurst Freeway Sites, Showing the
Accumulation of Both Cultural and Natural Sediments...............................199
Figure 7-5 Schematic Model of Midden Formation ...........................................................201
Figure 7-6 Artifact Assemblage at the Base of Feature 283...............................................205
ix
Figure 7-7 Archaeological Sites Mentioned in the Text Containing Kipp Island
Mortuary Components..................................................................................207
Figure 7-8 Examples of Antler Combs Recovered from Middle Woodland Mortuary
Contexts........................................................................................................215
Figure 7-9 Kipp Island Burial Assemblage ........................................................................217
Figure 7-10 Jack’s Reef Burial Assemblage ........................................................................217
Figure 7-11 Chronology of Kipp Island and Kipp Island Related Sites in Ontario,
New York, and the Middle Atlantic .............................................................225
Figure 7-12 Hypothetical Emigration Scenario with Algonquian Populations Moving
South to the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Following Iroquoian
Intrusion........................................................................................................226
Figure 7-13 The Potomac River At the Fall Line .................................................................239
Figure 7-14 Results of A Viewshed Analysis from the Whitehurst Ramp 3 Site ................241
Figure 7-15 Isometric Depiction of the View Downriver from the Whitehurst Sites ..........242
Figure 7-16 Isometric Depiction of the View Upriver from the Whitehurst Sites ...............243
Figure 7-17 Metal Sign Recovered from the Demolition Debris at the Peter House:
Leo Bernstein, Co., was the Construction Firm that Demolished Structure
in the 1960s ..................................................................................................245
Figure 7-18 Composite Section Through the Peter House Site Illustrating the
Sequence of Chronologically Stacked Deposits...........................................246
Figure 7-19 Artifact Distribution in the 2Ab1 Stratum at Whitehurst West, Illustrating
Unbounded Contour Lines to the North and South of the
Excavation Block .........................................................................................247
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Summary of Phase I and Phase II Excavations within the Whitehurst
Freeway Improvement Corridor.....................................................................23
Table 3-1 Special Analyses Performed by Outside Consultant Analysts ...........................41
Table 3-2 Metric Equivalences for Mass Analysis Size Grades .........................................44
Table 4-1 Radiocarbon Dates, Peter House Block Excavation ...........................................61
Table 4-2 Pairwise Tests for Contemporaneity of Radiocarbon Dates,
Peter House Block Excavation .......................................................................63
Table 4-3 Charred Seeds Identified in Peter House Flotation Samples ..............................63
Table 4-4 Wood Charcoal Identified from the Peter House Excavations ...........................64
Table 4-5 Historical Artifact Type Distribution, Peter House Yard Excavations...............67
Table 4-6 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution, Peter House Yard Excavations .............67
Table 4-7 Chipped Stone Raw Material Distribution, Peter House Yard Excavations.......67
Table 4-8 Historical Artifact Type Distribution, Row House Excavations ........................68
Table 4-9 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution, Row House Excavations.......................68
Table 4-10 Chipped Stone Raw Material Distribution, Row House Excavations ................68
Table 4-11 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution, Peter House Excavation Block,
Ah Stratum .....................................................................................................69
Table 4-12 Chipped Stone Raw Material Distribution, Peter House Excavation Block,
Ah Stratum .....................................................................................................69
Table 4-13 Ceramic Ware Distribution in Ah Stratum .........................................................71
Ab Stratum .....................................................................................................72
Table 4-15 Chipped Stone Raw Material Distribution, Peter House Excavation
Block, Ab Stratum..........................................................................................72
Table 4-16 Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking Debris, Bifacial Tools,
and Cores in Ab Stratum ................................................................................74
Table 4-17 Ceramic Ware Distribution in Ab Stratum .........................................................76
AC Stratum.....................................................................................................76
Block, AC Stratum .........................................................................................76
Table 4-20 Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking Debris and Bifacial Tools
in AC Stratum.................................................................................................78
Table 4-21 Ceramic Ware Distribution in AC Stratum.........................................................79
Cg1 Stratum....................................................................................................79
Block, Cg1 Stratum ........................................................................................79
in Cg1 Stratum................................................................................................81
Table 4-25 Ceramic Ware Distribution in Cg1 Stratum........................................................81
Cg2 Stratum....................................................................................................82
xi
Block, Cg2 Stratum ........................................................................................82
in Cg2 Stratum................................................................................................82
Table 4-29 Plow Zone Artifact Type Distribution, Peter House...........................................85
Table 5-1 Size Grade Distribution of Quartzite Flakes in Feature 285.............................113
Table 5-2 Radiocarbon Dates, Ramp 3 Block Excavation................................................113
Table 5-3 Pairwise Tests for Contemporaneity of Radiocarbon Dates, Ramp 3
Block Excavation .........................................................................................115
Table 5-4 Charred Seeds and Nutshell Identified in Ramp 3 Flotation Samples..............115
Table 5-5 Wood Charcoal Identified from the Ramp 3 Excavations ................................116
Table 5-6 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution Ramp 3 Excavations, 2Ad Stratum......118
Table 5-7 Chipped Stone Raw Material Distribution, Ramp 3 Excavations,
2Ad Stratum .................................................................................................118
Table 5-8 Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking Debris, Bifacial Tools,
and Cores in 2Ad Stratum, Ramp 3..............................................................120
Table 5-9 Ceramic Ware Distribution in the 2Ad Stratum, Ramp 3.................................120
Table 5-10 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution Ramp 3 Excavations, 2Ab Stratum......121
2Ab Stratum .................................................................................................121
in 2Ab Stratum, Ramp 3...............................................................................122
Table 5-13 Ceramic Ware Distribution in the 2Ab Stratum, Ramp 3.................................122
Table 5-14 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution Ramp 3 Excavations, 2AB Stratum.....123
2AB Stratum.................................................................................................123
in 2AB Stratum, Ramp 3 ..............................................................................124
Table 5-17 Ceramic Ware Distribution in the 2AB Stratum, Ramp 3 ................................124
Table 5-18 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution Ramp 3 Excavations, Feature 283 .......125
Feature 283 ...................................................................................................125
Table 5-20 Sizes of Reconstructed Antler Disks from Feature 283, Ramp 3 .....................131
Table 5-21 Details of Bone Recovered from Feature 283, Ramp 3 ....................................132
Table 5-22 Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking Debris and Cores in
Feature 283, Ramp 3 ....................................................................................134
Table 5-23 Ceramic Ware Distribution in Feature 283, Ramp 3 ........................................135
Table 5-24 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution, Ramp 3 Excavations, 3Bt Stratum......135
3Bt Stratum...................................................................................................135
Table 5-26 Ceramic Ware Distribution in 3Bt Stratum, Ramp 3........................................136
Table 5-27 Relative Frequencies of Historical and Prehistoric Artifacts in the Ramp 3
Excavations ..................................................................................................136
Table 6-1 Radiocarbon Dates, Whitehurst West Block Excavation .................................156
Table 6-2 Pairwise Tests for Contemporaneity of Radiocarbon Dates, Whitehurst
West Block Excavation ................................................................................158
xii
Table 6-3 Charred Seeds and Nutshell Identified in Whitehurst West Flotation
Samples ........................................................................................................158
Table 6-4 Wood Charcoal Identified from the Whitehurst West Excavations..................159
Table 6-5 Wood Type Occurrence by Stratum Provenience, Whitehurst West................160
Table 6-6 Prehistoric Artifact Type Distribution Whitehurst West Excavations,
Aw Stratum...................................................................................................162
Table 6-7 Chipped Stone Raw Material Distribution, Distribution Whitehurst
West Excavations, Aw Stratum....................................................................162
in Aw Stratum, Whitehurst West .................................................................163
Table 6-9 Ceramic Ware Distribution in Aw Stratum, Whitehurst West .........................163
2Abo Stratum ...............................................................................................164
Table 6-11 Chipped Stone Raw Material Distribution, Distribution Whitehurst West
Excavations, 2Abo Stratum..........................................................................164
in 2Abo Stratum, Whitehurst West ..............................................................165
Table 6-13 Ceramic Ware Distribution in 2Abo Stratum, Whitehurst West ......................165
2Ab1 Stratum ...............................................................................................166
Excavations, 2Ab1 Stratum..........................................................................166
in 2Ab1 Stratum, Whitehurst West ..............................................................167
Table 6-17 Ceramic Ware Distribution in 2Ab1 Stratum., Whitehurst West .....................168
2Ab2 Stratum ...............................................................................................169
Excavations, 2Ab2 Stratum..........................................................................169
in 2Ab2 Stratum, Whitehurst West ..............................................................171
Table 6-21 Ceramic Ware Distribution in 2Ab2 Stratum, Whitehurst West ......................171
2AB Stratum.................................................................................................172
Excavations, 2AB Stratum ...........................................................................172
in 2AB Stratum, Whitehurst West................................................................173
Table 6-25 Ceramic Ware Distribution in 2AB Stratum, Whitehurst West........................174
3Bw, 3Bt, and 3Cox Strata...........................................................................174
Excavations, 3B, 3Bt, and 3Cox Strata ........................................................174
Table 6-28 Frequency Distribution of Diagnostic Ceramics by Universal Stratum,
Whitehurst West ...........................................................................................175
xiii
Table 7-1 Radiocarbon Dates from Whitehurst Sites in Approximate Chronological

Order.............................................................................................................182
Table 7-2 Frequencies of Selected Non-Local Lithic Materials at the Whitehurst
Sites ..............................................................................................................190
Table 7-3 Frequency of Lithic Raw Materials among Late Woodland Triangular
Points ............................................................................................................191
Table 7-4 Frequency of Occurrence of Typed Ceramics at the Whitehurst Sites.............194
Table 7-5 Recently Reported Radiocarbon Dates for Ceramic Wares in the Middle
Atlantic .........................................................................................................194
Table 7-6 Comparison of Late Middle Woodland Burial Assemblages and
Attributes ......................................................................................................208
Table 7-7 Pairwise Tests for Contemporaneity of Radiocarbon Dates, Hand Site
Burial 55 and Whitehurst Feature 283 .........................................................214
Table 7-8 Published Radiometric Dates for Potomac Creek.............................................235
xiv
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Description of the Project
This report is the culmination of a series of archaeological investigations conducted

over the course of more than twenty years for the D.C. Department of Transportation and the
National Park Service as part of the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement Project. The program
was developed to comply with Stipulations 6(a) and 6(b) of a Memorandum of Agreement
(MOA) for treatment of archaeological resources ratified in 1985 by the Federal Highway
Administration, District of Columbia Department of Public Works, District of Columbia
Historic Preservation Officer, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. The
purpose of the MOA was to ensure that potential adverse effects to significant archaeological
properties that were situated within the freeway improvement corridor would be handled in
an appropriate manner, that all relevant data would be recovered from the properties, and that
full documentation of the resources would be undertaken before they came under direct
impact from the planned development.
In its entirety, the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement Project extended along K Street
from the Old Aqueduct Bridge abutment, in Georgetown, to 26th Street, in Northwest
Washington (Figure 1-1). The western section was bounded by Key Bridge, a series of
freeway ramps, K and M Streets, and Canal Road. Construction plans in this area called for
the demolition of two existing bridges over the C&O Canal, demolition of a ramp to Key
Bridge, and construction of a new, single-span bridge over the Canal. A new landscaped
park was also planned for the area of the demolished ramp. In the central section, paralleling
the north side of K Street from 34th Street to Key Bridge, pile driving associated with
widening of the elevated road surface was proposed. In the eastern section, bounded by 26th
Street, L Street, 29th Street, and several existing freeway ramps, ramps were scheduled to be
removed and a new ramp and an elevated pedestrian walkway constructed, with extensive
landscaping to follow. Preliminary assessment studies were carried out in 1984. These
studies concluded that both ends of the corridor displayed the potential for significant
prehistoric archaeological resources that could be affected by the improvement project
(Artemel and Crowell 1984). Based in part on the recommendations of the investigations,
the MOA was written and more intensive archival and archaeological research studies were
conducted. The archaeological studies were carried out according to the standards and
guidelines of the National Park Service and Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (36
CFR 66; 36 CFR 800), in coordination with the District of Columbia Historic Preservation
Office, and when applicable, with the National Park Service, National Capital Region. An
Archaeological Resources Protection Act permit for archaeological testing on property
administered by Rock Creek Park and the C&O Canal National Historical Park was approved
for work conducted through January 1, 1998 (Permit # 95 NCRO-001).
Survey and evaluation investigations, referred to in cultural resource management

terms as Phase I survey and Phase II archaeological testing, were conducted by Parsons
during 1991 and 1992. Significant historical resources were discovered at both ends of the
corridor as a result of these studies, including 51NW104 (Georgetown Warehouses,
containing the remains of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century warehouse structures along the
1
Georgetown waterfront on Square 1182); and 51NW103 (Peter House, site of the late
eighteenth-century Thomas Peter house south of K Street, in Foggy Bottom). In addition,
significant prehistoric remains were encountered at 51NW103, including evidence of
Woodland period Native American occupations. Both sites were recommended eligible to
the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Full-scale archaeological excavations—
Phase III data recovery investigations—were conducted to document the historical and
prehistoric components of these sites and thereby mitigate the adverse effects to the
archaeological resources of the proposed freeway improvements. The results of the
investigations of the historical components are compiled in a separate report (Crane et al.
2006). A portion of the current report details the results of the data recovery investigations
of the prehistoric components at 51NW103.
Figure 1-1. Project Corridor Showing the Locations of Significant Archaeological Sites
Investigated in the Phase III Mitigations Reported Herein.
Also part of the current investigation was additional Phase I and Phase II survey and
testing of areas west of the Peter House site. Three sites were encountered in the survey:
51NW117 (Ramp 3, containing the remains of nineteenth-century Reed Alley); 51NW117W
(Whitehurst West, bordering wharves at the edge of the C&O Canal and the turn basin at the
canal terminus in the nineteenth century); and 51NW118 (Planing Mill, site of the late
nineteenth-century William Dyer Planing Mill and the early twentieth-century H.P.
Montgomery Public School). Woodland period prehistoric components were identified at
51NW117 (Ramp 3) and 51NW117W (Whitehurst West). The historical and prehistoric
components at 51NW117 and 51NW117W were recommended eligible to the NRHP, and
2
data recovery excavations were conducted at the sites. Results of the historical investigation
are documented in Crane (et al. 2006); results of the prehistoric investigation are included in
this report. Like the preliminary survey and evaluation work, the data recovery
investigations were conducted in accordance with the standards and guidelines of the
Advisory Council and the National Park Service (36 CFR 800; 36 CFR Part 60), in
coordination with the D.C. Historic Preservation Division; the National Park Service,
National Capital Region; and the Advisory Council.
1.2 General Description and the Modern Physical Setting
The eastern or Foggy Bottom section of the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement

Project, within which the prehistoric site mitigation areas were located, was bounded by 26th
Street on the east, L Street on the north, 29th Street on the west, and freeway ramps on the
south. The landscape in this area consisted of the remains of a gently sloping terrace system
on the left bank of Rock Creek, near its confluence with the Potomac River. While no
standing structures other than freeway ramps were present in this part of the corridor at the
time of the current investigation, urban development had previously cut and sub-divided the
area extensively, with modern streets, ramps, and fly-overs creating a series of islands, most
of which were grass covered. Decades of in-filling and other landscaping activities had
smoothed the natural terracing that was at one time considerably more pronounced.
The Peter House (51NW103) was the easternmost of the three prehistoric
archaeological sites reported herein, lying on a high terrace above Rock Creek. The site was
located on a heavily landscaped knoll south of K Street. In the 1960s, the slope that
originally ran eastward to 26th Street was deeply cut for construction of an access ramp to the
existing Whitehurst Freeway. In the process, the foundation of the eighteenth-century
Thomas Peter House, under which the prehistoric site was partially located and from which
the site takes its name, was truncated. To the south of the site, a second ramp intersected 27th
Street, while to the west lay 27th Street itself. The north slope of the knoll ran naturally
downward to the bridge that carries K Street over the Parkway ramp. At the time of the
current investigation, the entire knoll was grass covered, with a large oak tree located near
the top of the hill.
The Ramp 3 site (51NW117) consisted of a very gently sloping, grass-covered

surface with several large and small trees scattered across the area. Surface topography had
been landscaped, with fill used to level the natural westward slope to Rock Creek.
Immediately to the south of the excavation area lay an unfinished overpass that was
scheduled for removal. Wide concrete columns supported the overpass, surrounded by an
open surface of gravel and mixed sandy clay fill. The western edge of the site abutted Rock
Creek Parkway.
The Whitehurst West (51NW117W) site lay to the west of Rock Creek Parkway,
opposite the Ramp 3 site, on a relatively flat area situated between the road and an asphalt-
covered bike path. As at Ramp 3, a substantial amount of fill had also been used to raise and
level ground surface in this area. West of the site, modern ground surface sloped gently to a
3
drop-off leading to the modern channel of Rock Creek. A blacktop parking surface was
situated southwest of the site. In areas not surfaced with asphalt, ground cover consisted of
patchy grass.
1.3 Report Organization
The main purpose of this volume is to report the archaeological findings from
investigations at the Whitehurst Freeway prehistoric sites. The intent is to present the
archaeological data, show the analytical procedures, and in the process, reveal something
about the lives of the people who have occupied the area in times past. The data are
numerous and the analyses are often complex, but they are a necessary part of the descriptive
and interpretive process.
The report details the results of the Phase III investigations at the sites. Following the
introductory material in the current section, Section 2.0 summarizes the environmental and
cultural contexts associated with the sites, and concludes with the detailed research design
that guided the data recovery investigations. Section 3.0 presents field and lab analysis
methods. The findings of the investigations at each site presented in depth in Section 4.0
(Peter House); Section 5.0 (Ramp 3); and Section 6.0 (Whitehurst West). Section 7.0
synthesizes the findings, providing interpretations within an overarching perspective that
views the sites as integral parts of a complete valley landscape. The section ends with an
assessment of the research conducted at the sites and with concluding recommendations for
further treatment of cultural resources in the areas that are under District of Columbia
Department of Transportation and National Park Service management.
A series of appendices contain additional documentation. The qualifications of

project personnel are included in Appendix A. Detailed analytical material supporting the
presentations and interpretations in the text are included in Appendix B (descriptions of
prehistoric lithic and ceramic artifacts) and Appendix C (in-depth studies of intra-site spatial
distribution and lithic reduction sequences). Full texts of reports submitted by consulting
specialists are contained in Appendix D through N. An artifact inventory on CD-ROM
comprises Appendix O.
4
2.0 BACKGROUND RESEARCH
2.1 Physical Setting
Physiography and Geology

The Whitehurst Freeway prehistoric sites are situated in Northwest Washington, D.C.,
on the left bank of Rock Creek at its confluence with the Potomac River, in an area known
locally as Foggy Bottom. Lying at the extreme north end of the Potomac Estuary Basin,
Washington straddles the fall line, a transitional zone between the hilly Piedmont
physiographic province to the north and west and the flatter Coastal Plain province to the
south and east. With headwaters in the Piedmont, near Mt. Zion, in Montgomery County,
Maryland, Rock Creek is a swiftly flowing stream that has incised a narrow valley reaching
southward across the fall line and onto the Coastal Plain, where it empties into the Potomac
River.
The Coastal Plain physiographic province is composed of a variety of unconsolidated

deposits of fluvial and marine origin. These sand, silt, and clay sediments occasionally
contain interbedded gravel, pebble, and even cobble deposits (Vokes and Edwards 1974).
The sediments begin as a thin feathered edge at the fall line, and thicken to the southeast at a
rate of 100 to 125 feet per mile (Mack 1966). In the vicinity of the project area, bedrock is
estimated to lie at depths ranging from 10 to 50 feet below surface. The overlying surface
deposits are the result of Cretaceous-age sedimentation and river terrace formation dating to
the Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene periods, along with recent alluvium and artificial fill.
The oldest of these deposits is the Cretaceous-age Patapsco Formation of the Potomac Group,
which is exposed in some upland areas in the region. This formation consists of mottled red,
brown, and gray silty and sandy clay that contains iron nodules and is interbedded with minor
amounts of coarse sand and gravel. The more recent Pliocene/Pleistocene river terrace
deposits are composed of gravel, sand and loam, with their basal levels generally made up of
unsorted boulders, pebbles, and sand (Smith 1976).
The adjacent Piedmont region is underlain by crystalline, metamorphosed bedrock of

Precambrian age that passes beneath the western edge of the Coastal Plain sediments.
Typical of the region are the schist and gneiss facies of the Wissahickon Formation, the
igneous rocks of the Georgetown Mafic Complex, and the Kensington Gneisses (Froelich
and Hack 1976). Minor intrusive dikes and veins of quartz cut through the older rocks, and
steatite outcrops occur, usually in association with the Georgetown Complex. The upper
layers of the Georgetown mafic consist of a micaceous schist or gneiss. Weathered bedrock,
referred to as saprolite, extends to a depth of as much as 50 feet. Subsoils are composed of a
thin layer of clay or clay loam over this weathered residuum (Smith 1976).
Outcrops of materials such as quartz, quartzite, and steatite that occur in locales near
the sites represented a primary source for lithic raw material available to prehistoric
populations. Lithic resources also occur in the Piedmont as secondary deposits of cobbles
and pebbles washed down from the Piedmont uplands and Ridge and Valley provinces to the
west and deposited on older terraces (Wentworth 1930; Schlee 1957). Veins of quartz occur
in bedrock deposits throughout the Piedmont zone, and outcrops available for quarrying are
5
relatively common. Quartzite occurs in Cretaceous cobble deposits along Rock Creek, where
areas such as the Piney Branch and Rose Hill quarries were heavily utilized prehistorically
(Holmes 1897; Munford 1982). Quartzite is a major component of the Wissahickon
schistose formation, a metamorphosed rock series in the region that lies under the north and
northwest portions of the Washington area and is exposed near Rock Creek south of East-
West Highway, and along MacArthur Boulevard west of Brickyard Road. The quartzite
from this formation is described as very fine to coarse, high in quartz content, and ranging in
color from white to very dark gray (Johnston 1964).
The modern ground surface in the Foggy Bottom portion of the city slopes gently,
falling from an elevation of approximately 40 feet above mean sea level (amsl) near the
intersection of 26th and K Streets, to approximately 20 feet amsl, west of Rock Creek
Parkway, before dropping to near sea level at the bank of the Potomac River. Natural
contours were likely more irregular than at present, but have been obscured by twentieth-
century development and landscaping.
Prior to urbanization, storm run-off was carried by small streams, although most of
these minor drainages have been filled in and their function largely assumed by storm drains.
Early historical maps show a minor tributary system draining the slopes south of the
Whitehurst prehistoric sites, but the area now lies under city streets and freeway ramps, and
thus the accuracy of the map cannot be assessed. Springs were undoubtedly present in the
area as well. When Captain John Smith surveyed the upper Potomac in 1608, he noted an
abundant supply of water from many streams and springs. In 1629, he described the area as
being "watered so conveniently with fresh brooks and springs" (Arber 1910). Like the small
tributaries, though, the springs have disappeared from the modern landscape.
Soil survey maps of the District of Columbia confirm that the surface deposits in the
vicinity of the sites result from a combination of naturally occurring and artificially
introduced deposits. The soils are characterized as varieties of Udorthents and Urban land.
Udorthents are heterogeneous soils that have been created by or strongly influenced by
human activity. They are present in cut, filled, or otherwise disturbed areas. Urban land
areas are by definition covered with asphalt, concrete, buildings, or other impervious surfaces
that make examination and identification of soil types impractical (Smith 1976).
Climate and Ecology

The climate of the Washington, D.C., area is described as humid and semi-
continental, with meteorological systems generally flowing west to east. In seasonal
variation, summer and fall are dominated by tropical air masses originating in the Gulf of
Mexico and moving northward, while winter is more frequently characterized by cold, dry air
streaming out of central Canada (Mack 1966). The average winter temperature is 37 degrees
Fahrenheit, while the summertime average is 77 degrees. Total annual precipitation averages
about 39 inches, of which about 18 inches falls in the form of snow (Smith 1976).
Functioning terrestrial and aquatic ecological systems exist within the study area,
although natural land and water environments that were present before urbanization have
been severely disturbed by several hundred years of urban activity. Although now masked
6
by the many changes along the shoreline, a number of different ecological zones would have
been present near the sites in early historical and late prehistoric times. These zones can be
characterized as estuarine, marshy, floodplain, and Coastal Plain upland habitats.
The upper end of the Potomac basin, including the tidal Anacostia, is considered a
mid-estuary habitat. This area is described as a tidal freshwater zone with salinity levels of
less than 0.5 parts per thousand both at surface and bottom throughout the year (Lippson et
al. 1979). Silting and chemical pollutants have until very recently rendered area
watercourses virtually devoid of life, but recent cleanup efforts have resulted in the return of
a number of species (Bandler 1989). A variety of freshwater fish species have been recorded
in the area, including carp, largemouth bass, gar, blue gill, catfish, and crappie. Anadromous
and semi-anadromous species (those running upstream from saltwater environments to spawn
in freshwater) are present in the form of striped bass, white perch, alewife, and several
varieties of herring and shad (Lippson et al. 1979).
Tidal freshwater marshes have formed along the Potomac estuary at various
confluences with tributary steams. These wetland areas are normally rich in natural
resources, attracting plant species such as cattail, smartweed, bulrush, and cordgrass, as well
as various tubers (Lippson et al. 1979). The marshes harbor a large number of both native
resident and migratory bird species, along with a variety of reptile and mammal species.
The Coastal Plain province represented by the Whitehurst Freeway sites lies within
the oak-hickory forest as defined by Shelford (1963). Naturally occurring arboreal species
include several sub-species of oak, hickory, and chestnut, along with maple, walnut, poplar,
sycamore, gum, and pine, many occupying the more poorly drained ground along flats, toe
slopes, depressions, or stream and wetland margins. Understory species included dogwood,
holly, laurel, birch, ash, willow, and hornbeam, along with various shrubs and vines
(Hitchcock and Standley 1919; Smith 1976). In their natural condition, the Whitehurst
prehistoric sites would have been situated between the marshes along the Potomac, the
terraces bordering Rock Creek, and the wooded ground above, the latter harboring numerous
mammal species, including black bear, bobcat, white-tailed deer, and smaller mammals, such
as raccoon, opossum, rabbit and squirrel, that inhabit the forest edge environment.
The present-day, highly urbanized character of the site locations has meant a
considerable decline in the number of plant and animal species actually observed. Land
reclamation and filling have resulted in the addition of as much as 15 feet of elevation to pre-
existing contours, often at the expense of the ecologically rich tidal marshes along shorelines.
The majority of the area now consists of open ground on which opportunistic or weedy plant
species—those adapted for rapid colonization in unstable or disturbed areas—compete with
domesticated grasses on unpaved ground. Animals are mostly small, seen in the form of
rodent or insect populations, or as scavenger species, such as raccoon or opossum, that are
especially suited to an urban parkland setting and thus survive from the earlier, undisturbed
woodland.
7
2.2 Paleoenvironment
Understanding long-term variation in the natural environment is an essential part of

assessing resource distribution and human adaptation within the project area during the
approximately 12,000 years of human occupation of the region. While the environment of
the Middle Atlantic region has remained relatively stable for the past 5,000 years, substantial
change has been recorded in geological and biological records prior to that time. Two broad
trends operated to shape the region’s environment during this period: a general warming of
the climate that marked the end of the Pleistocene Ice Age and ongoing sea level rise.
With the edge of the continental ice sheet reaching as far as what is now central
Pennsylvania and New Jersey, much of the Middle Atlantic was covered by open tundra or
boreal forest typified by conifers. Holocene warming resulted in the replacement of boreal
forests with mixed deciduous communities typical of southern temperate zones. Relative sea
level at the end of the last glaciation is estimated to have been as much as 100 m below
current levels (Kraft 1971). Large areas of the continental shelf were exposed, and the
present Chesapeake and Delaware Bays consisted of freshwater rivers and outwash channels.
Melt water from the retreating glaciers rapidly raised sea levels, resulting in the inundation of
coastal streams and, ultimately, the creation of modern bays and estuary systems. Rising sea
levels also resulted in the transformation of many rivers on the Coastal Plain from systems
flowing in entrenched valleys to the sluggish, meandering courses seen today. Sea level rise
also encouraged the expansion of interior wetlands. Dent (1995) summarizes a large body of
data specific to the Chesapeake region, indicating that the development of the Bay estuary
system was well underway by 5500 BP and was largely complete by 2000 BP. The onset of
tidal conditions was a key indicator for the estuarine development. Rivers in the interior
areas of the Coastal Plain became tidal later than the main bodies of the Delaware and
Chesapeake bays (Kellogg and Custer 1994).
Climatic changes during the Holocene occurred as a series of short-term variations

within a general trend. In the Northeast and Middle Atlantic, the major climatic episodes are
known as the Late Glacial, Pre-Boreal, Boreal, and Atlantic. The primary characteristics of
these periods are summarized below. The outline is based on the work of Carbone in the
Shenandoah Valley (Carbone 1976); Rippeteau in the Upper Susquehanna Valley of New
York (Rippeteau 1977); Vento and Rollins (1990) in the Susquehanna and Delaware Valleys;
Dent's research from the Upper Delaware Valley (Dent 1979); Delcourt and Delcourt's
(1981) regional synthesis; and several site-specific studies, such as those from Buckles Bog
in Garrett County, western Maryland (Maxwell and Davis 1972); Hartstown Bog in Mercer
County, northwest Pennsylvania (Walker and Hartman 1960); and the New Paris Sinkhole in
Somerset County, southwestern Pennsylvania (Guilday et al. 1964), Prince Georges County,
Maryland (LeeDecker et al. 1991). The initial episode, the Late Glacial, pre-dates the
traditionally accepted arrival of human populations in the Northeast by at least 1,500 years,
but is included in this summary as a backdrop for human occupation of the region.
Late Glacial ca. 15,000-13,000 BP

The climate of the Late Glacial period was cold and wet, with tundra-like vegetation
present particularly near the ice front. Abundant open parkland occurred further south,
8
where sedges and grasses occurred interspersed with stands of spruce and fir (Maxwell and
Davis 1972; Wright 1981). Pollen records at Marsh Creek in Chester County, Pennsylvania,
indicate a changing mixture of grasses, sedges, and boreal species at approximately 13,500
BP, suggesting the transitional nature of the period (Martin 1958). Whitehead (1973) has
proposed a general displacement of approximately 1,000 kilometers between the glacial front
and boreal forests to the south. These open areas, which would have included Washington,
D.C., region, could have supported a wide variety of northern faunal species and Pleistocene
megafauna. More recently, it has been argued that a relatively undifferentiated boreal forest
environment was in place in the Middle Atlantic region during the Late Glacial, and that
herds of large game were probably not present by the time of the first documented human
incursion into the area (Custer 1990).
Pre-Boreal ca. 13,000-10,700 BP

The Pre-Boreal period remained cold and wet, though it was marked by a general
warming trend. The existing mosaic of tundra, open grasslands, and boreal forest was
relatively unchanged in many parts of the region, although spruce and pine forest eventually
became dominant in most locations. Swamps and remnant peri-glacial lakes were common
(Custer 1984). A decline in both floral and faunal species diversity has been suggested,
leading to less varied plant food availability (Raber 1985) and a reduction in both large and
small animal species (Guilday 1982). Alternatively, Carbone (1976:185) suggests a fairly
compressed mix of "boreal and austral species side by side," including deer, elk, moose,
smaller game, and, possibly, remnant mastodon, horse, and bison.
Boreal ca. 10,700-9200 BP

Initially, this period was marked by an increase in the development and spread of
warm air masses across the region. Open grasslands diminished in extent, while spruce
woodlands were replaced by pine forest and northern hardwoods, especially oak (Walker and
Hartman 1960; Sirkin 1977). Watson and Custer (1989) cite evidence for the replacement of
spruce forests by hemlock in the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain. As suggested for the
preceding Pre-Boreal, less varied habitats may have continued to produce lower resource
carrying capacity throughout the region (LeeDecker et al. 1991). Guilday (1982) has
indicated that modern faunal species were in place in western Pennsylvania in a mixed,
oak/chestnut-dominated forest by at least 9000 BP.
Atlantic ca. 9200-6600 BP

The early portion of the Atlantic period was characterized by warm and increasingly
wet conditions, signaling the onset of a fully modern climatic regime and the presence of
essentially modern floral and faunal communities. Oak-hemlock forests expanded, and
"mesic forests mantled the landscape from the floodplain to the ridges" (Carbone 1976:189).
Evidence that an oak-hemlock complex was well established by about 7900 BP was recorded
at the Mitchell Farm site (7NC-A-2), in northern New Castle County, Delaware (Custer and
DeSantis 1985). Oak dominance over hemlock has been identified across the region by 7000
BP (Bernabo and Webb 1977). The dominance of mast producing tree species likely
encouraged an increase in deer, turkey, and small mammal populations (Custer 1989).
9
Wetter conditions fostered the expansion of wetlands, but a drying trend occurred near the
end of the period (Carbone 1976).
Sub-Boreal ca. 6600 2000 BP

The Sub-Boreal period was warm and dry, characterized by a consequent re-
expansion of grasslands and the dominance of oak-hickory forests and xerophytic floral
species. Environmental stabilization near the end of the period is evidenced by a lack of
change in forest components, as suggested by pollen cores from southern Maryland, near St.
Mary's City (Kraft and Brush 1981). These cores indicate the general dominance of oak,
hickory, and pine by around 3400 BP. The decrease in hemlock during the Sub-Boreal was
widespread in eastern North America during the middle Holocene. It has been argued that in
portions of the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain the disappearance of hemlock may have been as
much a result of edaphic conditions—specifically the predominance of dry, sandy soils—as
of climate change (Custer 1989). The burial of landscapes through aeolian, or windblown,
deposition has also been observed throughout the region, and was presumably associated
with a combination of xeric soils and drying climatic conditions (Curry 1980, 1992; Ward
and Bachman 1987; Curry and Ebright 1989; Daniels 1993). An increasingly cool and moist
climate prevailed near the end of the Sub-Boreal period.
Sub-Atlantic ca. 2000 BP -present

A general and progressive cooling trend is noted throughout the Sub-Atlantic period
to the present day. Stratigraphic non-conformities associated with both aeolian and alluvial
depositional events suggest abrupt shifts in precipitation (Custer 1978, 1989). Since the last
500 years, the climatic pattern appears to have stabilized. Modern oak-chestnut forests were
well established in the Piedmont and Fall Line Zones, while chestnut-pine communities were
common in the High Coastal Plain, particularly in sloping locales (Braun 1950).
2.3 Prehistory of the Region
The Whitehurst Freeway prehistoric sites lie in the Middle Atlantic region of the
eastern United States. The prehistory of this part of North America is conventionally divided
into three general periods that mirror widespread developments in the natural environment
and that are expressed in technological and social change. Following Griffin’s (1967)
chronology for eastern North America, these periods are referred to as Paleo-Indian (ca.
14,000–8000 BC), Archaic (ca. 8000–1000 BC), and Woodland (ca. 1000 BC–AD 1600).
The latter two periods are typically subdivided into early, middle, and late sub-periods.
While increasingly persuasive arguments have been advanced for occupation of

portions of the Americas prior to the Paleo-Indian period, the unquestioned record of human
habitation in the Middle Atlantic region begins some 12,000 years ago, near the end of Late
Wisconsin glaciation. The retreat of the continental ice sheets brought a comparatively rapid
warming trend throughout the Middle Atlantic, a phenomenon directly reflected in the
replacement of northern flora and fauna by southern species. Large Pleistocene grazing and
browsing fauna characteristic of earlier times were by this point mostly gone from the region.
10
The woods and parklands of the region supported a wide range of floral and small faunal
species, while human subsistence patterns were characterized by generalized foraging
(Wesler et al. 1981; Johnson 1986). Archaeological sites dating to this period usually are
identified by the presence of fluted stone projectile points, often made of high quality,
cryptocrystalline lithic material such as chert or jasper (Gardner 1974). Typically used as
spear tips, these artifacts are relatively rare throughout the Middle Atlantic region. The
Washington, D.C., area would have been a favorable locale for Paleo-Indian occupation, and
the floodplains and terraces of the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers have yielded data on
hunting and processing camps of the period, including lanceolate shaped, fluted points made
from either quartz or chert (Flanagan et al. 1985).
A break in cultural patterns is traditionally described in Middle Atlantic chronology at

about 8000 BC, approximately corresponding with a warming trend that signaled the Boreal
climatic episode. The new pattern, referred to as Archaic, is recognized as ranging
temporally from ca. 8000 BC to 1000 BC. It was characterized by an adaptive response to
the emergence of the so-called full Holocene environment, an environment increasingly like
that of the present (Joyce 1988). Major sub-periods are recognized within the Archaic
period, termed Early (8000–6500 BC), Middle (6500–2500 BC), and Late (2500–1000 BC).
One of the most important environmental changes affecting prehistoric populations
throughout the Middle Atlantic region during the Archaic period was the gradual rise in sea
level that accompanied the retreat of the continental glaciers and resulted in the submersion
of large sections of the continental shelf. Among the effects of this inundation on inland
locales was the flooding of the lower reaches of major rivers, the development of new estuary
environments, and a consequent increase in the amount and diversity of floral and faunal
resources in newly formed marsh or wetland areas (Potter 1982). The regional mixed pine-
oak forest was transformed to a temperate oak-hemlock deciduous forest, and local
populations exploited the many new floral and faunal resources that were available.
Most archaeologists agree that in cultural terms a considerable degree of continuity is

evidenced between the Paleo-Indian and the Early Archaic periods (Gardner 1974; Custer
1989). While data suggest an increase in the number of sites during the initial part of the
Archaic period, Early Archaic populations, like their predecessors, were probably mobile and
exploited a varied subsistence base. The Early Archaic (8000–6500 BC) was marked by the
introduction of a number of new projectile point styles, among which were the corner-
notched and serrated Palmer and Kirk points; the somewhat later Kirk-stemmed types; and
the still later bifurcate base points, including LeCroy and Kanawha. Custer (1989) has
argued that the new point types probably represent a stylistic rather than functional change,
and that like Paleo-Indian points, these artifacts served as spear tips. That is, despite
variations in length, overall shape, and hafting elements, the relative thicknesses of the points
remained constant between the periods: thickness is a key characteristic for hunting
efficiency, since the points needed to be thin enough to penetrate tough animal hide but thick
enough to withstand initial impact.
By the Middle Archaic period (ca. 6500–2500 BC), the retreat of the continental ice-
sheets and subsequent sea-level rise resulted in continued flooding of coastal stream systems.
Inundation of the ancient Susquehanna River system, for example, led to formation of the
11
Chesapeake Bay, while new wetland habitats developed along the major feeder streams.
Gardner (1978) has argued that subsistence strategies during the Middle Archaic focused on
large, recently developed inland swamp areas. Early long- or broad-bladed point forms, such
as Guilford and Morrow Mountain, and the later, side-notched Halifax point, are among the
point styles recognized regionally as hallmarks of the Middle Archaic (Coe 1964). The lithic
tool kit during this period was further marked by the appearance of groundstone tools and
woodworking tools, such as axes, mauls, and adzes. These tools represent some of the
earliest artifactual evidence of extensive plant processing.
The succeeding Late Archaic period (ca. 2500 BC–1000 BC) was characterized by
the replacement of oak/hemlock forests with an oak/hickory forest environment. The rate of
sea level rise slowed, allowing riverine and estuarine environments to stabilize sufficiently to
support significant populations of shellfish and runs of anadromous fish (Custer 1978;
Gardner 1978). It is widely suggested that the focus of human settlement shifted during the
Late Archaic period to these riverine and estuarine locales to take advantage of the
increasingly predictable resources they harbored (Catlin et al. 1982; Johnson 1986; Gardner
2000). A marked increase in the number of archaeological sites from the Late Archaic period
has been observed, suggesting both an overall population increase and movement into new
environmental zones (Turner 1978). The chipped stone tool kit was dominated by large,
broad-bladed stemmed points, such as Savannah River and Susquehanna, which eventually
gave way to a number of smaller, relatively narrow-bladed stemmed points, such as Holmes
or Bare Island. A preference for coarse-grained stone, such as quartzite, rhyolite, and, in
some local areas, hornfels or argillite, is noted particularly among forms such as Savannah
River (McLearen 1991; Johnson 2002). Certain tool associations were common throughout
the region, particularly in the Piedmont to the west and north of the study area, where
specific broad-bladed points were characteristically manufactured from particular lithic raw
materials: e.g., Perkiomen from jasper or chert; Susquehanna from rhyolite; Koens-Crispin
from argillite. Based on artifact associations, it has been inferred that these wide-bladed
points were designed in part to exploit the new riverine resources (Witthoft 1953; Ritchie
1994). The points are often found in association with vessels carved from steatite, which
represent characteristic artifacts from the latter end of the period, which is occasionally
referred to as the Transitional or Terminal Archaic (Ritchie and Funk 1973; Kraft 1990).
Around 1000 BC, techniques for pottery manufacture were introduced across the
region. This innovation has traditionally defined the beginning of the Woodland period
throughout the Middle Atlantic (Reinhart and Hodges 1992). The Woodland period is
divided into three sub-periods: Early (1000 BC–300 BC); Middle (300 BC–AD 900); and
Late Woodland (AD 900–1600). The first half of the Woodland period corresponds roughly
to the Sub-Atlantic, a climatic episode characterized by a trend toward progressively cooler
and wetter conditions in comparison with the preceding Sub-Boreal (Carbone 1976).
Modern plant communities became established (Custer 1984). While the deliberate and
intensive foraging strategies of the Late Archaic period appear to have remained unchanged
during the early portions of the Woodland period, there is some evidence for an increase in
sedentism, as populations became more efficient in exploiting available resources (Gardner
1982). The earliest known ceramic ware in the region, used from about 1200 BC to 800 BC,
is a steatite-tempered variety referred to as Marcey Creek, after its type site on the Potomac
12
River, in Arlington County, Virginia (Manson 1948). These early vessels consisted of
shallow, flat-bottomed bowls, rather than the deep, conical forms that came to dominate later
ceramic wares. By 800 BC, the early wares were succeeded regionally by a common sand-
and-quartz-tempered ceramic known as Accokeek Cord-marked, in use through about 300
BC (Stephenson et al. 1963; Egloff and Potter 1982).
Regionally, evidence from the Middle Woodland period (300 BC–AD 900) suggests
greater participation in trade and exchange networks, as well as an apparent increase in
societal complexity. Both of these processes are inferred from the occurrence of exotic lithic
raw materials, as well as of artifacts and burial ceremonialism associated with cultures from
the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys (Custer 1989), found as nearby as the Luray area, in
northern Virginia. The early portion of the Middle Woodland period (300 BC–AD 200) is
characterized by a thick ceramic ware, known locally as Popes Creek, tempered with coarse
sand or quartz and having exterior surfaces usually impressed with nets. Additional ceramics
from the period include the Albemarle series, a variety of grit- or crushed-rock-tempered
wares with cord- or fabric-impressed exteriors. After AD 200, a shell-tempered, cord-
marked or net-impressed ceramic referred to as Mockley appears (Stephenson et al. 1963).
In some areas, rhyolite, typically from sources in the Great Valley, near Catoctin and
Gettysburg, was the preferred lithic raw material for stone tool manufacture. To the north
and east of the Chesapeake Bay, argillite appears to have held the same role, while hornfels
may have fit this pattern to the west, in portions of Virginia.
By the Late Woodland period (AD 900–1600), horticulture began to achieve a

significant role in the subsistence systems of most populations across the Middle Atlantic
region (Reinhart and Hodges 1992). Large, semi-permanent and permanent villages appear
in the archaeological record, with an increase in the number and size of storage facilities and
house patterns. Large sites were typically oriented toward riverine settings. A shift has been
noted to the primary reliance on locally available lithic resources rather than exotic types,
while non-local influences on mortuary practices disappeared, both observations implying a
breakdown of the extensive trade and exchange networks operating during the earlier
portions of the Woodland period (Kavanagh 1983; Custer 1989). Smaller, less permanent
sites continue to occur in a variety of settings, and wild food remains at all site types attest to
a pattern of focused collecting that persisted throughout the period. Artifacts diagnostic of
Late Woodland occupation in the area include triangular points, shell-tempered
Rappahannock ceramics of the Townsend series, and, somewhat later, sand-tempered
Shepard and Potomac Creek wares (Schmitt 1952; MacCord et al. 1957; Blaker 1963; Clark
1980; Griffith 1980). As the Late Woodland period progressed, the size and complexity of
the villages and settlement systems in the Middle Atlantic increased, reflected in the
appearance of fortifications, specialized societal roles, the development of intertribal
alliances, and the growth of intertribal government authority and the apparent return of a
higher degree of complexity in the observation of religious and ceremonial activities (Snow
1978; Barber 1979).
The records of Captain John Smith's voyage up the Potomac in 1608 represent the
earliest historical documentation pertaining to the area containing the Whitehurst Freeway
sites. Smith noted that the banks of the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers in the vicinity of the
13
District of Columbia contained several substantial occupations (Figure 2-1). The east bank
of the Anacostia River was identified by Smith as the site of the village of Nacotchtank,
while four other major settlements were noted on the west bank of the Potomac, including
Tauxenent, near present day Mt. Vernon; Namassingakent, on the north bank of Dogue Run;
Assaomeck, on a southern terrace overlooking Hunting Creek; and Nameraughquend, near
Theodore Roosevelt Island (Smith 1986). Politically, the region east of the Potomac River
was dominated by the Conoy, a tribal confederation of Algonquian-speaking groups
(Humphrey and Chambers 1977, 1985; Potter 1993). To the west, lay the so-called ethnic
fringe of Powhatan Confederacy, a large polity centralized to the south in Tidewater Virginia
(Rountree 1989). Some have argued that Tauxenent, on the Virginia shore, was aligned with
Conoy groups in southern Maryland, such as the Piscataway (Mayre 1935; Cissna 1986).
Figure 2-1. Detail of John Smith’s 1608 Map of the Chesapeake Bay Showing the Upper
Potomac Estuary and with Villages and Settlements near the Whitehurst Freeway Sites
(note that Smith drew his map with north oriented to the right, with the Potomac River coming out of the
Piedmont as depicted by hillocks in the upper right hand corner of the map).
2.4 Relevant Historic Period Events
By the last quarter of the seventeenth century, European settlement of eastern North
America had reached the upper Potomac and the mouth of Rock Creek. Until that time, the
region had been considered a wilderness frontier distant from other colonial settlements.
Beginning in 1668, the land that would make up the future cities of Georgetown and
Washington was patented. In 1696, portions of the east side of Rock Creek containing
14
Squares 1 and 5, where the three prehistoric sites occur, was patented as The Vineyard, by
William Hutchison (Prince Georges County Patent Book BB 3:151). In the early eighteenth
century, much of the land around the small trading center of Georgetown was under tobacco
cultivation. Ideally situated at the head of navigation on the Potomac, the area became an
important crossroads, and by 1725 roads connected Georgetown with Bladensburg, in
Maryland, and Magee's ferry, in Virginia (Rose 1976). The Georgetown waterfront, which
was central to the tobacco trade, was soon occupied by warehouses, merchant stores, wharves
and taverns (Werner 1968).
In 1765, Jacob Funk, a German immigrant who resided in Frederick, Maryland,

purchased 130 acres of land between present-day 19th Streets and 24th Street, from H Street
south to the river. Funk subdivided the property into about 234 lots, with the intent of
creating a village known as Hamburg or Funkstown. Only a few buildings were ever
constructed, and the site remained primarily a paper town (Smith 1988). Yet, in 1791 the
high ground in the Hamburg area was considered as a potential site for the federal Capitol
and associated structures. The idea was soon abandoned however, because the land, lying
between Rock Creek and Tiber Creek (the latter eventually filled in to become the National
Mall) was deemed to be too limited to accommodate the seat of government (Froncek 1977).
Thus, Hamburg remained an area of farms and meadows, with only a few dwellings,
shipyards, wharves, and small businesses.
In contrast, the rapid growth of Georgetown influenced development on both sides of

Rock Creek. Several holdings, including The Vineyard, were combined by the successful
Georgetown merchant, Robert Peter, in 1796, into a single 225-acre parcel, called Mexico
(Prince Georges County Certificate #1451). Two key components in the development of the
new city of Washington were the Post Road, which connected the Georgetown wharves with
the important port of Bladensburg on the Eastern Branch (the Anacostia River), and a bridge
over Rock Creek that carried the new road. The Post Road and the Federal Bridge promoted
the immediate construction of houses east of Rock Creek. Robert Peter was persuaded to
share the cost of building wharves where Rock Creek met the Potomac (Arnebeck 1991). He
also constructed three double, three-story brick houses on K Street for his six sons: Thomas,
Robert, David, George, Sandy, and James (Hines 1866, reprinted 1981). One of these double
houses, built for Thomas Peter, was located on Lot 15 in Square 5, the site of the Peter House
prehistoric site.
The wharves and landings on the east side of Rock Creek were active until the 1830s,
while the C&O Canal further spurred industrial development in the area. By 1851, five lime
kilns were in operation nearby, including the Cammack and Decker Lime Kilns along 28th
Street (now Rock Creek Parkway); the William Smith Lime Works, along Virginia Avenue;
and the Godey Lime Kilns, north of K Street. By the late nineteenth century, industrial
development increased: the Arlington Bottling Company appeared on the corner of 27th and
K streets, and Dyer Planing Mill was in operation to the south along 27th Street. In 1903, the
planning mill was replaced by the H.P. Montgomery School, a facility for African American
children. Foggy Bottom, as the area became known, was primarily occupied by middle and
lower class families, many of whom were German and Irish immigrants making their living
as both skilled and unskilled laborers. But by the turn of the century, the local economy
15
declined as the outmoded means of trade and the lack of rail connections in the vicinity
isolated the area (Sherwood 1978; Fitzpatrick and Goodwin 1990). Remnants of earlier,
more prosperous times remained in a number of buildings that continued to stand through the
early part of the century (Figure 2-2).
Rock Creek Park was officially created in 1890, the second national park in the
country following Yellowstone. The section of the park south of Pennsylvania Avenue was
one of the last to be improved, due to problems acquiring land from the C&O Canal and the
Washington Gas Light Company. Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway was planned within the
new park to connect the downtown portion of the city with suburban residences in Northwest
Washington, and at the same time to reclaim marshy land along the Potomac riverfront and
create an extension of the National Mall referred to as East and West Potomac Parks
(Sherwood 1978). The last leg of the parkway to be built was the segment through the
project area; construction began in the early 1930s and the road opened to traffic in 1935
(Mackintosh 1985). Large amounts of fill were brought in to raise the area to a level grade
and to create a solid base for the roadway. Up to 15 feet of fill was placed along the former
line of 28th Street and Square 1, covering nearly all of the original ground surface within the
project area.
K Street
Peter House
Planing Mill I Street
& School
Smith Lime Works
Whitehurst Ramp 3
West
Virginia Avenue
Rock Creek
Potomac River
Figure 2-2. View Eastward Across of the Foggy Bottom Area in 1927, with the
Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Sites and Several Landmarks Noted
(Army Air Corps 1927).
In addition to redevelopment activity beginning in the 1950s, the Foggy Bottom area
was affected by several major transportation projects during the 1940s to 1960s. Five
projects had significant impacts on the area: the Virginia Avenue tunnel under 23rd Street;
the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge; a proposed Inner Loop; the Washington Circle Tunnel; and
the Whitehurst Freeway. Each project involved the demolition of buildings and elimination
of parks, and had indirect effects on the character of the neighborhood (Sherwood 1978).
16
The first of these transportation projects to be realized was the “K Street Elevated
Expressway,” later to be renamed the Whitehurst Freeway, after Herbert C. Whitehurst, a
former director of the District Highway Department. As the name indicates, the Whitehurst
Freeway is an elevated roadway located between Key Bridge and 27th Streets, above the line
of K Street. Construction began in 1947, with the freeway planned as the first segment of a
proposed city-wide east-west highway that would allow through traffic to bypass congested
areas. The Whitehurst Freeway was intended as a link with the proposed Inner Loop that
would encircle downtown Washington, providing easier access to the area while relieving the
city streets of their existing traffic volumes. Only the first leg of the system, the Southwest
Freeway (14th Street to South Capitol Street and eventually the Pennsylvania Avenue Bridge)
was completed. The segment of the loop that would have traversed Foggy Bottom was
redesigned as an artery between 26th Street and Rock Creek Parkway. In anticipation of this
road, standing structures in the area bounded by L Street, Virginia Avenue, 26th and 27th
Streets were razed in the late 1950s. The Montgomery School, on the west side of 27th
Street, was also demolished at this time. The road section was only partially completed
before it was abandoned. Although intended to reach M Street on the north, this portion of
the loop came to a halt at K Street, leaving the series of disconnected highway ramps that
were present at the time of the current investigation (Sherwood 1978).
The K Street Expressway, which opened in 1962, had direct and indirect effects on
the project area. The roadway comprised the eastern extension of the Whitehurst Freeway.
Ramps beneath the Expressway connecting with the Whitehurst Freeway cut through
historical structures, including the Thomas Peter House. In addition, the roadway, which
included a tunnel under Washington Circle, effectively split the neighborhood on either side
of K Street into separate sections (Sherwood 1978). Following completion or abandonment
of these transportation projects, the project area experienced no further development to the
present day.
2.5 Previous Research in the Area
Early Regional Investigations
Relics and remains of aboriginal occupation here have been described

by our members and excellent collections have been made.
(Records of the Anthropological Society of
Washington, MS. 4821).
This statement, from a 1906 presentation by Otis Mason to the Anthropological

Society of Washington on "Anthropology in The District of Columbia,” is an indication of
the long history of interest in local antiquities in the Washington area. Concern with
antiquities actually began as early as the 1870s, as prehistoric archaeological remains were
collected in large numbers, first by landowners and subsequently by other local relic hunters.
The formation of the Anthropological Society of Washington in the 1870s was prompted by
17
this activity (Crowell 1986). Collecting was conducted through the 1920s along the banks of
both the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers, in Georgetown, in the drainage of Rock Creek and
its tributaries in the District of Columbia, and in surrounding areas of Maryland and Virginia
from the 1870s to the 1920s. Some of the major figures, most notably Louis Kengla, Titus
Ulke, J.D. McGuire, Judge William Graham, and W. Hallet Phillips, amassed large
collections from the District and surrounding region (Crowell 1986).
Among the most meticulous of the nineteenth-century collectors was S.V. Proudfit,
who was active in the Anthropological Society of Washington and, in 1889, took part in the
first organized symposium on local prehistory (Crowell 1984, 1986). Proudfit's work
provides insight into local archaeological research in the late nineteenth century. Based on
his collections, Proudfit identified the locations of many prehistoric sites in the District of
Columbia, working along the Anacostia River, at quartz quarries along Piney Branch Creek,
and at a steatite quarry near Tenleytown (Proudfit 1889). The diverse character of these sites
can be inferred from the long list of artifact types that were collected, including arrow and
spear points, knives, drills, perforators, scrapers, net sinkers, axes, mortars, hammerstones,
pottery, and lithic flaking debris.
The abundance of prehistoric materials in the Washington, D.C., area attracted the
attention of not only avocational collectors, but of professional archaeologists as well.
William Henry Holmes, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology and Chief Curator of
Anthropology at the United States National Museum in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, studied materials gathered by local collectors and conducted field
investigations of his own throughout the District. While Holmes' studies also yielded a great
quantity of artifacts, his collections differed from those of avocational archaeologists. Where
relic hunters tended to collect unbroken tools and "turtle backs" (partially reduced bifaces
made from split cobbles or pebbles), Holmes collected both the tools and the flaking debris
generated in their manufacture. His findings concerning lithics and ceramics were published
in numerous articles, as well as through a series of monographs issued by the Smithsonian
Institution’s Bureau of Ethnology (Holmes 1897; 1903). His investigations were rigorous,
and the quality of his work rivals the archaeology of the present day.
Holmes' investigations became part of a larger, extensive survey of the Chesapeake-

Potomac Tidewater region carried out with the assistance of McGee, Dinwiddie, and Fowke
(Holmes et al. 1891; National Anthropological Archives #2125). At the same time, Holmes
was conducting studies at quartzite quarries along Rock Creek, at Piney Branch, Rose Hill,
and Dumbarton Heights (Holmes 1890; 1897). Based on his findings at Piney Branch,
Holmes was able to "explode some theories heretofore held" (Holmes n.d.). According to the
popular view at the time, the worked stones found commonly throughout the region, referred
to as "turtleback celts" because they were flat on one surface, were paleolithic hand axes,
remnants of ancient cultures that predated the Native American Indians who had populated
the continent prior to European colonization. Holmes used a combination of ethnographic
analogy and experimental archaeology to replicate a sequence in which cobbles were
systematically reduced by flaking to form knives and projectile points. Turtle-backs were
shown to be a preliminary step in the process rather than ancient tool forms. In 1890, in a
public lecture before a meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington, Holmes
18
demonstrated a reduction sequence showing a progression from cobble to turtleback to

projectile point. Notably, Proudfit had proposed a similar idea, although without making a
direct connection with manufacturing sequences:
Bearing no signs of any greater antiquity than the arrow-head by the side of
which it was found, showing no indications of ever having been used, but
identical in form with the paleoliths from the valleys of the Somme and
Delaware, they are found in such considerable number and so intimately
associated with implements of undoubted Indian origin as to almost force
the conclusion that both were the handiwork of the same people (Proudfit
1891).
The pioneering aspect of Holmes' work is evident from the fact that it was only in the
1960s that archaeologists such as Binford and Papworth (1963) or Sharrock (1966) again
dealt with lithic technology from an explicit perspective of reduction trajectories.
Interest in archaeological research in the District declined in the early part of the
twentieth century, with a few notable exceptions. Salvage work was conducted by Stewart
and Wedel (1937) of the U.S. National Museum in 1936 in connection with an ossuary
discovered during construction of runway extensions at Bolling Field (now Bolling AFB). In
addition, archaeological survey work was conducted by Howard MacCord (1957) in the
1950s, also in the area of Bolling AFB.
In the 1970s, Robert Humphrey and Mary Elizabeth Chambers prepared a study of
the prehistory of the District of Columbia (Humphrey and Chambers 1977). The publication
provided a brief culture history of the area, described aspects of the lives of some of the
aboriginal inhabitants of the District, and identified archaeological sites known at that time.
An afterword to the book was completed some years later that updated the archaeological
findings (Potter in Humphrey and Chambers 1985).
Modern Archaeological Investigations in the Whitehurst Vicinity

Archaeological investigations have become relatively commonplace in the District of
Columbia, due largely to the regulatory history of the area since the late 1970s. Most of the
studies have been mandated by federal and local laws governing historic preservation and
performed in advance of construction-related projects. Discussion of some of these projects
follows, with particular emphasis given to investigations near the current study area having
similar research orientations.
During the 1980s, substantial contributions were made to Georgetown history and
prehistory through various archaeological investigations. Insights into the social,
commercial, and political development of the community, as well as new data on prehistoric
occupation of the area, have resulted from a variety of studies. In 1984, a preliminary
cultural resource assessment was conducted of the Whitehurst Freeway Corridor as part of
the original environmental impact statement for the development project (Artemel and
Crowell 1984). This study, conducted by Engineering-Science for the District of Columbia
19
Department of Public Works (DCDPW), identified historical structures and archaeological

remains associated with commercial, industrial, and domestic use of the area from the
seventeenth though nineteenth centuries that could be affected by construction of the
freeway. The study further indicated that the area exhibited moderate to high potential for
prehistoric archaeological resources.
Areas to be affected by the Whitehurst Freeway Temporary Connector and Key

Bridge renovations were the subject of two archaeological assessments in the middle 1980s
(Artemel and Flanagan 1984; Artemel and Crowell 1985). Both studies were conducted by
Engineering-Science for the DCDPW. The Key Bridge study was strictly predictive in
nature, while the Whitehurst Freeway Bridge study combined an analysis of soil borings with
documentary research. In both cases, the studies predicted the presence of prehistoric and
historical archaeological resources in the project area.
Limited archaeological subsurface testing was conducted on the Georgetown

Waterfront on Square 1174 (Artemel et al. 1985) by Engineering Science as part of a study
for the National Park Service. The study verified predictions that both prehistoric and
historical archaeological remains were intact beneath modern fill. The fill ranged in depth
from 1.5 feet (close to K Street) to 10 feet (close to the Potomac River). A trench was
excavated paralleling K Street which contained remains of late eighteenth and early
nineteenth warehouse structures and other intact archaeological resources under as little as
1.5 feet of fill. Evidence of structural walls, herringbone brick floors and cobblestone alleys
between buildings remained intact beneath the fill, as well as demolition rubble used to fill
basements. Prehistoric archaeological resources remained intact beneath the strata of
historical occupation in some areas. No diagnostic material was recovered to date the period
of prehistoric occupation. Elsewhere on the property, remains of nineteenth-century wharves
and industrial structures were documented.
Engineering Science conducted a Phase I archaeological study of the B&O

Metropolitan Line railroad (Crowell et al. 1987). The project area comprised the rail corridor
from the Georgetown Aqueduct to Silver Spring, Maryland. Archaeological sites in the
vicinity of Georgetown included the Foxhall Foundry and Mill, Civil War batteries, and
several prehistoric sites, the latter occurring on rises overlooking small streams draining into
the Potomac. One of the prehistoric sites, at Fletcher’s Boathouse, contained a series of
Middle Woodland pit features that were excavated as part of a data recovery project in 1998
(Barse 2002).
The Phase I archaeological investigation of the current Whitehurst Freeway

Improvement Corridor was conducted by Engineering-Science for DCDPW in 1991 (Artemel
et al. 1992). Figures 2-3 and 2-4 show the locations of trenches excavated at the Georgetown
and Foggy Bottom ends of the corridor, while Table 2-1 summarizes the locations and results
of the testing. The study revealed remains of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century warehouses
(51NW104) at the Georgetown end of the corridor. In Foggy Bottom, the foundations of the
late eighteenth-century Peter House (51NW103) were found south of the K Street overpass
along with a Late Woodland prehistoric site underlying the historical remains. In addition,
remains of the late nineteenth-century Arlington Bottling Works (51NW119) were found
20
north of K Street, along with a brewery containing an intact lager beer cellar that predated the
bottling company, and an associated prehistoric site. South of K Street, the nineteenth-
century Cammack and Decker Lime Kilns (51NW120) were documented.
Figure 2-3. Phase II Excavations, Georgetown.
21
Figure 2-4. Phase II Excavations, Foggy Bottom.
22
Table 2-1. Summary of Phase I and Phase II Excavations within the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement Corridor.
Project
Original Current More work Land
Year/ Phase Trench Square Lot Trench Dimensions Site Name Notes
Site No. Site No. recomm? Owner
Reference
1 NPS
1991 I 1 1178 Lot 800 4’ by 11' none none n/a historic fill yes 2
(ROCR )
Georgetown NPS
1991 I 2 1182 Lot 801 4’ by 22.5' none 51NW104 yes 3
Warehouses (CHOH )
Georgetown NPS
1991 I 3 1182 Lot 805 (803?) 4’ by 14' none 51NW104 yes
Warehouses (CHOH)
Georgetown NPS
1991 I 4 1182 Lot 805 (803?) 4.5' by 14' none 51NW104 yes
Warehouses (CHOH)
Georgetown NPS
1991 I 5 1182 Lot 801 6’ by 15' none 51NW104 yes
Warehouses (CHOH)
1991 I 6 5 Former Lot 53 4’ by 14' none none n/a disturbed no DC
North of former
1991 I 7 5 4’ by 22' none none n/a disturbed no DC
Lot 16 [852]
North of former
1991 I 8 5 4’ by 4.5' none none n/a disturbed no DC
Lot 16 [852]
Lot 7 and Reed
1991 I 9 1 4’ by 13' none none n/a sewer line no DC
Alley
20th c. school
1991 I 10 1 Lot 19 5’ by 28' and 2’ by 11' none none n/a no DC
basement
1991 I 11 4 Lots 5 and 6 5’ by 20' and 5' by 10' none 51NW119 Brewery yes DC
1991 I 12 5 Lot 52 4’ by 12' and 4’ by 9' none 51NW103 Peter House yes DC
4 Lot 28 (orig. Lot

1993 I A 1 10' by 20' 51NW103 none n/a disturbed no DC
14)
Lot 31 (orig. Lot
1993 I B 1 6' by 15' 51NW103 none n/a disturbed no DC
14)
Lot 33 (orig. Lot
1993 I C 1 10' by 20' 51NW103 none n/a disturbed no DC
15)
1993 I D 1 Orig. Lot 16 10' by 20' 51NW103 none n/a disturbed no DC
1993 I E 1 Orig. Lot 6 13' by 20' 51NW103 51NW120 Lime Kiln yes DC
1
(Artemel et al. 1992)
3
ROCR: Rock Creek Park
3
CHOH: Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park
4
(Glumac et al. 1993)
23
Table 2-1. Summary of Phase I and Phase II Excavations within the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement Corridor.
Project Original Current More work Land
Phase Trench Square Lot Trench Dimensions Site Name Notes
Year Site No. Site No. recomm? Owner
Lot 816 (Orig. Lots
1993 II F 4 9’ by 13' 51NW103 51NW119 Brewery yes DC
5 & 6)
Lot 816 (Orig. Lots
1993 II G 4 10' by 20' 51NW103 51NW119 Brewery disturbed no DC
5 & 6)
4 Lot 816 (Orig. Lots
1993 II H 4 8' by 13' and 4' by 8' 51NW103 51NW119 Brewery yes DC
5 & 6)
Lot 816 (Orig. Lots
1993 II I 4 5.3' by 33' 51NW103 51NW119 Brewery no DC
5 & 6)
1993 I J 4 Orig. Lots 1 & 20 11.5' by 15' 51NW103 none n/a disturbed no DC
Lot 52 (Orig. Lot
1993 II M 5 10' by 38' 51NW103 51NW103 Peter House yes DC
15, later Lot E)
Lot 52 (Orig. Lot
1993 II N 5 8" by 26' 51NW103 51NW103 Peter House yes DC
15, later Lot E)
1993 II O 5 Rear of Lot 10 10' by 60' 51NW103 None n/a disturbed no DC
1993 II P 5 Lot 18 10' by 30' 51NW103 None n/a disturbed no DC
Lot 52 (Orig. Lot
1993 II Q 5 7' by 35' 51NW103 51NW103 Peter House yes DC
15, later Lot E)
Lot 52 (Orig. Lot 19th/20th c. brick
1993 II R 5 8' by 35' 51NW103 51NW103 Peter House no DC
15, later Lot E) walkway
Lots 801-803 Georgetown NPS
1993 II S 1182 3' by 12' 51NW104 51NW104 yes 3
(south of canal) Warehouses (CHOH )
Lots 801-803 NPS
1993 II T 1182 5’ by 20' 51NW104 none n/a disturbed no
(south of canal) (CHOH)
Lots 12-13 (north NPS
1993 I V 1182 n/a 51NW104 none n/a disturbed no 2
of canal) (ROCR )
1993 I TU 13 1182 3' x 3' 51NW104 none n/a disturbed no
of canal) (ROCR)
1993 I TU 14 1182 3' x 3' 51NW104 none n/a disturbed no
of canal) (ROCR)
1
(Artemel et al. 1992)
3
ROCR: Rock Creek Park
3
CHOH: Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park
4
(Glumac et al. 1993)
24
2.6 Research Design
On the basis of previous archaeological studies, the Whitehurst Freeway project area
was determined to exhibit moderate-to-high potential for prehistoric archaeological
resources. The only exceptions were areas which had obviously been grossly disturbed by
twentieth-century construction activities. It was anticipated that archaeological resources
investigated in the project area would contribute significant information relevant to local and
regional prehistory, particularly in terms of the historical themes and contexts of the District
of Columbia (DCHPD1991).
General Introduction
The prehistoric cultural remains at the Whitehurst Freeway prehistoric sites provided
an opportunity to examine a number of issues specific to archaeology in the Washington,
D.C., area and in the Middle Atlantic region, in addition to addressing several more universal
concerns, both methodological and substantive, that may be of interest to the general
archaeological community. In the most general sense, the purpose of the proposed mitigation
program was to increase the present state of knowledge of prehistoric occupation of the
region through the full-scale, systematic recovery of archaeological data using modern field
and analytical techniques. Based on the results of previous testing along the Whitehurst
corridor, a variety of specific analyses appropriate to the cultural and environmental settings
were proposed: geoarchaeological analysis; lithic tool and debitage studies; feature analyses;
radiocarbon dating; studies of macrobotanical, pollen, and phytolith remains; and intra-site
spatial analyses. The results of these studies would then be combined with wider, synthetic
studies of prehistoric chronology, technology, settlement, and subsistence to form both intra-
site and intersite analyses.
Chronology and Culture History

Archaeological research in the Middle Atlantic has generally focused on documenting
the long-term development of hunter-gatherer societies in the region using the material
evidence recovered at prehistoric sites. To aid in this effort, researchers have established age
ranges for certain characteristic groups of artifacts. Several projectile point styles and
ceramic traits, for example, are considered diagnostic of specific time periods.
Correspondences between material traits and time periods have been established through a
combination of relative and absolute dating techniques. Relative dating involves determining
of the comparative ages of artifacts based on analysis of their contexts. The process typically
accomplished by referring to the positions of artifacts in a vertical soil profile, since in an
ideal, undisturbed profile, older deposits are found underlying younger ones—artifacts in
deep strata will be older than those in shallow strata. Absolute dating assigns specific ages to
archaeological material. Radiocarbon dating is the main procedure used in absolute dating in
eastern North America. Radiocarbon analysis is a laboratory technique based on the
observation that the ratio of carbon isotopes in organic materials changes at a predictable rate
through time. The ratios measured for particular samples are compared against established
sequences, and an age approximation obtained. Charcoal is particularly suited to this type of
analysis, and was collected from potentially significant proveniences at the Whitehurst sites
to date particular features, stratigraphic layers, and the artifact assemblages associated with
25
them. In some instances, dated samples from the sites were from charcoal discovered in
direct association with typed projectile points and ceramic wares, and in several cases, from
charred residues adhering to ceramic sherds. As a result, the Whitehurst investigations were
expected help to refine the age ranges of specific chronologically diagnostic artifacts.
Material Culture and Technology: Lithic Tool Manufacture and Use

The majority of the artifacts recovered from the Whitehurst sites were expected to
consist of chipped stone tools and flaking debris, a finding typical of most prehistoric
archaeological sites in the Middle Atlantic. A variety of formal tools and a large amount of
debitage were anticipated. Morphological and technological analyses of the tools were
proposed in support of traditional typological analysis for intersite comparison, with type
evaluation of projectile points based on standard typology studies for the region (e.g., Ritchie
1971; Broyles 1971; Kinsey 1972).
The analysis of lithic debitage from the sites was also proposed to facilitate
technological interpretation. Lithic tool manufacture is a process of reduction, involving the
sequential removal of material from a fragment of stone until a desired or appropriate form is
reached. The process was first recognized in the archaeological literature of North America
by William Henry Holmes, in his pioneering study of quartzite quarries in Washington, D.C.
(Holmes 1897). Since then, analyses have focused on the varieties of tools produced and,
more recently, on the debris resulting from the manufacturing process itself. For analytical
purposes, lithic reduction is often viewed as a staged procedure, with the most complex end-
product being the bifacial tool form. The model followed in the current analysis was drawn
from a number of studies, including Callahan's widely cited experimental work with fluted
point manufacture (Callahan 1979), as well as theoretical and site-specific models of biface
reduction developed by Muto (1971), Collins (1975; 1979), Johnson (1981), and McElrath
(1986). In each of these studies, lithic tool manufacture is treated as a staged operation, with
specific intermediate forms recognized. As has been noted, the individual stages merely
represent points on a continuum (Sheets 1975), but they do serve as useful interpretive
devices allowing the organization of data into standardized categories. Subjective
interpretation may be, and often is, incorporated into the classifications—the number of
stages recognized by various analysts, for instance, may vary greatly (e.g., Frison and
Bradley [1980] identified over 11 stages in their analysis of Clovis point manufacture at the
Hanson site in Wyoming). Yet the judicious use of inclusive and generally accepted stage
definitions as reference points does aid in interpreting the data available from a lithic
assemblage, and as importantly, provides a basis for intersite comparative studies.
An analysis of variability in lithic raw material selection was proposed as another

means of studying stone tool manufacture at the sites. The lithic assemblages at the
Whitehurst sites were dominated by quartzite, in contrast to many sites in the region where
quartz is overwhelmingly the majority raw material. An obvious reason for this finding was
the proximity of large quartzite deposits at Piney Branch and other locations along Rock
Creek. With the exception of Ebright’s (1987) regional study of quartzite petrography and
Munford’s (1982) research at Piney Branch in the early 1980s, there has been little attention
paid to this resource regionally since Holmes’ early studies. A limited, lithic resource
catchment area study was proposed to provide geographic context for the assessment of
26
differences in the selection and use of the lithic raw materials discovered at the sites. Part of
the catchment study would include an assessment of minority raw materials present at the
sites and their implications for extra-regional contacts.
Material Culture and Technology: Ceramic Vessel Manufacture and Use

Around 1000 BC, techniques for pottery manufacture were introduced across the
Middle Atlantic. This innovation has traditionally defined the beginning of the Woodland
period regionally. Ceramics, which tend to have somewhat more discretely bounded time
ranges during the Woodland period than do projectile points, have become the primary
temporal indices for the period. Based on previous testing at the Whitehurst sites, a large
sample of ceramic vessel fragments was expected as a result of the data recovery
investigations.
Full descriptions of the major wares recovered from the sites, including descriptive
metrical statistics, mineralogical analysis of paste inclusions and tempering agents, and
detailed analysis of surface treatment and decoration was proposed as a primary research
contribution. Given samples of sufficient size and contextual integrity, similar treatment
would be applied to significant atypical wares in an effort to describe the range of ceramic
technology represented at the sites. Using contextual associations and, where possible,
absolute dates from residues, it was expected that refinement of regional chronological
frameworks might be possible. Implications for current theories as to the introduction versus
in-place development of certain ware types, such as Late Woodland Potomac Creek, could
then be drawn.
Geoarchaeological Research, Landscape Reconstruction, and Site Formation

Geoarchaeological studies have become a standard component of the investigation of
archaeological sites in the Middle Atlantic and have lead to a greater understanding of the
contexts and distribution of aboriginal settlements. Of major concern are the relationships
between archaeological assemblages and Quaternary deposits, and geomorphological and
geoarchaeological specialists have been employed to assist in evaluating these relationships
(e.g., Butzer 1982; Waters 1992; Hamel 1992; Schuldenrein 1994; Foss et al. 1995). Using
analyses in both vertical and lateral dimensions, geoarchaeologists have been successful in
producing comprehensive, diachronic landscape reconstructions linking geomorphological
and cultural events. The investigations at the Whitehurst Freeway prehistoric sites afforded
an opportunity to investigate a series of specific environmental settings in the context of a
complete valley landscape. Transportation and public utility corridors lend themselves to
such analyses, as studies in South Carolina (Goodyear et al. 1979), Pennsylvania (Petraglia et
al. 1992), and Delaware (Riley et al. 1994) have demonstrated. Much of the Whitehurst
Freeway right-of-way paralleled the shoreline of the Potomac River, and investigation of the
three prehistoric sites at the Foggy Bottom end of the corridor furnished a detailed look at
terrace formation and development along a major tributary of the stream, Rock Creek.
In addition to large-scale landscape reconstructions, geoarchaeological research also

attempts to contribute to a fuller understanding the processes of site formation affecting
individual occupation strata. Site formation is a basic research concern at the beginning of
any site investigation. Simply put, the degree to which researchers can expect to derive
27
useful cultural information from a site is directly related to questions of contextual or

stratigraphic integrity, as well as the number of occupation components and the potential for
separating constituent artifact assemblages. A variety of techniques was proposed to address
these issues, including basic geoarchaeological analyses, such as stratigraphic and
pedological analyses; granulometric analysis to determine sedimentation rates and the
implications for changes in alluvial activity; and quantitative geochemical tests to provide
information on the processes of natural weathering and the effects of human occupation.
Further, techniques including radiocarbon analysis, artifact distribution analyses, and pollen
and phytolith studies were proposed to complement the soil analyses.
Settlement-Subsistence and Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction

Hunter-gatherer groups live in close contact with the physical environment, and thus,
associated patterns of settlement and subsistence technology are widely viewed in terms of
adaptive responses to environmental conditions. This analytical perspective on prehistoric
settlement is referred to as a cultural ecological approach and is based on anthropological
theory developed by White (1949) and Steward (1955). The view was adopted in the Middle
Atlantic by Gardner (1978, 1982), and it has become the central theme informing several
region models of prehistory (Stewart 1980; Custer 1984, 1989; Johnson 1986). The
presumption is that the determinants of prehistoric hunter-gatherer site location and material
culture were strongly dependent on subsistence-based adaptation (Bettinger 1982). Thus, a
critical element in interpreting the data revealed in the archaeological record is an
understanding of the characteristics of the paleoenvironment.
Several general models of settlement-subsistence have been constructed for portions

of the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain and Piedmont physiographic zones which have
relevance to the Whitehurst study. By now, a standard and oft-cited work is Gardner's (1978,
1987) hypothetical transect for Archaic Period settlement that spans physiographic provinces
from the Ridge and Valley to the Coastal Plain. While specific in terms of site function, size,
and time period, Gardner's model emphasizes the general importance of environmental
variability in the choice of site locale by prehistoric populations. Areas evidencing the
highest potential for prehistoric sites are described as those with "maximum habitat overlap
and/or zones of highest exploitable biomass" (Gardner 1987:76). This viewpoint was
advanced somewhat earlier in the Middle Atlantic by Thomas et al. (1975), who noted the
"compression of microenvironmental zones" that is often present in areas of greatest site
potential. These studies recognize that regions of environmental transition, or areas within
easy reach of several environmental zones, have tended to be especially attractive to
prehistoric populations. Such transitional areas, or ecotones, offer a wider variety of
resources than is available in more homogeneous regions, and so may be more likely to have
served as focal points for prehistoric resource exploitation.
The Whitehurst sites lay along Rock Creek, a perennial, freshwater drainage, near its
confluence with a major tidal stream, the Potomac River, at the upper end of the Chesapeake
Bay estuary. The sites were located at the fall line, in an area of great ecological diversity
encompassing the ectonal overlap of both Piedmont and Coastal Plain regions. Choices for
natural resource exploitation strategies would have been enhanced by the variety of
microenvironments within the immediate vicinity of the sites. In addition, specific resources
28
were associated with the fall line which would have further heightened the attractiveness of
the location: secondary lithic deposits, in the form of cobble and gravel beds formed as
outwash deposits from Piedmont contexts upstream; and seasonally important anadromous
fish runs.
To address questions related to identifying the paleoenvironmental characteristics

associated with the sites, as well as the subsistence practices that were employed, a series of
ethnobotanical studies was proposed. Flotation analysis and the identification and
quantification of macrobotanical materials was recommended, along with wood species
identification of charcoal, to ascertain the nature of the botanical setting and to determine the
types of plant materials employed culturally. In specific contexts, pollen and phytolith data
were expected to be of further use in describing the range of contemporary plant
communities. While shell and bone are not commonly recovered on sites in the region, the
sites exhibited potential for this form of data: species and, if possible, seasonality data were
to be collected and analyzed to supplement environmental and subsistence data.
Unforeseen Discoveries
An important part of the research design included provision for the recovery and
analysis of unanticipated finds from the sites. Since archaeology deals with the discovery of
information that is hidden or buried, the potential is always present for finds that were not
projected on the basis of preliminary investigative work. Thus, provision was made for the
redirection of research during both field and analytical phases toward aspects of regional
prehistory not included in the research design detailed above. In the present case, these
additional research directions entailed analysis of mortuary practices, possible implications
for Middle-to-Late Woodland cultural transitions, and the implications for population
movement and the dissemination of cultural practices posed by the occurrence of exotic
artifacts.
29
30
3.0 METHODS
3.1 Field Methods
Health and Safety Procedures

All field work was conducted in accordance with Occupational Safety and Health
Administration safety standards. Prior to the initiation of archaeological fieldwork, a health
and safety plan was developed to determine safety procedures appropriate for the field study.
Each member of the field crew was required to read the plan and abide by its provisions. A
copy of the plan was kept on site at all times.
Fill
Phase I and II investigations at each of the three sites established that intact historical
and prehistoric deposits were present in each location buried beneath overburden related to
nineteenth- and twentieth-century filling. Historically, infilling along waterfront properties
often consisted of major land acquisition projects, to raise surface contours over low-lying
wetland areas or to extend usable land outward toward a navigable river channel. In contrast,
fill in the part of Foggy Bottom in which the Whitehurst prehistoric sites occurred was used
mainly for leveling purposes. The fill consisted of imported clay and gravelly soil, along
with occupation debris and material from the demolition of existing structures. The fill
layers at the sites ranged in thickness from 30 centimeters to more than 4 meters, being
shallowest on the upper terrace at the Peter House site, and deepest on the low terrace
adjacent to Rock Creek at the Whitehurst West site. The work plans guiding Phase III data
recovery excavations at each site called for removal of these overlying layers in order to
expose historic period structural features and associated deposits (which are described and
analyzed by Crane et al. [2006]), followed by excavation of underlying prehistoric deposits,
the results of the latter investigations being described and analyzed herein.
Excavation and Recording

Procedures
Excavation was initially
carried out using a backhoe to
remove the overlying layers of
demolition debris and other fill.
The machinery was handled by
skilled operators experienced in
archaeological procedures, and
the work was continuously
monitored by supervisory
archaeological personnel (Figure
3-1). Structural features and
depositional surfaces were
further exposed and cleaned
Figure 3-1. Monitoring Overburden Removal at the
using shovels or trowels.
Whitehurst West Site.
According to work plans
31
specific to each site, deposits were sampled with 1-m2 units, and block excavations were
placed in appropriate locations to recover material from wide areas of contiguous
proveniences. Separate sampling grids were established for each site using datum points tied
to survey monuments or other permanent landmarks appearing on plans of proposed
construction. Grid addresses used to identify individual excavation units within each site
consisted of the northeast corner of the unit. Features, both historical and prehistoric, were
numbered consecutively at each site. Geoarchaeological analysis of profile sections was
conducted throughout the course of the excavations by means of column sampling at relevant
locations. Deep backhoe cuts were made through the sites after completion of block
excavations to verify the identification of Pleistocene deposits.
All hand excavations were conducted in 10-centimeter arbitrary levels within

observed stratigraphy (Figure 3-2). Data were recorded on standardized field forms for each
1-m2 unit: the information included soil descriptions (texture, moisture content, and color,
the latter using Munsell Soil Color Chart notation); preliminary field listing of artifacts
recovered; observations on non-artifactual inclusions; and field interpretations as to
depositional history. Flotation and charcoal samples were retained from selected
proveniences. All soils excavated from features or units that were not held for flotation were
passed through quarter-inch mesh hardware cloth to maximize the recovery of artifacts.
After excavation of each unit was completed, representative profile sections were drawn to
scale and photographed. Artifacts from each excavation unit were placed in polyethylene
bags according to unit, stratum, and level provenience. Provenience information for each
artifact bag was recorded in the field on a master Bag Inventory sheet.
Archaeological Stratigraphy
Archaeological stratigraphy at each individual site location was organized around
field identification and synthesis of Universal Stratigraphic Units (USTR), defined as
morphologically distinct entities of artifact-bearing sediment. Definition by USTR was
particularly useful in the evaluation of the cultural material component of each site. The
USTRs often corresponded directly with particular soil horizons, as identified in the field,
and sometimes shared common elements in nomenclature. On occasion several soil horizons
were lumped into a single USTR in order to effectively evaluate the cultural component of a
chronologically similar entity. Accordingly, USTRs do not consistently follow established
soil horizon organization and nomenclature, and should not be used for correlations on an
intersite basis.
3.2 Lab Methods
Artifact processing, cataloging, and analysis were performed in the Parsons

Laboratory, located in Fairfax, Virginia. Artifacts were cleaned in plain water and bagged by
material type in 4-mil polyethylene zip-lock bags. Individual artifact numbers were assigned
to specimens and added to the bag number assigned in the field for each provenience.
Artifacts are thus referenced by a unique composite consisting of the bag number-artifact
number. The bag number, artifact number, and provenience information were written in
indelible ink on the outside of the bags, and acid-free tags with the same information were
32
a.) Peter House

(view southwest)
b.) Ramp 3 (view north)
c.) Whitehurst West

(view south)
Figure 3-2. Unit and Block Excavations at the Whitehurst Freeway Sites.
33
placed within the bags. Diagnostic artifacts (including lithic tools and ceramic sherds) were
hand-labeled with the site number and bag number using acryloid B-72 sealant and black or
white pigment ink. Acryloid B-72 glue was used to mend selected artifacts.
The Ramp 3 Site (51NW117) and the Whitehurst West Site (51NW117W) were
located within Rock Creek Park, property owned by the National Park Service. The Peter
House Site (51NW103) was located on property owned by the District of Columbia. The
National Park Service collections were assigned an accession number and catalog numbers as
provided by Rock Creek Park and transmitted through the Regional Archaeology Program’s
Archeological Collections Manager. The accession and catalog numbers were printed acid-
free paper tags and enclosed in the bags. In addition to the artifact inventory compiled for all
of the artifacts from the Whitehurst project (as described below), the artifacts and records
from the National Park Service sites were inventoried using the National Park Service’s
Automated National Catalog System Plus (ANCS+). A correspondence table linking the
cataloging systems is provided in the Artifact Inventory (Appendix O).
The collections are stored in labeled acid-free boxes. At the conclusion of the project
the artifacts and original documentation were permanently curated in different locations,
depending on land ownership. All artifacts and records from the sites that were on property
owned by the National Park Service are curated at their Museum Resource Center in
Landover, Maryland. The disposition of artifacts and records from property owned by the
District of Columbia will be determined in consultation with the D.C. Historic Preservation
Officer.
A full artifact inventory was compiled (Appendix O). In addition to provenience

information, coding for database entry included the information listed below:
! group – indicating prehistoric or historic period artifact "
! material – raw material type using general mineralogical terms "
! morphological type – technologically derived terms are generally employed, though
several widely accepted functional terms are also used "
! typology – conventional morphological types associated with known chronological
periods"
! subtech 1 # for ceramics, interior surface treatment
! subtech 2 – for ceramics, exterior surface treatment
! subtech 3 – for ceramics, decoration type
! subtech 4 – for ceramics, primary tempering material
! subtech 5 – noting conditions such as spalled, burned, calcined, or butchered
! segment – indicating completeness or, if incomplete, the section of the artifact
represented (proximal, medial, distal) "
! presence/absence of cortex – for lithic artifacts"
! size grade – measured on lithic debitage as an indication of geometric dimension "
! weight – for prehistoric artifacts, expressed in grams, and reported as an additional
indication of artifact size
34
Once inventoried, the artifact assemblages were analyzed for information related
to chronology, function, technology, and behavioral processes. Chronological definition
of site components was based on analysis of diagnostic point and ceramic type
frequencies and on associated radiocarbon data. Projectile point and ceramic ware types
and their ascribed date ranges utilized in the analyses were drawn from regional
archaeological literature and research databases. Major artifact types are described
below, followed by brief descriptions of other analyses conducted on data recovered from
the sites.
Analytical Methods: Lithic Technology
Points. Points are chipped stone artifacts with distal ends having edges that converge to
an apex or point and thinned, proximal ends that functioned as hafting elements. The
artifacts are usually bifacial in manufacturing technology and bi-laterally symmetrical in
shape. Labels ranging from “projectile point” to “hafted biface” have been used to
designate these artifacts. The simpler term point is used here, chosen since it does not
imply an undemonstrated function, as in the former case, but is not as deliberately non-
functional as the latter.
Where possible, points recovered from the Whitehurst sites were assigned to
conventional types based on published descriptions of regionally accepted point styles.
The purpose of typing the artifacts in this manner was to support an organizing
framework for studies of stratigraphy and artifact association. Chronologically
diagnostic artifacts can be important analytical tools that bring temporal perspective to
site analysis: they can often be used as time markers, although they do not necessarily
represent specific cultures.
Type frequencies are summarized in the main text of the report. Detailed
information is included in the Point Descriptions in Appendix B. For artifacts that were
sufficiently complete, a standard series of attribute data was recorded, including
dimensional measurements, such as length, width, thickness, several angle
measurements, and a suite of nominal variables related to shape, raw material, knapping
characteristics, and edge wear. The metrical data, as presented, should be considered
with some caution, since damage, reuse, and rejuvenation can alter the shape of a tool
from its original form, as a number or researchers have noted (Frison 1968; Flenniken
and Raymond 1986; Towner and Warburton 1990; Dibble 1995). Thus, the
archaeological form of a tool as recorded in its dimensional measurements usually
represents the form of the artifact following its last use, or as often, the last attempt at
retooling, and does not necessarily reflect its original design.
Bifaces. Bifaces are defined by the presence of patterned flake removals from opposing
surfaces along at least one edge. Most bifaces are further identified by a regularized
shape. All of the complete bifaces from the sites were measured for length, width,
thickness, and weight. The artifacts were categorized on the basis of two levels of
35
reduction: early stage or late stage. These designations refer to the perceived level of
completeness of the artifact. The subdivisions were based on several attributes related to
the overall appearance of the artifacts, including the degree of shaping that had been
undertaken, relative thickness, and the sinuosity of edge profiles. The characteristics
imply that lithic manufacture was conducted in a staged process. While the recognition
of stages can be subjective, as noted earlier, staged reduction has become a standard
assumption of lithic analysis and thus provides a general basis for comparison against
data from other sites as well as against theoretical and experimental models (e.g., Muto
1971; Collins 1975; Callahan 1979; Johnson 1981). As described herein, early stage
bifaces result from the initial efforts at producing a bifacial edge on a cobble, pebble, or
flake blank. Typically, early stage bifaces exhibit comparatively random flaking
produced by hard hammer percussion. Flake scars are often wide and deep. The amount
of flaking may vary from minimal to extensive, but little overall shaping of the artifact is
evident and the resulting bifacial edge remains sinuous in profile. Early stage bifaces are
relatively thick in cross section and often retain remnant cortex. By contrast, late stage
bifaces typically display greater width:thickness ratios than early stage bifaces, indicating
that purposeful thinning has been undertaken. Late stage bifaces also exhibit a greater
degree of shaping along with straighter edges in profile, suggesting more designed and
patterned flaking. Edge modification may be present in the form of platform preparation,
implying the use of controlled flaking techniques.
A distinction was also made in the analysis between manufacturing rejects and
discards based on the observation of a range of characteristics. For example, a biface
may appear unfinished, with unpatterned percussion flaking, sinuous edges, or an
irregular shape. It may also bear evidence of incomplete mastery of the raw material,
such as compounded step-fractures leading to stacks, uncleared material flaws or
inclusions, or multiple perverse fractures (Purdy 1975; Johnson 1981). Various
combinations of these characteristics suggest that an artifact was broken during
manufacture or that the artisan was either unable to overcome flaws or recover from
manufacturing errors, and so, rejected the piece before completion. Other bifaces that
appeared to have been finished tools are assumed to have been discarded after breakage
or when exhausted through use and resharpening.
Other Tools. Other than bifaces and projectile points, relatively few formal tools forms
were identified in the chipped stone assemblages at the Whitehurst Freeway sites. The
most common category of non-bifacial tool was the uniface, usually occurring as a form
of flake tool in which one edge of the flake had been deliberately trimmed to shape.
Trimming was on one face, typically the dorsal surface of the flake. Most of the unifaces
from the site had been prepared for use as sidescrapers or endscrapers. Complete
unifaces were measured for length, width, thickness, and weight. The edge angle of the
bit, or working edge of the artifact, was measured at the approximate center of the bit
using a goniometer.
The other major tool class consisted of drills, which occurred with either
symmetrically or alternately beveled bit edges.
36
Retouched Flakes. Retouched flake tools were characterized in the analysis by marginal
flake scars at least 3 millimeters in length oriented perpendicular to the flake edge,
resulting in minimal shaping along the flake perimeter. The focus of the flaking on
retouched flake tools was edge modification rather than formal shaping.
Utilized Flakes. Utilized flake tools were identified by the presence of usewear along
the edges of the artifact, without evidence of intentional edge modification. Usewear was
indicated by the presence of various types of edge degradation or modification, such as
microflake removal, rounding, or blunting.
Cores. Cores represent one of the basic elements of lithic reduction. They can range in
size and complexity from a pebble or cobble with only a single flake removal, to an
exhausted cobble core that has been rounded and is no longer workable. In most cases,
cores that occur archaeologically are artifacts that were rejected because additional flake
removal was impractical, either because of poor material quality (in the case of a tested
cobble or a fractured core), or because the size or shape of the core made further flaking
difficult. By general implication, cores are usually assumed to have been used for flake
production. While it is recognized that some cores were worked into bifacial tools, it can
be difficult to discern intent in the early stages of reduction when only one or two flakes
have been removed. And so, all cores have been described together in this analysis
regardless of the final goal of the reduction process.
In the analysis, cores were separated into two categories—multidirectional and

bipolar—based on flake removal patterning. Multidirectional cores were defined as cores
with flake removal occurring in a random pattern from multiple platforms. Bipolar cores
were identified by a distinctive arrangement of opposing striking platforms. In bipolar
reduction, the core was placed on a hard surface, usually a dense stone serving as an
anvil, and was struck from above. The blow typically produced crushed platforms on
opposite sides of the artifact, while the flakes generated were either flat and sheared, or
distinctly convex in shape.
Flaking Debris. Flaking debris was separated into two basic categories: flakes and chips.
Flakes were defined by the presence of identifiable attributes, such as bulbs of percussion,
striking platforms, dorsal flake scars, and feather, snap, or hinge terminations. Chips,
sometimes referred to as shatter, represented small-to-medium sized, angular pieces of
lithic material with no readily identifiable flake attributes.
Flaking debris usually represents the majority of the artifactual material recovered
from a prehistoric archaeological site in the Middle Atlantic, and the Whitehurst sites were
no exception. Efficient analysis of such a large number of artifacts can be challenging. A
useful approach to this task involves the analysis of flake size based on interval data (Gunn
et al. 1976; Henry et al. 1976; Stahle and Dunn 1984; Patterson 1990; Shott 1994; Riley et
al. 1994; Healan 1995). The process used in the current study is ultimately based on
techniques of so-called flake aggregate, or mass analysis, as documented by Ahler (1986,
1989). The procedure consists of grading the artifacts according to standardized size
intervals, and retrieving various quantitative data from each size-grade. These data are then
37
subjected to a variety of statistical manipulations that can be used to aid in characterizing

the type or types of reduction technology represented in the assemblage. Size grading for
the Whitehurst assemblages was conducted using the following interval scale:
o size-grade 0: > 50 mm
o size-grade 1: < 50 mm and > 25 mm
o size-grade 4: < 6 mm
Patterson (1990) has used flake size interval data to demonstrate a mathematical
relationship between flake size and reduction strategy. Using experimental and
archaeological data sets, he noted that biface reduction produces a distinctive concave
curve when size interval frequencies are plotted on a simple linear graph (Figure 3-3a).
He further observed that a semi-log plot of the same data, with size intervals plotted on a
linear scale and frequency on a logarithmic scale, results in a straight-line curve or log-
linear regression with a negative slope (Figure 3-3b). Direct comparisons between
Patterson’s data and the Whitehurst data on an interval by interval basis was
impractical—the two data sets could not easily be placed on the same set of axes since
they are reported at different scales. One potentially significant difference concerns that
fact that Patterson ignores debitage measuring less than one centimeter in width,
equivalent to size-grade 3 and below in the present analysis. Shott’s (1994:91-94, Figure
1-4) use of Patterson’s distribution on other experimental data sets, specifically those of
Behm (1983) and Tomka (1989), employs an interval range that encompasses smaller
flake sizes (the current size grade 4 and below). Shott’s results tend to confirm
Patterson’s overall findings, although he does caution that the available data sets are
limited. Later, Carr and Bradbury (2004:43) noted that size interval data from biface
thinning does tend to produce a straight-line log-linear curve, while curves resulting from
% of Total Log Transform of Frequency

70 100
b) SEMI-LOG
a) LINEAR
60
50
10
40
30
1
20
10
0 0.1
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Flake Size, mm
Flake Size, mm
a). b).
Figure 3-3. Patterson’s Experimental Biface Reduction Flake Size Distribution.
38
all other reduction stages as well as from mixed assemblages are irregular in shape.
A disadvantage related to the current study is the absence of a full sample from
size grade 4, defined as 0.33 centimeters and corresponding with the mesh opening of
eighth-inch wire screening fabric. Since quarter-inch mesh was the smallest screen size
used in the field, the size grade 4 material does not represent a systematically collected
sample. As will be noted in the analyses that follow, the smallest complete sample is
from size grade 3.
Cobble Tools/Groundstone. Cobble tools were used for a variety of tasks including
battering, abrading, grinding, and pecking. These tools typically consisted of
unmodified, rounded cobbles procured locally from stream beds or other exposed gravel
deposits. In the current analysis, two functional categories were recognized:
hammerstones and anvils. Some cobble tools contained multiple usewear patterns and
were categorized on the basis of the most frequent use type in evidence.
Analytical Methods: Fire-Cracked Rock

Fire-cracked rock is an artifact category consisting of stone that shows evidence
of purposeful heating. Attributes may include combinations of angular facture, spalling,
and surface manifestations such as crazing, cracking, dulling, or color changes (graying
or reddening). In addition to recording material type and fragment weight for fire-
cracked rock fragments from each site, a comprehensive refit study was conducted for
artifacts from the Peter House excavation block. The purpose of the refit study was to
provide detailed information about site structure and, potentially, feature formation and
function. In preparation for the study, artifacts were labeled with bag numbers to
maintain provenience information. During this labeling process, a number of refits were
found, generally from the same vertical and horizontal provenience. These initial refits
were marked along the mended edge. The artifacts were then sorted by unit, stratum, and
level to reveal juxtapositions of potentially conjoinable pieces. All of the stone
fragments within the sample area were examined and refitted by a single person to
provide consistency.
Analytical Methods: Ceramics

Each ceramic sherd was examined individually and catalogued in relation to six
attributes: temper, interior surface treatment, exterior surface treatment, decoration,
weight, and thickness. Sherds greater than 1 centimeter in diameter were sorted visually
into broad categories based on temper and dominant surface treatments. Cross-mending
was undertaken to identify and combine sherds from individual vessels.
Surface treatment on both the exteriors and interiors of sherds was examined for
evidence of scraping, smoothing, adhering residue, finger impressions, or fabric, cordage,
or net impressions. Decoration was recorded separately from surface treatment, as the
process implies a more specific attempt to control appearance and may have carried
further meaning for the makers of the ceramics. Decorative motifs were recorded by type
39
and location on the vessel: types included direct cord impressed, cord-wrapped stick
impressed, broad or fine-line incised, fingernail punctate, tool punctate, and dentate.
Limited information regarding vessel form was gathered due to the fragmentary
nature of the vessels. Measurements (in millimeters) were recorded for sherd thickness.
Lip shape descriptions included variations of flattened or rounded, and lip modifications
included fingernail notched, tool notched, cord-wrapped stick notched, and scalloped
(pinched). Rim profiles were noted as inverted, straight, everted, or collared (thickened
with an added rim strip).
The sherds were compared to descriptions of the known wares and types
established in the Middle Atlantic Piedmont and Coastal Plain. The examination of the
collection in the framework of conventional ware typologies was intended to facilitate the
discussion of chronology and help highlight comparisons between the Whitehurst
assemblage and others in the region. Descriptive summaries of the ware types
recognized in the Whitehurst analysis are included in Appendix B.
A large number of sherds either were too small and/or weathered to identify or
did not neatly fall within established typologies. The untyped sherds were grouped
primarily by temper, and secondarily by surface treatment and other attributes. In
addition to quartz and shell-tempered examples, untyped sherds included specimens
tempered with steatite, schist, limonite, hornblende, sandstone, and chert.
Several groups of sherds were recognized as sufficiently distinctive to be

confidently classed as a ceramic lot. The lots were considered to represent limited
temporal intervals: either an individual vessel or single episode of manufacture. In
addition to the cross-mended sherds, six vessel lots were identified and are described in
Appendix B.
Special Analyses Performed by Consultant Analysts

Special analyses and procedures, including Accelerator Mass Spectronomy
(AMS) dating, paleobotanical analyses, lithic raw material analyses, ceramic thin-
sectioning, and several studies of special artifacts from the Ramp 3 site, were performed
by outside laboratories (Table 3-1). Summaries of results of these studies are presented
in the appropriate sections in the main body of the report, while the complete texts of
reports as submitted by consultant analysts, including specific methods, results, and
interpretations, are presented in a series of appendices (Appendix D through Appendix
N).
Organic Materials. Bone, shell, seeds, nutshell, and other organic items were not
included in artifact totals unless they exhibited specific evidence of having been worked.
Bone was considered potentially prehistoric only if calcined or burned, shell only if
found in concentration—otherwise these materials were presumed to be historical in
origin.
40
Analyst Material Appendix

Daniel Hayes, Geoarchaeologist,
Geoarchaeological analysis Appendix D
Charlottesville, Virginia
Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and
Beta Analytic, Inc., Miami, Florida Appendix E
ceramic residues
Linda Scott Cummings, Ph.D., Kathryn
Puseman, and Thomas Moutoux, Paleo Pollen, phytolith, macrofloral, and charcoal
Appendix F
Research Laboratories, Denver, identification and analysis
Colorado
LaPorta and Associates, Geological Geological catchment and lithic raw
Appendix G
Consultants, Glenwood, New Jersey material analyses
LaPorta and Associates, Geological
Ceramic thin-section analysis Appendix H
Consultants, Glenwood, New Jersey
James Petersen, Ph.D., Department of
Analysis of textiles from Feature 283 and
Anthropology, University of Vermont, Appendix I
textile impressions on ceramics
Burlington
Marie Standifer, Department of Biological Archaeobotanical identification and
Sciences, Louisiana State University, analysis of textile fragments from Feature Appendix J
Baton Rouge 283
Bruce Hardy, Ph.D., Department of
Microscopic residue and use-wear
Anthropology, Kenyon College, Gambier, Appendix K
analysis of artifacts from Feature 283
Ohio
Douglas Owsley, Ph.D., Department of
Anthropology, National Museum of Identification of human bone from Feature
Appendix L
Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 283
Washington, D.C.
Thomas Whyte, Ph.D., Department of
Zooarchaeological analysis of vertebrate
Anthropology, Appalachian State Appendix M
remains from Feature 283
University, Boone, North Carolina
Robert Purdy, Ph.D., Department of
Paleobiology, National Museum of Species identification of shark teeth from
Appendix N
Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Feature 283
Washington, D.C.
Table 3-1. Special Analyses Performed by Consultant Analysts.
Ethnobotanical Remains.
Charcoal. Fragments of charcoal recovered from a variety of proveniences at the sites
were submitted for wood species identification. The material included charcoal that
occurred in flotation samples from general stratum proveniences; specific pieces
recovered from features; and fragments that were submitted for radiometric analysis. The
purpose of wood species identification was to aid in characterizing the plant communities
present in the surrounding environment, to characterize the species used in specific tasks
at the sites, and to determine the nature of materials submitted for radiocarbon dating.
Seeds and Nuts. Seed and nutshell remains were recovered from flotation samples taken
from many of the proveniences at the Whitehurst sites. The material included both
charred and uncharred remains. A variety of factors, such as soil acidity and bacterial
growth, render the preservation of uncharred macrobotanical materials unlikely in most
archaeological contexts. Thus, uncharred specimens in the samples were assumed to
have been modern in origin. The effects of carbonization may distort or destroy certain
characteristic features of seed remains, and thus charred seeds are often difficult to
identify to the species level (Pearsall 1989). Most of the identifications from the samples
41
at the Whitehurst sites, therefore, remain at the genus or even family level. Abbreviated
descriptions of each species type represented have been abstracted from Appendix F and
other sources for inclusion with the appropriate site presentation.
Phytoliths. Selected samples from the sites were examined for the presence of phytoliths,
in addition to macrobotanical materials. Phytoliths consist of silicates, or more
specifically opaline silica bodies, that typically occur on the stems, leaves, and
inflorescences of plants (Pearsall 1989:312). Silica is transferred by natural processes to
plants from groundwater, deposited in various cells and eventually forms hard bodies that
may retain distinctive shapes after the plant decomposes. Because of their microscopic
size, phytoliths are readily subject to migration in soil profiles, making contextual
analysis an important factor in the decision to employ identification of these materials as
part of ethnobotanical analyses. Phytoliths are most commonly associated with the
various species of grasses. Their identification in specific contexts during the current
investigations was undertaken to support interpretations of paleoenvironmental
conditions and plant utilization.
Radiocarbon Data. Carbon samples were recovered from various proveniences across
the three sites. Samples included charcoal from concentrations within features, dispersed
charcoal from arbitrary levels within features or from general stratigraphic levels, and
organic residues adhering to ceramic interiors.
Charcoal samples were sorted and cleaned before transmittal to Beta Analytic, in
Miami, for radiocarbon assay. There the samples were further cleaned and pretreated.
Cleaning consisted of examination for rootlets and other non-carbonized organic
material. The samples were then washed in hot acid to eliminate carbonates, rinsed to
neutrality and washed in hot alkalai to remove humic acids, rinsed to neutrality, and
washed in hot acid and rinsed a second time. The samples then underwent normal
benzene synthesis and counting. Three small samples were given extended counting time
(four times normal) to increase estimation precision. Preprocessing for the AMS samples
consisted of the collection of carbon dioxides from combustion in a closed system. These
were purified and reacted with hydrogen on cobalt catalysts to produce graphite and
applied to a copper target. The AMS measurements were made in triplicate at either the
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (CAMS) or the Eidgenössische Technische
Hochschule (ETH) in Zürich.
In the site presentations, dates are initially reported in both radiocarbon years and
as calibrated dates. Radiocarbon years are the standard reporting format for radiometric
assay results and are used in the current report for statistical comparisons and to correlate
with geoarchaeological analyses. Calibrated dates are used in later sections of the report
in considering cultural sequences, which are more easily discussed in calendar years.
42
Artifact Assemblage Composition and the Analysis of Site Formation Processes

Gravel deposits were documented low in the profile sections at the Peter House
and Whitehurst West sites. These sediments were interpreted as lag deposits or small
point bars, prompting questions about the degree to which the artifact assemblages
associated with the gravels might have been reworked or might have occurred in
secondary deposition. The problem is similar to one facing Old World paleolithic
archaeologists, who are often confronted with the basic question of whether an entire site
is secondary, transported to its place of archaeological discovery en masse by fluvial
action (Nash and Petraglia 1987). Schick (1986, 1987), for example, working in East
Africa, has gathered experimental data as a baseline against which to objectively assess
the nature and degree of fluvial modification of site assemblages. She noted that when
artificially produced sites are subjected to natural flooding, changes in assemblage
composition are indeed apparent. In her study, artifact loss was found to be inversely
correlated with artifact size: in the typical site, a substantial loss was recorded at the
smaller end of the debitage size scale. Significantly, though, not all small material was
removed, even in highly modified sites. The most consistent pattern recognized was a
general shift in the mid-ranges of size distributions to higher proportions of large flakes
in comparison with original assemblages.
Direct, one-to-one comparisons between these experimental results and

archaeological assemblages from the Middle Atlantic were not practical, since the
experimental database was tailored to artifact assemblages typical of paleolithic sites:
Schick’s data were derived from hand axe replications using basalt lava. In addition, the
size grades used in the Old World study do not correspond precisely with the intervals
used in the Whitehurst lithic analysis, although this problem is not as critical as first
glance might suggest. The dimensions of the screen openings listed in Table 3-2 are the
sides of the squares represented by the mesh used to grade the Whitehurst data. The
actual maximum dimension of a flake represented by a particular grade corresponds with
the hypotenuse of the mesh opening, which is slightly larger than the sides. When these
figures are calculated for each opening, the correspondence between metric intervals in
the two studies was usually within 2 or 3 millimeters, up to size grade 2. In samples
large enough to analyze statistically, the effects of this difference on overall trends in size
distributions are small. With these several caveats in mind, general comparative
tendencies may be distinguished in the databases that can serve as bases of interpretation.
Schick’s (1986) experimental results suggested that most of the variation in

assemblage composition before and after flood events came in the smallest size grade, 5-
10 millimeters, which corresponds with size grade 4 as measured at the Whitehurst sites.
The quarter-inch screening used at Whitehurst provided an incomplete sample for this
grade. Nevertheless, a fairly consistent loss of artifacts was apparent in sites that had
undergone moderate to severe flood exposure, resulting in a shift in the experimental data
from a peak in the interval corresponding with size grade 3 to one corresponding with
size grade 2, (Figures 3-4 through 3-6). Note that all the data sets used in the analyses
reported herein were standardized by removing the smallest grade material (size grade 4
43
and Schick’s 5-10 millimeters grade), since the relative proportions across the grades at
the Whitehurst sites were affected by the absence of the full size grade 4 sample.
Schick’s
Whitehurst Intervals Hypotenuse
Intervals
size grade 1 ! 25 mm ! 36 mm 30 mm +
size grade 2 = 13-25 mm 18-36 mm 20-30 mm
size grade 3 = 6-13 mm 8-18 mm 10-20 mm
size grade 4 = 3-6 mm 4-8 mm <10 mm
Table 3-2. Metric Equivalences for Mass Analysis Size Grades.
frequency
60%
50%
40%
original
30% n=242
reworked
Figure 3-4. Flake Size
20% n=78 Distribution, Experimental Site
34 (Schick 1986, Table B-1).
10%
0%
3 2 1 0
size grade
larger smaller
frequency
60%
50%
40%
Figure 3-5. Flake Size 30%

original
n=3328
Distribution, Experimental Site
reworked
36 (Schick 1986, Table B-1). 20% n=333
10%
0%
3 2 1 0
size grade
larger smaller
44
frequency
60%
50%
40%
original
30% n=242
reworked
20% n=201 Figure 3-6. Flake Size
Distribution, Experimental Site
10% 28 (Schick 1986, Table B-1).
0%
3 2 1 0
size grade
larger smaller
45
46
Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Studies / Peter House
4.0 PETER HOUSE PREHISTORIC SITE (51NW103):

ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDINGS
4.1 Phase I and Phase II Investigations
Phase I and Phase II investigations at the Peter House site have been reported in detail
in two previous technical reports (Artemel et al. 1992; Glumac et al. 1993). The following is
a brief summary of the findings and recommendations. More complete descriptions and
analyses are presented in the cited reports.
The Phase I survey was part of a larger, integrated program of archaeological testing
conducted at the western and eastern ends of the Whitehurst Freeway project area. Two
backhoe trenches were excavated in the area thought to contain the remains of the Thomas
Peter House. Part of a brick-lined drain was discovered running parallel with K Street, below
the level of the sidewalk, along with an apparently rich prehistoric deposit containing
quartzite and quartz knapping debris, Late Woodland ceramic sherds, and fire-cracked rock.
On the basis of these discoveries, Phase II testing of the site was recommended. As
part of that procedure, four additional backhoe trenches were excavated to re-expose and
evaluate the deposits discovered during the previous survey and to locate any surviving
remains of the Peter House structure. The massive, fieldstone foundation of the west wall of
the house was located, and a portion of the basement floor was exposed. To the west and
south of the Peter House, brick footers and sections of diagonal, brick-lined drains were
located. These features were associated with the walls of row houses constructed adjacent to
the Peter House in the mid-nineteenth century (Figure 4-1). And finally, the prehistoric
deposit recorded in the original survey trench was re-exposed and tested. The deposit was
found to be deep and extensive along the street front, and to continue southward, up the slope
and into the backyard area of the Peter House and neighboring row houses. Given these
Figure 4-1. Cleaning and Documenting Brick Walls of Row Houses

Adjacent to the Peter House during Phase II Investigations, 1993.
47
findings, the prehistoric and historical components of the Peter House site were
recommended eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places, and a data
recovery program was designed to mitigate the adverse effects of the planned development of
the property.
4.2 Field Methods for Prehistoric Data Recovery
Phase I and II investigations at the site demonstrated that intact historical and
prehistoric deposits remained buried beneath 30-140 centimeters of overburden related to
demolition of standing structures on the property and construction of existing highway ramps
in the 1960s. The work plan guiding Phase III excavations called for removal of the
remaining overburden to expose historic period structural and yard features, followed by
continued excavation through the surviving prehistoric deposits.
Excavation was carried out using a backhoe to remove the overlying layers of
demolition debris (Figure 4-2). The machinery was handled by an operator experienced in
archaeological procedures, and the work was continuously monitored by supervisory
archaeological personnel. Structural features and depositional surfaces were further exposed
and cleaned using shovels.
Work began at the top of the slope south of K Street, in an area that corresponded
with the back lot or yard of the Peter House property, where Phase II testing had shown that
recent deposition was shallowest (Figure 4-3). Both historic period yard deposits and
underlying prehistoric deposits were expected. Close examination of backhoe cuts and the
excavation of 1-m2 units through the deposits beneath the demolition debris indicated that in
fact, most of the historic period yard deposits had been removed during demolition and
grading of the property in the 1960s. A modern utility trench cut across the back end of the
Peter House and the yard area from east-to-west. The remaining cultural deposition in this
part of the site appeared to consist of an early historic period plow zone, containing widely
scattered historical artifacts and the remnants of a prehistoric occupation site.
The backhoe was then used to expose the surviving structural features associated with
the Peter House and adjacent row houses, the latter stretching from the west wall of the Peter
House to 27th Street. The row house remains were documented and removed, and the
prehistoric levels below were sampled with 1-m2 units. In addition, a series of posthole
excavations was used to delineate the depth of surviving plow zone deposits from the
historical street front (K Street), up the slope to the yards behind the row houses. Finally,
deeper, intact prehistoric deposits, originally identified in the Phase II investigation along the
street front, were exposed. The prehistoric deposits were eventually determined to be part of
a natural gully that had filled with prehistoric midden-like debris. The gully paralleled the
former street below the nineteenth-century sidewalk. A block excavation was conducted in
this part of the site to recover material from a wide, continuous area. The excavation
consisted of 29 contiguous and 5 non-contiguous 1-m2 units.
Geoarchaeological analyses were conducted several times during the course of the
excavations and a series of deposits sampled for analysis (Figure 4-4). A deep backhoe cut
48
a.) yard area (view south with Peter

House foundation in foreground,
Watergate Hotel in background)
b.) row houses

(view southeast)
c.) row houses (view west)
Figure 4-2. Removing Overburden at the Peter House Site.
49
Figure 4-3. Locations of Phase III Data Recovery Excavations, Peter House.
50
Figure 4-4. Geoarchaeological Documentation and Sampling

in the Main Excavation Block, Peter House.
was made from north to south through the site after completion of the block excavation to
verify the identification of pre-cultural, Pleistocene deposits.
Excavation and documentation procedures at the Peter House site conformed to

descriptions presented in the general methods section of this report. Features, both historical
and prehistoric, were numbered consecutively, beginning at #300.
4.3 General Site Description
The Peter House site occupied an upper section of valley slope, just below the
original hill crest above the confluence of Rock Creek and the Potomac River. The site
landform had been modified by urban development that included the construction and
subsequent demolition of several row houses and associated yards. The natural slope to the
east had been deeply cut during construction of an access ramp to Rock Creek Parkway in the
mid-1960s, truncating the Peter House foundation. To the south, a cut had been made for a
second ramp, which intersected 27th Street, while to the west lay 27th Street itself. To the
north, the terrain sloped naturally to the bridge that carries K Street over the Parkway ramp.
This part of the hillside was originally the site of the Peter House and the series of
nineteenth-century row houses that fronted on K Street. At time of survey, the entire knoll
was grass covered, with a large oak tree located near the top of the hill.
4.4 Stratigraphic Summary
The largest surviving portion of the prehistoric site lay at the base of the northern
slope, in an eroded gully beneath the nineteenth-century sidewalk that bordered K Street
(Figure 4-5). A complicated array of historical fills and structural features overlay the
prehistoric artifact-bearing strata in this part of the site. Upslope, to the south, portions of the
51
prehistoric sediment profile were discovered in relatively intact condition below the row
house foundations. The prehistoric deposits were followed up the hillside into an area that
would have comprised the
yards behind the houses,
almost to the crest of the hill.
At this point, the prehistoric
deposits had been graded
away, presumably when the
city block was cleared of
nineteenth-century architec-
ture in the mid-1960s.
The stratigraphic
sequence at the site is
summarized below in a series
of overarching temporal and
morphological components
using the Universal
Figure 4-5. Initial Units of Block Excavation in Eroded
Stratigraphic Unit (USTR) and In-filled Gully at Base of Slope, Peter House
convention noted earlier (view west from modern bridge over K Street).
(Section 3.0, Methods).
Artifact and radiocarbon data are included in the summary as needed to clarify stratigraphic
relationships in the descriptions. More complete analyses of artifact, radiocarbon, and
ethnobotanical data are presented in the report sections immediately following the
stratigraphic summary. Detailed geoarchaeological descriptions are provided in Appendix D.
Three temporally and morphologically distinct components, including six strata, were
recognized in the sediment stratigraphy at the Peter House site (Figure 4-6). The oldest
component consisted of pre-Holocene age sediments that comprised the upper extent of the
remnant marine terrace hosting the archaeological site. The relevant sediments within the
oldest component included the 3Bw/3Bt and Cg2 strata. The uppermost portion of the
component, the Cg2 stratum, consisted of a sandy loam matrix supporting a minor content of
rounded marine cobbles. Prehistoric artifacts were recovered from this stratum, but they
represented intrusive cultural components. Across most of the site, this pre-Holocene
sequence was capped by historic period strata including a plow zone and modern overburden.
In the northern portion of the site, at the base of a northward trending slope, a gully feature
had incised the early sediments and had eventually filled with late-Holocene sediments.
The late-Holocene age sediments within the gully comprised the second major
sediment component at the site. This series ranged to 55 centimeters in thickness and
consisted of a gravely basal stratum, Cg1, overlain by redeposited fines which comprised a
midden-like deposit, including AC and Ab strata (Figure 4-7, 4-8). These strata represented
temporally discrete additions of fine-grained sediment and coarse-grained artifacts, the
sediment generally deposited as sheet wash or colluvium, and the artifacts by primary
deposition and by natural and cultural reworking of the gully deposits themselves. Variable
52
Figure 4-6. Cross Section through the Hill Side Containing the Peter House Site (view east with 4x vertical exaggeration).
53
historical – Ah Ah
Ab
late Holocene – AC
Cg1
pre-Holocene – Cg2
Figure 4-7. Stratigraphic Profile of Excavation Block, Peter House.
Figure 4-8. Stratigraphic Profile in Excavation Block at Base of Slope, Peter House.
54
rates of deposition were indicated by strata sedimentology, the degree of sediment

weathering, and the distributions of cultural materials.
The Cg1 stratum consisted of imbricate and bedded pebbles and gravels supported
within a silty sand matrix. Temporally diagnostic artifacts were dominated by Early
Woodland types. Radiocarbon data included a ceramic residue date (2210±50 BP) that was
consistent with the Early Woodland date of the ceramic ware from which it was derived, and
three dates from free carbon: a single late date (860±60 BP), which appeared to demonstrate
redeposition from the overlying Ab stratum; and two dates that were statistically identical
(1770±50 and 1800±50 BP), providing a probable maximum age assignment for deposition
of the stratum. Sediments in the overlying AC stratum reflected the gradual net accretion and
weathering of a fine-grained matrix. Diagnostic artifacts were dominated by Early
Woodland and Middle Woodland types, but included a substantial Late Woodland
component. Bracketing radiocarbon dates from the underlying stratum (Cg1) and the
overlying stratum (Ab) suggested that deposition of the AC stratum occurred between
approximately 1800 and 840 BP. The Ab stratum consisted of an intact A horizon of
prehistoric origin characterized by a relatively high content of fine-grained silt, clay,
charcoal, and organic matter, and by advanced soil formation. Diagnostic artifacts were
predominately Late Woodland in age, while organic residues derived from ceramic sherds
provided early Late Woodland dates of 980±60 and 850±40 BP. Two features were
documented in the deposit, Feature 363 and Feature 374, both consisting of fire-cracked rock
concentrations.
The youngest stratigraphic component at the site consisted of sediments deposited or

redeposited during the historic period. In the gully area, the intact prehistoric deposit (Ab)
was overlain by the Ah stratum, a series of sediments resulting from colluvial and alluvial
processes (Figure 4-7, 4-8). Colluvial elements exhibited fine-grained texture (loam), while
alluvial portions were relatively coarse-grained (sandy loam to loamy sand). Prehistoric
artifacts within this stratum were ultimately derived from older stratigraphic units, and thus
were in secondary deposition. Historical artifacts were also present, including building
debris and domestic glass, ceramic, metal, bone, shell, and wood artifacts that had similarly
eroded from older contexts. Two radiometric assays were made on charcoal from the base of
the Ah stratum. Both returned dates in the historic period: one modern (105.6±1.1%); the
second late eighteenth century (170±40 BP). A plow-disturbed Ap stratum directly overlay
the earliest, pre-Holocene component in the yard area upslope from the gully (Figure 4-6, 4-
9). Characterized as organic-enriched loam to sandy loam, the Ap stratum shared clear-to-
abrupt wavy contacts with the underlying marine terrace sediment (Cg2/3Bw/3Bt). It
contained prehistoric and historical artifacts, the latter typically nineteenth-century in date
and occurring in the uppermost levels of the deposit.
Overburden across the site consisted of an array of modern fills and demolition
debris. The layer ranged between 10 and 120 centimeters in depth, thicker toward the base of
the slope (Figure 4-6).
55
Ap
Cg2
Figure 4-9. Plow Zone (Ap) in Row House Area on Slope, Peter House
(view northeast).
4.5 Data Analyses
Features
Two features were documented at the Peter House site, Feature 363 and Feature 374,
both consisting of fire-cracked rock concentrations.
Feature 363. Feature 363 consisted of a concentration of fire-cracked rock and ceramic
sherds occurring near the east end of the excavation block (Figure 4-10). The soil matrix was
Figure 4-10. Feature 363, Peter House, Oblique View (partially excavated, facing south).
56
only slightly darker than the surrounding sediment, and little textural difference was noted.
Definition of the limits of the feature was based on artifact distributions. The feature was
oblong in plan, measuring approximately 3 meters in length and 1 meter wide (Figure 4-11).
In profile, it exhibited little demonstrable morphology, with no discernable pit excavation
associated with the artifact concentration (Figure 4-12). The maximum thickness of the fire-
cracked rock accumulation was less than 20 centimeters, while the majority of the material
was contained in one 10-centimeter level. The shape of the feature was indistinct in the wall
profiles of the excavation units that transected it, emphasizing the similarity between the
feature matrix and the surrounding sediments.
Figure 4-11. Feature 363, Peter House, Plan View.
The frequency distribution of diagnostic ceramics associated with Feature 363

suggested a Late Woodland date for the deposit. Townsend sherds constituted the major
component, making up 60 percent of the typed sherds, while Potomac Creek accounted for
30 percent of typed sherds. An AMS date of 850±40 BP was returned on residue from a Late
Woodland Townsend sherd from the feature. The date fell at the early end of the reported
date range for the type (Potter 1993; Dent 1995).
While no projectile points were associated with the feature, a drill was recovered that
had been manufactured on a finished, triangular biface: in all respects other than the distal
end, that had been fashioned into a drill bit, the biface conformed to descriptions of the Late
Woodland Levanna point type.
57
Evidence suggested that Feature 363 exhibited a degree of spatial integrity, both
horizontally and to a lesser extent vertically, implying relatively little postdepositional
disturbance. The presence of an undisturbed aggregate such as this in the Ab stratum
corroborated the notion that the entire stratum represented the remains of a comparatively
stable surface. While it was not clear, in the end, whether the material in the feature
represented primary or secondary refuse, the degree of spatial concentration demonstrated by
the fire-cracked rock fragments argued strongly for primary deposition. Ultimately, the
importance of the feature in the overall interpretation of the site lay as much in its implication
that depositional structure remained in this part of the midden as in specific activities that the
feature may have represented
Figure 4-12. Feature 363, Peter House, Profile Section (view west along 19 N grid line).
Feature 374. Feature 374 consisted of a concentration of fire-cracked rock and ceramic
sherds occurring in two units at the west end of the excavation block (Figure 4-13, 4-14).
The units were not aligned precisely with the site grid due to the presence of architectural
features associated with the nineteenth-century row houses (a basement stairwell and storm
drains along the former street front of K Street). These historical features prevented
exposure of Feature 374 beyond the limits of the two 1-m2 excavation units, and thus the
horizontal extent of the artifact concentration may not have been fully documented. Feature
374 exhibited little morphology in section profile other than a slight basin-like form to the
north, suggesting a shallow pit excavation (Figure 4-15).
Based on the relative frequencies of diagnostic artifacts, the feature was Late
Woodland in date, with Townsend sherds dominant among the ceramic sherds recovered,
along with three Late Woodland projectile points, including 2 Levanna and 1 untyped
triangle.
58
Figure 4-13. Feature 374, Peter House,

Oblique View Partially Exposed
(facing north).
utility trench / disturbed
fire-cracked
Figure 4-14. Feature 374, Peter rock
House, Plan View (view north).

mortar 20.15 N
brick
concrete
over
19.15 N
linoleum tile
5.5 E
4.5 E
0 1 2 FEET
0 25 50 CM
59
Figure 4-15. Feature 374, Peter House, Profile Section (view west along
4.5 E grid line).
Variations were recorded between Feature 374 and Feature 363 in attributes such as
fire-cracked rock density and the mean weights of individual raw material types among the
fragments. Yet, overall artifact content was comparable and the relative proportions of raw
materials were similar, suggesting that similar fire-related activities may have been
represented by the two features.
Radiocarbon Data
Dates were returned from eight samples submitted from the Peter House excavations,
including five assays from dispersed charcoal and three dates returned on ceramic residues
(Table 4-1). Figure 4-16 provides a comparative plot of the calibrated results for Woodland
period dates, displayed with a 95 percent (2-sigma) confidence interval.
Four AMS dates were derived from the basal deposit, the Cg1 stratum. The earliest
date, 2210±50 BP, was an AMS result from residue removed from the interior of a sherd
identified as Popes Creek. As indicated in the ceramic analysis section of the report, the date
was typical of the early portion of the accepted Popes Creek chronology. Two dates from
dispersed charcoal were somewhat later, 1800±50 BP and 1770±50 BP, yet supporting the
first half of the Middle Woodland as the date range for the deposit. The fourth date from the
Cg1, from a sample of dispersed charcoal collected in the initial level of the stratum, was
60
later still, 860±60 BP. Given the first three dates from the deposit, as well as artifact
seriation which supported the earlier dates as characteristic of the Cg1, this later date was
considered out of sequence, and the charcoal was assumed to have originated in the overlying
sediments.
Sample Radiocarbon Calibrated Results

Provenience Material Analysis Age (2 sigma) Sample Number
dispersed radiometric- (modern - not

N19/E19 Ah charcoal standard 105.6±1.1% calibrated) Beta-95444
dispersed
N21/E12 Ah charcoal AMS 170±40 BP AD 1655-1950 Beta-104467
N20/E18 Ab ceramic AD 1055-1090

(Feature 363) residue AMS 850±40 BP Beta-113868
AD 1150-1270
dispersed radiometric-
N20/E19 Cg1 charcoal standard 860±60 BP AD 1030-1280 Beta-95867
ceramic
N21/E9 Ab residue AMS 980±60 BP AD 975-1205 Beta 113869
dispersed
N22/E14 Cg1 charcoal AMS 1770±50 BP AD 135-405 Beta-104468
dispersed
N21/E14 Cg1 charcoal AMS 1800±50 BP AD 110-380 Beta-113876
ceramic
N21/E16 Cg1 residue AMS 2210±50 BP 115-385 BC Beta 113870
Table 4-1. Radiocarbon Dates, Peter House Block Excavation (arranged in chronological order).
Two AMS dates were returned from residues on ceramic sherds typed as Potomac
Creek and recovered from the Ab stratum: 980±60 BP and 850±40 BP. The dates implied
an early Late Woodland date for the deposit. The implications of the dates for the accepted
chronology of the ceramic ware are detailed in the ceramic section of the report. The final
two dates were from dispersed charcoal in the Ah, or wash deposits. Samples were taken
from these deposits to determine whether the erosional episodes from which they resulted
occurred during the prehistoric period. The first date was reported as 105.6±1.1% modern,
indicating that it postdated the reference standard and contained carbon generated in the last
40 years. The second was reported as 170±40 BP. The results implied that the wash deposits
were indeed historical, and that while there was obviously modern carbon present, the
erosion represented in the wash may have occurred during the early to mid-eighteenth
century.
Pairwise significance tests for contemporaneity (Thomas 1976:249-50) were run on

the prehistoric dates from the deposits. The statistic calculated for the tests was the t-ratio,
and the calculations were conducted on uncalibrated dates. With the rejection region at $ =
.01 and infinite degrees of freedom, the table value of t is 2.58. The results of the tests are
presented in Table 4-2. Statistically significant comparisons, suggesting contemporaneity,
are highlighted. The tests implied that, based on their probability distributions, the samples
from the Ab stratum, as well as the 860±60 BP date from the Cg1, were potentially
contemporary. The data further implied that the bulk of the Ab deposit had accumulated
61
1400
1200
a.
1000 b.
c.
800
600
400
200
AD d. e.
0
BC
200
400
f.
600
a.) Ab (F363) ceramic residue
b.) Cg1
c.) Ab ceramic residue
d.) Cg1
e.) Cg1
f. ) Cg1 ceramic residue
Figure 4-16. Plot of Radiocarbon Data from the Peter House Block
Excavation (using 2-sigma calibrated ranges and conventional age–calibration
curve intercept).
during the early part of the Late Woodland period. The tight grouping of these dates
provided additional indication that the 860±60 BP date from the Cg1 deposit resulted from
material intrusive from the overlying Ab. Potential contemporaneity was also implied
between two of the Middle Woodland dates from the Cg1 deposit, suggesting a date early in
the sub-period for the occupations recorded in that stratum. The residue date of 2210%50 BP
indicated earlier use of the site than was implied by dates from the general stratigraphic
provenience.
62
Ab (F-363) 850%40 0.00

Cg1 860%60 0.14 0.00
Ab 980%60 1.80 1.41 0.00
Cg1 1770%50 14.37 11.65 10.11 0.00
Cg1 1800%50 14.84 12.04 10.50 0.42 0.00
Cg1 2210%50 21.24 17.28 15.75 6.22 5.80 0.00
850%40 860%60 980%60 1770%50 1800%50 2210%50
Table 4-2. Pairwise Tests for Contemporaneity of Radiocarbon Dates, Peter

House Block Excavation (highlighted calculations indicate implied contemporaneity).
Ethnobotanical Remains
Seeds. Charred and uncharred seed remains were recovered from flotation samples taken
from several proveniences within the Peter House excavation block. Only charred materials
were assumed to have been prehistoric in origin. Table 4-3 summarizes the findings. Brief
descriptions of ethnographically documented uses of the plants follow.
identification provenience
seeds
Vitis 20N 20E Feature 363
20N 20E Feature 363
Galium
21N 14E Ab
Phytolacca americana 20N 20E Feature 363
unidentified 21N 14E Ab
Table 4-3. Charred Seeds Identified in Peter House

Flotation Samples.
Galium, or bedstraw, is found in rich, moist soils particularly among thickets in low-
lying areas. Medicinally, Galium was used as a diuretic and to treat pulmonary complaints
and skin disorders such as eczema or ringworm. The leaves are aromatic and can be used as
bedding (thus its common name), while a purple dye can be obtained from the roots of the
plant (Erichsen-Brown 1979; Moermann 1986). Phytolacca americana, or pokeweed, occurs
in rich, gravelly soils in clearings and disturbed areas. While most parts of the mature plant
contain an alkaloid, phytolaccine, that is poisonous, shoots and ripe berries are edible when
cooked. The root was used as an emetic, a laxative, and to treat fever (Moermann 1986).
Wild grape, Vitis, is a vine that is often found in at the edges of clearings and in wooded
settings. Both the leaves and fruit are edible: the leaves when cooked; the fruit either raw or
dried. The leaves were also used for poultices and bandages, while other plant parts were
used to treat diarrhea, bleeding, and as a diuretic (Densmore 1928; Moermann 1986).
Charcoal. Fragments of charcoal from general stratigraphic levels as well as from one of the
fire-cracked rock concentrations in the Ab stratum, Feature 363, were submitted for wood
species identification, and the results are presented in Table 4-4. The material included
charcoal recovered in flotation samples and individual fragments from the feature.
63
Oak (Quercus) and dogwood (Cornus) were the most heavily represented woods
among the charcoal fragments identified in the Peter House deposits. The genus Quercus
includes a number of species that occur in the Middle Atlantic and Northeast. Most bear
nuts, or acorns. Ethnographic accounts indicate that acorns were used as a food source,
although extensive processing was needed to remove tannin from the nutmeat in order to
render it edible. Some of the more common species of oak occurring in charcoal samples
from the site, including red oak and white oak, are typically found in rich, moist soils near
streams, and often in pure stands (Little 1980; Peattie 1991).
Dogwood (Cornus) is a relatively small, understory tree, slow growing, with very
hard wood that could be used for tools and weapons (Peattie 1991). Red and black dyes were
made from the inner and outer bark (Densmore 1928), while infusions from the root were
commonly used as a tonic, or to treat fevers and eye infections (Densmore 1928; Moermann
1986).
wood charcoal
provenience
identification
Aesculus 21N 14E Ab
Carya 21N 14E Ab
20N 20E Feature 363
Cornus 21N 12E Ah
21N 14E Cg1
21N 16E Cg2
Fraxinus 21N 14E Ab
20N 20E Feature 363
Juglans 21N 14E Ab
20N 20E Feature 363
Morus 20N 20E Feature 363
Platanus 20N 20E Feature 363
20N 16E Cg1
Quercus – red 21N 14E Ab
20N 20E Feature 363, AC
20N 16E Cg2
Quercus - white 20N 20E Feature 363
Table 4-4. Wood Charcoal Identified from the Peter House
Excavations (listed in alphabetical order).
Hickory, or Carya, is a common component of mixed hardwood forests in the Middle

Atlantic and Northeast regions, and ethnographic accounts suggest that the wood, bark, and
nuts of the tree were widely used throughout its geographic range. Hickory nuts ripen in the
fall, and were probably gathered early in the season in competition with nut collecting
animals. Processing the nuts usually entailed shelling and boiling, with the nutmeat and
resulting oil used as foodstuffs. Infusions from the bark were used as an astringent and
dressing for cuts and as a general tonic (Tantaquidgeon 1942; Moermann 1986). The oil was
also mixed with animal fat to protect against mosquitoes (Erichsen-Brown 1979). The
nutshells were also burned as fuel. The most common species of hickory with edible nuts is
the shagbark hickory (Carya ovata). Its bark makes excellent tinder, and the wood itself
burns very hot: it has been estimated that a cord of hickory produces nearly the equivalent
thermal units of a ton of anthracite coal (Peattie 1991:136). Hickory was occasionally used
64
to fashion mortars, chosen both for its hardness and for the flavor it lent to flour (Sawnton
1946). Shagbark hickory is mesophytic, found in moist bottomlands along major steams,
although along with other hickory species, it may also be found on dry, well-drained upland
slopes and ridges. Hickories often occur in groves in mixed hardwood forests (Little 1980;
Peattie 1991).
Ethnographic accounts suggest that in comparison with hickory, Native American use
of the several species of walnut genus, Juglans, was considerably less extensive (Reidhead
1980). Nuts of species such as the black walnut (Juglans nirga) or butternut (Juglans
cinerea) typically ripen from early fall through mid-winter—by early winter the shells have
softened and rotted, and are easy to open. Nutmeats were eaten raw or cooked, but the oil
was reportedly seldom used because of difficulties in completely removing the bitter husk.
Walnut bark was used as an emetic and laxative, or to treat certain skin disorders (Moermann
1986). Butternut bark was used for headaches, toothaches, and rheumatism. It yielded a
yellow dye that, during the Euro-Colonial period and later, was used to color homespun
cloth, lending a popular name to Confederate soldiers during the Civil War (Foote 1974).
Species of the walnut genus are typically found scattered singly within mixed hardwood
forests, often favoring mesic habitats such as rich bottomland. Butternut may also occur on
drier, rocky slopes (Little 1980; Peattie 1991).
Species of the genus Fraxinus, or ash, are members of the family Oleaceae. Several
species, including White ash (Fraxinus americana), Black or Basket Ash (Fraxinus nigra),
and Green or Swamp Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), have ranges throughout the eastern
U.S., and are found in wet alluvial soils or swampy areas. While the wood of most species is
very hard when dried, Black Ash is easily split into tough splints for weaving (Peattie 1991).
The bark of the Black Ash was used as a covering for shelters, and the inner bark and root of
various species were used as a tonic and as a hunting medicine, in the latter instance chewed
to induce vomiting for ritual cleansing (Densmore 1928; Moermann 1986).
The buck-eye (Aesculus), also referred to as the horsechestnut, comprises 15 species,

six of which are native to the eastern U.S. Most have modern ranges confined to the
Southeast. The Ohio Buckeye (Aesculus glabra), Yellow or Sweet Buckeye (Aesculus
octandra), and Red Buckeye (Aesculus pavia) extend northward into Pennsylvania. The
species are mesophytic, favoring moist floodplain soils. The seeds and shoots of the buckeye
are toxic and were used to poison water as a means of collecting fish (Tantaquidgeon 1942).
When roasted or boiled to remove the toxins, the seeds produced a nutritious foodstuff (Little
1980), while infusions from the nut or bark were used for a variety of complaints including
rheumatism, toothache, and hemorrhoids (Moermann 1986).
The sycamore (Platanus) is a shade tree which grows to the largest trunk diameter of
any native hardwood in the eastern U.S. Its habitat range generally includes rich bottom-
lands along stream banks and in floodplain settings, and it may dominate mixed forests
(Little 1980). Tea made from the bark was widely used as an emetic or as a purgative for
women during menses, and to treat colds and respiratory ailments (Tantaquidgeon 1942;
Moermann 1986).
65
The mulberry family (Morus) is characterized by low, wide trees that typically grow
isolated in hardwood forests, preferring rich, moist bottomland (Duncan and Duncan 1988).
The wood is soft, but tough and durable—it was used historically for fence posts. Species
such as red mulberry have sweet edible fruit. White mulberry fruit is less appealing, but the
inner bark is fibrous, producing material from which textiles could be woven (Grimm 2000).
Phytoliths. Phytoliths are silica bodies produced by plants. They are durable, resistant to
decay, and are deposited in the soil as the plant dies and its organic components deteriorate.
Residues taken from the interior surfaces of three ceramic sherds from the site were
examined for the presence of phytoliths and/or starches. One sample, from a Potomac Creek
sherd dated 980±60 BP (#1357-1), contained phytoliths representing grasses (Poacecae),
including a smooth, elongate form typical of a wide variety of grasses, and a buliform type
produced by grasses in wet habitats. In addition, sponge spicules were identified. Sponge
spicules were also identified in residue from a second Potomac Creek sherd, dated 850±40
BP. Residue from a Popes Creek sherd, dated 2210±50 BP, contained buliform phytoliths
and a dicot bulky phytolith, the latter common in conifers. Sponge spicules identified in the
residues suggest the presence of water in close association with the ceramics. While this
finding, along with the presence of grassy phytoliths, could have been related to the use of
the ceramic containers—cooking flour made from grass seed, for example, or boiling grasses
for infusions or aromatics—it was as likely related to environmental contamination.
Artifacts
In total, 11,050 artifacts were recovered from the excavation of prehistoric contexts at
the Peter House. Of these, 1,151 were historical and 9,899 were prehistoric. The latter
included 5,898 chipped stone artifacts, 2,737 fragments of fire-cracked rock, 11 pieces of
ground or pecked stone, 1,199 ceramic sherds, and 54 fragments of fired clay. General
descriptive statistics associated with the artifacts are summarized below on the basis of three
separate areas of the site: 1) the yard deposits behind the Peter House, near the top of the
slope; 2) the deposits beneath the row houses west of the Peter House foundation, upslope
from the gully; and 3) the excavation block in the gully at the base of the slope, north of the
row house structures. The analysis is reported by artifact type and raw material. Prehistoric
artifacts from historic period contexts are not included in the totals and were not analyzed as
part of the Peter House site assemblages. Scattered bone and shell were not calcined and
thus were presumed to be historical.
Yard Deposits. Of a total of 783 artifacts recovered from excavation units in the yard area
of the Peter House, 335 were historical and 448 prehistoric. Summary statistics are presented
in Tables 4-5 through 4-7. The historical artifacts included building debris that was likely
related to demolition of the structures remaining on the property in the 1960s, along with an
assortment of domestic and personal items ranging in date from the turn of the nineteenth
century to the mid-twentieth century. Among prehistoric artifacts, over 85 percent (n=382)
consisted of chipped stone debris, with the remainder comprised of fire-cracked rock (12
percent, n=52), and ceramic sherds (3 percent, n=14). Chronologically diagnostic artifacts
included a Late Woodland projectile point (Levanna) and Early and Late Woodland ceramic
66
architectural domestic
brick 37 ceramic 39
window glass 93 glass 32
mortar, plaster, lime 9 lamp chimney 1
roofing slate 19 coal/clinker 19
nails, etc. 32 tobacco pipe 3
drainpipe 5 buttons 2
bone/shell 30
miscellaneous 14
Total 335
Table 4-5. Historical Artifact Type Distribution, Peter

House Yard Excavations.
artifact type count frequency raw material count frequency

flake 366 82% quartzite 185 48%
chip 9 2% quartz 168 44%
core 1 <1% cryptocrystalline 22 6%
biface 4 1% rhyolite 7 2%
point 1 <1% total 382
drill 1 <1%
Table 4-7. Chipped Stone Raw
fire-cracked rock 52 12% Material Distribution, Peter House
ceramic vessel 14 3% Yard Excavations.
total 448
Table 4-6. Prehistoric Artifact Type

Distribution, Peter House Yard
Excavations.
sherds (1 Accokeek, 5 Townsend, and 1 Potomac Creek). Raw material types among the
flaking debris included quartzite, quartz, cryptocrystalline (chert and jasper), and rhyolite, in
descending order of frequency of occurrence. Considering the mixed provenience of the
deposits in this part of the site, additional detailed artifact analyses were not conducted.
Row House Deposits. Of 469 artifacts recovered from excavation units in the row house
area west of the Peter House, 323 were historical and 146 prehistoric. The historical
artifacts, as in the yard area, included building debris related to demolition of the structures
remaining on the property in the 1960s, and an assortment of domestic and personal items
ranging in date from the turn of the nineteenth century to the twentieth century (Table 4-8).
Of the prehistoric artifacts, 86 percent (n=130) consisted of chipped stone debris, with the
remainder comprised of fire-cracked rock (7 percent, n=11) and ceramic sherds (7 percent,
n=10) (Table 4-9). Chronologically diagnostic artifacts included an Early Woodland
(steatite-tempered) ceramic sherd, and seven Late Woodland sherds (5 Townsend, 2 Potomac
Creek). Raw material types among the flaking debris included quartz, quartzite, and
siltstone, in descending order of frequency (Table 4-10). Considering the mixed provenience
67
of the deposits in this part of the site, additional detailed artifact analyses were not
conducted.
architectural domestic
brick 2 ceramic 24
window glass 87 glass 27
mortar, plaster 4 lamp chimney 1
roofing slate 1 coal/clinker 3
nails, etc. 18 tobacco pipe 3
drainpipe 1 buttons 2
bone/shell 139
miscellaneous 11
Total 323
Table 4-8. Historical Artifact Type Distribution,

Row House Excavations.
artifact type count frequency raw material count frequency

flake 115 79% quartz 72 57%
chip 6 4% quartzite 47 38%
biface 4 3% siltstone 6 5%
fire-cracked rock 11 7% total 130
ceramic vessel 10 7%
total 146 Material Distribution, Row House
Table 4-9. Prehistoric Artifact Type Excavations.
Distribution, Row House Excavations.
Excavation Block. Of 9,798 artifacts recovered from the Peter House block excavation, 493
were historical and 9,305 prehistoric. Most of the historical artifacts—over 90 percent—
occurred in the wash deposit (Stratum Ah) at the top of the stratigraphic profile, as detailed
below. Of the prehistoric artifacts from the block, 58 percent (n=5,391) consisted of
chipped stone debris. The remainder comprised fire-cracked rock (29 percent, n=2,674);
ceramic sherds (13 percent, n=1,175); and ground or pecked stone (less than 1 percent,
n=11). In addition, 54 fragments of fired clay without vessel attributes were recovered,
accounting for less than 1 percent of the prehistoric artifact sample. The major raw material
types among the flaking debris consisted of quartzite and quartz, with lesser amounts of
rhyolite, siltstone, and chert. Small amounts of jasper, argillite, greenstone, and hornfels
were also present.
68
Stratigraphic Components. Detailed descriptive analyses of artifacts from the block were
grouped by main stratigraphic component, beginning with the Ah stratum. Within each
component, summary descriptions of lithics are provided, including data on points (for
chronological implications) and other lithic objects, followed by summary descriptions of
ceramic artifacts. A sample of diagnostic points is illustrated for each main provenience.
Additional details concerning diagnostic lithics are included in Appendix B. Detailed
information related to selected ceramic artifacts, including data on temper mineralogy and
cordage twist, are included in Appendix B, H, and I.
Ah Stratum. Stratigraphic analysis indicated that the Ah stratum was a redeposited layer
composed mainly of colluvium, or sheet wash. As such, most of the artifacts contained in the
stratum were in secondary deposition, and distinct assemblages could not be confidently
identified. Thus, the descriptions that follow are less detailed than for the remaining artifacts
from the excavation.
In total, 3,141 artifacts were recovered from the Ah stratum, including 363 historical
and 2,778 prehistoric artifacts. The historical artifacts in this uppermost layer, were similar
in relative frequency and description to those recovered in the yard and row house areas and
are not detailed on a table. They included building debris and an assortment of domestic and
personal items ranging in date from the turn of the nineteenth century to the twentieth
century. Of the prehistoric artifacts, 72 percent consisted of chipped stone (n=2,015), 20
percent fire-cracked rock (n=547), eight percent ceramic (n=211), and less than one percent
ground or pecked stone (n=3) (Table 4-11). Four fragments of fired clay without vessel
attributes were also recovered. Quartzite was the dominant lithic raw material among the
chipped stone flaking debris (Table 4-12), with quartz a minor component, and small
amounts of rhyolite, siltstone, cryptocrystalline (chert and jasper), and ironstone also present.
artifact type count frequency material count frequency

flake 1,889 68% quartzite 1387 69%
core 12 <1% rhyolite 45 2%
point 18 1% cryptocrystalline 18 1%
drill 4 <1% ironstone 1 <1%
celt 2 <1% total 2,013
hammerstone 1 <1%
fire-cracked rock 547 20% Table 4-12. Chipped Stone Raw
Material Distribution, Peter House
Excavation Block, Ah Stratum.
fired clay 4 <1%
total 2,778

Distribution, Peter House Excavation
Block, Ah Stratum.
69
Points. Eighteen points were recovered from the Ah stratum, including four that were
diagnostic of the Archaic period, six diagnostic of the Woodland period, and eight that were
too fragmentary to be typed (Figure 4-17). Among the Archaic forms recognized in the
group were two long, narrow-bladed Holmes (both quartzite); a shorter, wider Bare Island
(quartz); and an stemmed specimen which, although untyped, had attributes including size
and raw material (quartzite) characteristic of the Late Archaic. Several of the points
exhibited distal fractures suggesting damage from impact. Woodland period points included
a short and wide stemmed Calvert (quartz), and five triangles, of which four were related to
Levanna (one quartz, two quartzite, and one jasper). Eight point fragments recovered from
the Ah stratum were too small to be typed morphologically, but exhibited characteristics such
as finely flaked edges indicating that the fragments were derived from finished bifaces.
Seven specimens were cataloged as distal fragments, or point tips—five quartzite, one
quartz, and one rhyolite. One fragment consisted of the medial or blade segment of a quartz
Figure 4-17. Sample of Points from Ah Stratum, Peter House (top row: Holmes [1184-2,
1456-5]; Calvert [1387-2]; bottom row: Levanna [1247-2, 1458-1]).
point.
Other Chipped Stone. Twenty bifaces from the Ah stratum were classed as early stage: 12
quartzite, six quartz, one chert, and one hornfels. An additional 19 were classed as late stage:
seven quartzite, 11 quartz, and one rhyolite. Four drills or drill fragments were recovered,
70
including a complete specimen fashioned on a triangular chert point similar to the Levanna
type, and three distal fragments, two of quartz and one of rhyolite. All of the specimens bore
narrow, parallel-sided bits; two were alternately beveled, one was symmetrically beveled.
Proximal ends terminated at bending or preverse snap breaks characteristic of use in a prying
or twisting motion.
Twelve cores were recovered from the Ah stratum, seven quartz and five quartzite.
The quartz specimens included four bipolar cores, two freehand, multi-directional cores, and
one tested cobble. While the bipolar pieces consisted mainly of small, pebble cores, one was
large (70 millimeters in length). One of the smallest pieces bore crushed platforms on more
than one pair of edges, as evidence of flaking from several directions. The artifact was an
example of an exhausted core, referred to in other contexts as a pièce esquillé (MacDonald
1968; Lothrop and Gramly 1982). Four of the quartzite cores were freehand, multi-
directional, with no patterned flaking apparent. Two of the largest specimens bore evidence
of additional or secondary use as hammerstones or heavy mauls, in the form of extensive
battering of the original, cortical surface along a protruding obtuse angle. The fifth quartzite
core was a large, tested cobble.
Given the secondary nature of the contexts in the Ah stratum, analysis of flaking
debris from the deposit was not conducted beyond the general accounting of raw material
distribution shown in Table 4-12.
Ground or Pecked Stone. One complete celt and one celt fragment, both of dense
greenstone, were recovered from the Ah stratum. In addition, one quartzite hammerstone
was present in the deposit.
Ceramics. Of the 211 ceramic sherds recovered from the Ah stratum, 94 were sufficiently
distinct in attributes to be catalogued according to accepted ware descriptions (Table 4-13).
All of the major ceramic wares recovered from the site were represented in the deposit: 86
percent of the typed sherds were Late Woodland, eight percent Middle Woodland, and six
percent Early Woodland. Cordage twist was identified on nine sherds from the Ah stratum.
ware count frequency cordage twist

s-twist z-twist
Accokeek 6 3% 1 2
Mockley 4 2% 1 --
Popes Creek 3 1% 1 --
Potomac Creek 15 7% -- --
Townsend 66 31% 1 3
untyped 117 56% -- --
total 211 4 5
Table 4-13. Ceramic Ware Distribution in Ah Stratum.
71
Fire-Cracked Rock. The Ah stratum contained 547 fragments of fire-cracked rock, weighing
a total of 12.0 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 110 grams). Approximately 50 percent of
the fragments were quartzite, an additional 24 percent siltstone, and 17 percent quartz, along
with a small amount of sandstone, schist, and chert.
Ab Stratum. In total, 4,044 artifacts were recovered from the Ab stratum, including 17
historical and 4,027 prehistoric artifacts. The historical artifacts are not detailed in a table,
but included small fragments of brick, wood, a copper pin, a small redware sherd, and several
bits of oyster shell and animal bone. Of the prehistoric artifacts, 51 percent consisted of
chipped stone (n=2,054), 31 percent fire-cracked rock (n=1,245), 18 percent ceramic
(n=724), and less than 1 percent ground or pecked stone (n=2) (Table 4-14). Two fragments
of fired clay without vessel attributes were also recovered. Quartzite was the dominant lithic
raw material among the chipped stone flaking debris (Table 4-15). Quartz was an important
minor component, and small amounts of rhyolite, siltstone, chert, jasper, and argillite were
present.

flake 1859 46% quartzite 1,166 57%
core 30 <1% rhyolite 52 2%
point 33 1% cryptocrystalline 17 1%
drill 3 <1% argillite 1 <1%
uniface 2 <1% total 2,054
celt 1 <1%
hammerstone 1 <1% Table 4-15. Chipped Stone Raw
2 Material Distribution, Peter House
steatite vessel <1%
Excavation Block, Ab Stratum.
fire-cracked rock 1245 31%
fired clay 2 <1%
total 4,027

Block, Ab Stratum.
Points. Thirty-three points were recovered from the Ab stratum, including two that were
diagnostic of the Archaic period, 17 diagnostic of the Woodland period, one that was
untyped, and 13 untyped fragments (Figure 4-18). Among the Archaic forms were a side-
notched Otter Creek (quartz), and an expanding stemmed Orient Fishtail (quartzite).
Woodland period points included five Calvert (all quartz); one contracting stemmed
Piscataway (quartzite); two side-notched Selby Bay (rhyolite); and nine triangles, including
two Madison (1 quartz, 1 chert), two Levanna (quartzite), and five untyped triangles (3
quartz, 2 quartzite). The untyped point was small, stemmed chert specimen. Thirteen
fragments recovered from the Ab stratum could not be typed morphologically, but exhibited
72
characteristics such as finely flaked edges indicating that the fragments were derived from
Figure 4-18. Sample of Points from Ab Stratum, Peter House (top row: Otter
Creek [1060-3]; Fishtail [1369-1]; Piscataway [1460-1]; bottom row: Selby Bay [1033-2,
1414-1]; Madison [1186-1, 1357-7];
finished bifaces. Ten specimens were cataloged as distal fragments, or point tips—six
quartzite, three quartz, and one rhyolite; three were catalogued as medial fragments—two
quartz and one rhyolite).
Other Chipped Stone. The Ab stratum contained 33 early stage and 33 late stage bifaces.
Quartzite was slightly more prevalent than quartz among early stage bifaces, while quartz
outnumbered quartzite late stage bifaces by a factor of two-to-one. The frequency of
occurrence of fragments was greater among early stage bifaces, probably reflecting more
hard-hammer percussion, more knapping mistakes, and the use of a higher proportion of
unsorted raw material than in later manufacturing stages, each factor leading to an increased
incidence of breakage. The frequency of occurrence of highly fragmented bifaces was not
substantially greater among quartz than quartzite. This finding was unexpected, given the
73
flaws and incipient fracture planes typical of quartz which can lead to more complex and
perverse failures than are typically seen among quartzite bifaces. The finding may reflect
brittleness in the local quartzite.
Three drills or drill fragments were recovered from the Ab stratum, including two
complete specimens: one fashioned on a small triangular point of quartzite; the second on a
short, straight-stemmed point of quartz. The third specimen was a long, distal fragment of
rhyolite.
Two unifacial tools were identified among the chipped stone artifacts from the Ab
stratum: a small, bipolar quartz pebble fragment with part of the split edge trimmed to form
a convex bit; and a larger quartz flake fragment with a convex bit.
Of 30 cores recovered from the deposit, 18 were quartz and 12 quartzite. Most of the
quartz cores were characterized by highly flawed crystalline material, exhibiting angular and
essentially unpatterned flake scars. A higher frequency of bipolar reduction was recognized
among quartz cores in comparison to quartzite cores. This finding implied that quartz was
typically procured in smaller nodules than quartzite, since bipolar percussion can be the most
expedient way to initiate the reduction of small cores. The evidence of bipolar reduction
probably reflected the size distribution of raw material in local gravel deposits.
The frequency distributions of raw material types among bifacial tools forms, cores,
and flaking debris, the latter including flakes and chips, were examined for the Ab stratum
overall (Table 4-16). At the stratum-wide level, analysis was limited to raw material
frequencies in order to provide a general assessment of the character of the lithic material in
the deposit. Additional attribute analyses, including flake size and cortical frequency
distributions, were conducted for particular artifact clusters in a section of the report below
detailing the results of spatial analyses.
material flaking debris bifaces points cores

argillite <1% -- -- --
cryptocrystalline 1% 5% 6% --
jasper <1% -- -- --
quartzite 58% 42% 35% 40%
quartz 38% 51% 47% 60%
rhyolite 2% 2% 12% --
siltstone 1% -- -- --
n= 1,921 62 33 30
Table 4-16. Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking

Debris, Bifacial Tools, and Cores in Ab Stratum.
Differences were apparent between flaking debris and bifacial tools among certain
material types. Quartzite, for example, accounted for the majority of the debitage, but a
considerably smaller percentage of the bifaces or points. In contrast, quartz represented a
lower frequency of debitage but a higher proportion of bifaces and points. The finding may
74
reflect the knapping quality of the raw materials: quartzite is hard and coarse-grained, and
may have been perceived as less suitable than quartz for biface manufacture. Following this
argument, the data imply that quartzite was used more regularly for flake tool production.
That the situation was actually more complex than suggested by this scenario is evidenced by
a higher frequency of quartz cores in relation to quartzite, implying that several reduction
strategies were represented. In a related observation, the frequencies of chert and rhyolite
bifacial tools, especially points, were highly disproportionate to flaking debris frequencies of
these materials. This finding implies artifacts made from that the materials were typically
brought to the site in finished form, and that the flaking debris consisted of the remains of
knapping associated with tool refurbishing. The results of size grade distribution analyses,
reported below with the spatial analyses, supported this interpretation.
Eight utilized flakes were recorded in the Ab flake assemblage. Five were quartz,
including three showing unifacial wear or retouch, one with bifacial retouch, one with a
rounded edge. Three additional flakes were quartzite, two with unifacial retouch, and one
with a rounded edge.
Ground or Pecked Stone. One small, schist celt fragment was recovered from the Ab
stratum. An abraded area located at one end of the specimen and oriented across the long
axis, suggested the possibility of haft wear. Two fragments from a steatite vessel were also
present. The fragments refit along a weathered edge, and while they bore evidence of
smoothing indicating that they had been worked, they were of insufficient size to allow
estimation of vessel dimensions or other characteristics. Finally, one quartzite hammerstone
was also present in the deposit.
Ceramics. In total, 722 ceramic sherds were recovered from the Ab stratum. Slightly more
that one-half (n=371) were sufficiently distinct in attributes to be catalogued according to
accepted ware descriptions (Table 4-17). All of the major ceramic wares recovered from the
site were represented in the deposit. In addition, a distinctive ware tempered with limonite
was present in the deposit (see Appendix B, H for detailed description). The sherds shared
attributes with Popes Creek (scraped interior, net-impressed exterior, quartz temper), as well
as Mockley (net-impressed exterior, shell temper), and therefore were considered Middle
Woodland in date. One unusual sherd was a quartz-tempered, dentate-stamped specimen
reminiscent of types related to Point Peninsula, diagnostic of the Middle Woodland in New
York (Ritchie 1994). Chronologically, 80 percent of the typed sherds in the Ab stratum were
Late Woodland in date, 16 percent Middle Woodland, and four percent Early Woodland.
Cordage twist was identified on 29 sherds from the Ab stratum, with results detailed in Table
4-17. Most of the sherds with final s-twist were Early or Middle Woodland, most with final
z-twist were Late Woodland. Both of the untyped sherds with final s-twist were schist-
tempered.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The Ab stratum contained 1,245 fragments of fire-cracked rock,

weighing a total of 101.8 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 82 grams). Approximately 44
percent of the fragments were quartzite, an additional 24 percent siltstone, while sandstone,
quartz, schist, and jasper comprised the remainder.
75
ware count proportion cordage twist

s-twist z-twist
Selden Island 1 <1% -- --
Accokeek 14 2% 4 3
limonite-tempered 7 <1% 1 --
Mockley 21 3% 6 1
Popes Creek 31 4% -- --
Potomac Creek 76 11% -- 6
Townsend 228 31% -- 6
untyped 344 49% 2 --
total 722 13 16
Table 4-17. Ceramic Ware Distribution in Ab Stratum.
AC Stratum. In total, 1,511 artifacts were recovered from the AC stratum across the
excavation block, including nine historical and 1,502 prehistoric artifacts. The historical
artifacts included small bits of brick, window glass, and bottle glass, and one small oyster
shell fragment. Of the prehistoric artifacts, 53 percent consisted of chipped stone (n=797),
35 percent fire-cracked rock (n=522), 12 percent ceramics (n=175), and ground stone less
than one percent (n=1) (Table 4-18). Seven fragments of fired clay without vessel attributes
were also recovered. Quartzite was the dominant raw material among flaking debris, while
quartz comprised a significant sub-component (Table 4-19). Siltstone, rhyolite, argillite, and
cryptocrystalline(chert and jasper) were also present in small quantities.

core 6 <1% siltstone 9 1%
point 14 1% argillite 4 <1%
uniface 1 <1% cryptocrystalline 5 <1%
anvil 1 <1% total 797
fired clay
7 1%
Excavation Block, AC Stratum.
total 1,502

Block, AC Stratum.
Points. Fourteen points were recovered from the AC stratum, including four that were
diagnostic of the Archaic period, eight diagnostic of the Woodland period, one untyped, and
two that were too fragmentary to be typed (Figure 4-19). Among the Archaic forms in the
76
group were two Bare Island (quartz) one Poplar Island/Lackawaxen (rhyolite), and a
stemmed specimen of quartzite. Woodland period points included a side-notched Selby Bay
(rhyolite); a contracting stemmed Piscataway (quartzite); two Calvert (quartz); a small,
generalized side-notched point (quartz); and three Levanna (2 quartz, 1 rhyolite). Two
fragments recovered from the AC stratum were too small to be typed morphologically, but
exhibited characteristics such as finely flaked edges indicating that the fragments were
derived from finished bifaces. They were cataloged as a distal fragment (quartzite) and a
medial fragment (rhyolite).
Figure 4-19. Sample of Points from AC Stratum, Peter House (top row: Poplar
Island/Lackawaxen [1435-1]; untyped Late Archaic stemmed [1027-9]; Bare Island [1339-2,
1307-2]; bottom row: Piscataway [1156-1]; Calvert [1260-1]; Woodland side-notched [1416-1];
Selby Bay [1426-1]; Levanna [1453-18]).
Other Chipped Stone. Sixteen early stage and 20 late stage bifaces were present in the AC
stratum. As in the overlying Ab stratum, the frequency of occurrence of untypable fragments
was somewhat greater among early stage bifaces, probably reflecting more use of hard-
hammer percussion and unsorted raw material than among late stage bifaces. In addition,
quartz was more prevalent among late stage bifaces, implying differential selection of raw
77
material for the production of specific tool forms. Fragmentation rates were similar for both
materials, suggesting that knapping success was not a significant factor in the material
distributions among reduction stages.
One unifacial tool was present, formed on a large, cortical quartzite flake that had
been trimmed at the distal end to produce a convex edge. No wear, such as step fracturing or
undercutting, was apparent at the macroscopic level of observation. Of six cores recovered
from the deposit, four were quartz, two quartzite. Most of the quartz cores were
characterized by highly flawed crystalline material, bearing angular and essentially
unpatterned flake scars: two were small, bipolar cores; one was a large core with multi-
directional flaking; and one was a tested cobble. One of the quartzite specimens was bipolar.
The frequency distributions of raw material types among bifacial tools forms, cores,
and flaking debris for the AC stratum are presented in Table 4-20, providing a general
assessment of the character of the lithic material in the deposit. The proportion of quartzite
flaking debris in the AC stratum relative to bifaces and points was greater than the same
proportions among quartz artifacts, possibly implying that crystalline materials were more
commonly used for the production of bifacial edges. Yet, the relatively small number of
points raises the possibility of sampling bias as a factor and complicates generalized
interpretations. The low frequency of rhyolite and cryptocrystalline debitage in relation to
bifaces and points implies importation of partially reduced or finished tools made from these
materials. None of the flakes from the AC stratum exhibited recognizable use wear or
retouch.

argillite 1% -- -- --
cryptocrystalline <1% 3% -- --
quartzite 60% 53% 23% 33%
quartz 37% 41% 46% 67%
rhyolite 1% 3% 31% --
n= 740 36 14 6
Table 4-20. Lithic Raw Material Distributions for
Flaking Debris and Bifacial Tools in AC Stratum.
Ceramics. Of 175 ceramic sherds recovered from the AC stratum, roughly 50 percent (n=87)
were sufficiently distinct in attributes to be catalogued according to accepted ware
descriptions (Table 4-21). In addition to the traditionally recognized wares, a distinctive
ceramic tempered with limonite was present in the deposit (see Appendix B, H for detailed
description); based on paste, surface treatment, and temper characteristics, the ware was
considered Middle Woodland in date. Chronologically, a trend was observed in which a
greater proportion of sherds from early wares occurred in the AC stratum in comparison with
the overlying Ab stratum. In the AC stratum, the frequencies among typed sherds were 34
percent Late Woodland, 51 percent Middle Woodland, 15 percent Early Woodland: in
78
contrast, the distribution above, in the Ab stratum, was 80 percent Late Woodland, 16
percent Middle Woodland, four percent Early Woodland. Cordage twist was identified on 11
sherds from the AC stratum: most were final s-twist on Early Woodland sherds.

s-twist z-twist
Accokeek 16 10% 8 --
limonite-tempered 18 10% -- --
Mockley 8 5% 1 1
Townsend 25 14% -- --
untyped 70 40% -- --
total 175 9 2
Table 4-21. Ceramic Ware Distribution in AC Stratum.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The AC stratum contained 522 fragments of fire-cracked rock, weighing
a total of 40.6 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 78 grams). Almost 50 percent of the
fragments were quartzite, an additional 22 percent siltstone, with quartz, sandstone, and
schist comprising the remainder.
Cg1 Stratum. In total, 862 artifacts were recovered from the Cg1 stratum across the
excavation block, including 3 historical and 859 prehistoric artifacts. The historical artifacts
included two brick bits and a small fragment of coal clinker. Of the prehistoric artifacts, 53
percent (n=454) consisted of chipped stone, 39 percent (n=332) fire-cracked rock, seven
percent (n=62) ceramics, and ground stone less than one percent (n=5) (Table 4-22). Six
fragments of fired clay without vessel attributes were also recovered. Quartzite was the
dominant raw material among flaking debris, while quartz comprised a significant sub-
component (Table 4-23). Siltstone, rhyolite, argillite, chert and jasper were also present in
small quantities.

core 6 1% siltstone 6 1%
point 5 <1% argillite 2 <1%
drill 1 <1% cryptocrystalline 2 <1%
hammerstone 5 <1% total 454
fired clay 6 1%
Excavation Block, Cg1 Stratum.
total 859

Block, Cg1 Stratum.
79
Points. Five points were recovered from the Cg1 stratum, including two that were diagnostic
of the Archaic period and three that were too fragmentary to be typed. The Archaic points
included a small, reworked bifurcate of quartz and a side-notched Halifax also of quartz
(Figure 4-20). The fragments were cataloged as a proximal fragment (quartz) and two distal
fragments (quartzite and rhyolite).
Figure 4-20. Sample of Points from Cg1 Stratum,

Peter House (bifurcate [1284-1]; Halifax [1262-1]).
Other Chipped Stone. Bifaces from the Cg1 stratum included five early and nine late stage
examples. Quartzite was predominant among early stage specimens, while a more even
distribution was evidenced among late stage specimens, following the trend seen in the
overlying strata that implied the selection and use of quartzite for flake tool production. A
drill made on a cortical chert flake was also recovered. The bit exhibited convex,
symmetrically beveled edges, and the base was rounded and unifacially worked. Cores
included four of quartzite (two multi-directional, freehand cores, one bipolar, and one tested
cobble), and two of quartz (a large, multi-directional core and a small bipolar core).
The relative proportions of flaking debris, bifaces and cores were similar for quartzite
and quartz (Table 4-24). Technological explanations may be cited for this finding, in terms
of the type of knapping or reduction represented in the debris. Alternatively, site formation
processes may be primarily responsible for the distribution, either cultural, such as secondary
deposition of refuse resulting from site maintenance and clean up activities, or natural
processes such as erosion. The implications of flake size and other attribute distributions
will be considered for specific proveniences in the spatial analysis section below.
Two utilized flakes were recorded in the Cg1 flake assemblage, one of quartz, the
other of quartzite. Both artifacts exhibited either bifacial wear or retouch.
80

greenstone -- 7% -- --
quartzite 70% 64% 20% 67%
quartz 28% 29% 60% 33%
rhyolite 1% -- 20% --
n= 428 14 5 6
Debris and Bifacial Tools in Cg1 Stratum.
Ground or Pecked Stone. Five hammerstones were recovered: four dense, quartzite cobbles
and one siltstone cobble. The quartzite specimens exhibited battering that ranged from light
to extensive on one or both ends, while one was battered on several faces. The siltstone
specimen exhibited battering on both ends of the long axis and also on one surface.
Ceramics. Of 62 ceramic sherds recovered from the Cg1 stratum, approximately one-half
(n=32) were sufficiently distinct in attributes to be catalogued according to accepted ware
descriptions (Table 4-25). In addition to the traditionally recognized wares, a distinctive
ceramic tempered with limonite was present in the deposit (see Appendix B, H for detailed
description); based on paste, surface treatment, and temper characteristics, the ware was
considered Middle Woodland in date. Chronologically, the trend noted in the AC stratum of
a high frequency of early types continued in the Cg1 stratum: 8 percent of the typed sherds
were Late Woodland, 26 percent were Middle Woodland, and 66 percent were Early
Woodland. Cordage twist was identified on 17 sherds from the Cg1 stratum. Final s-twists
were noted on many of the Early Woodland sherds; two of the untyped sherds with final s-
twist were schist-tempered.

s-twist z-twist
Selden Island 1 2% 1 --
Accokeek 22 35% 10 --
limonite-tempered 5 8% -- --
Popes Creek 4 6% 1 --
Townsend 1 2 3% -- --
untyped 27 44% 4 --
total 62 16 1
Table 4-25. Ceramic Ware Distribution in Cg1 Stratum.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The Cg1 stratum contained 332 fragments of fire-cracked rock,
weighing a total of 24.7 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 74 grams). Almost 50 percent of
81
the fragments were quartzite, an additional 22 percent sandstone, with quartz, siltstone,
schist, and jasper comprising the remainder.
Cg2 Stratum. In total, 107 artifacts were recovered from the Cg2 stratum across the
excavation block. Of these, 44 percent consisted of chipped stone (n=47), 22 percent fire-
cracked rock (n=24), and 1 percent ceramics (n=1) (Table 4-26). Thirty-five fragments of
fired clay without vessel attributes were also recovered. Quartzite was the dominant raw
material among flaking debris. Quartz and jasper were also present (Table 4-27).

biface 2 2% cryptocrystalline r 1 2%
uniface 1 1% total 47
ceramic vessel 1 1%
fired clay Material Distribution, Peter House
35 33%
Excavation Block, Cg2 Stratum.
total 107

Block, Cg2 Stratum.
Chipped Stone. No points were recovered from the Cg2 stratum. Bifaces included one early
and one late stage biface, both of quartzite. One uniface was recovered from the deposit, a
jasper flake that had been trimmed at the distal end to form a convex working edge. Minor
scalar flaking was visible on the distal and lateral margins of the tool. The frequency
distributions of raw material types among bifacial tools forms, cores, and flaking debris
reflected predominantly quartzite knapping activity (Table 4-28). None of the flakes in the
Cg2 stratum exhibited recognizable use wear or retouch.
material flaking debris bifaces points

quartzite 80% 100% --
quartz 20% -- --
n= 44 2 --

Flaking Debris and Bifacial Tools in Cg2
Stratum.
Ceramics. One ceramic sherd was present in the deposit, identified as Popes Creek. Cordage
twist was identified on the sherd as a final s-twist.
82
Fire-Cracked Rock. The Cg2 stratum contained 24 fragments of fire-cracked rock, weighing
a total of 1.6 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 66 grams). Quartzite and quartz accounted
for approximately 40 percent of the fragments each, while siltstone, sandstone, and schist
comprised the remainder.
Chronological Components. Overall, chronological data from the site suggested that the
main term of deposition occurred during the Middle-to-Late Woodland sub-periods, although
evidence was also present of substantial Early Woodland and possibly a limited amount of
Archaic period site use. Ceramic and lithic diagnostic evidence were the basis for these
interpretations, and they were supported by radiometric data. Artifact size distribution
analyses, presented below, indicated that artifacts had been sorted by size to some extent,
implying some vertical disturbance of the profile, although to what degree and whether by
cultural or natural means was not clear.
The distributions of diagnostic artifacts suggested that stratigraphic superposition had
been maintained relatively well, at least in terms of the main sediment strata, although
directly indexing levels and temporal episodes analytically was not practical. As grouped by
sub-period in Figure 4-21, it was apparent that in general, older artifacts tended to occur low
in the profile while younger artifacts occurred higher. Early Woodland ceramics, for
example, while present throughout the profile, were most frequent in the Cg1 stratum. The
majority of the Middle Woodland ceramics occurred in the Ab and AC levels, while almost
all of the Late Woodland wares occurred in the Ab stratum.
Accokeek Popes Creek limonite- Mockley Townsend Potomac Creek

tempered
Ah Ah
Ab Ab
AC AC
Cg1 Cg1
Cg2 Cg2
n=58 n=66 n=30 n=32 n=32 n=10
Scale
frequency within ware
10% 20%
Figure 4-21. Frequency Distribution of Diagnostic Ceramics by Universal Stratum, Peter

House (limonite-tempered ceramics, while not a recognized ware, exhibited paste and surface treatments
attributes that indicated a close association with Middle Woodland wares).
Diagnostic points were less clearly distributed chronologically (Figure 4-22), perhaps
in part reflecting imprecision in their accepted date ranges. Nonetheless, only three points
that dated prior to the latter stages of the Late Archaic—bifurcate, Otter Creek, and
Halifax—were present, suggesting little if any early use of the site. Two of these points
occurred in the Cg1 stratum, the third appeared out of context in the Ab stratum. Woodland
period points all occurred in the Ah, Ab, or AC levels, with more that 80 percent of the Late
Woodland specimens found in the two uppermost strata. Notable also was the almost
83
complete absence of steatite. Given the location of the site downstream from major steatite
deposits at Rose Hill, the finding indicated either limited Transitional Archaic period use of
the site or variations in site function with time, in which the use of durable containers
became common only in the Woodland period.
Ah Ab AC Cg1
LW LW LW LW
MW MW MW MW
EW EW EW EW
LA
LA LA
LA LA
LA LA
LA
MA MA MA MA
EA EA EA EA
0% 25% 50% 75% 0% 25% 50% 75% 0% 25% 50% 75% 0% 25% 50% 75%
Period Type
Early Archaic (EA) bifurcate
Middle Archaic (MA) Otter Creek
Late Archaic (LA) Halifax, Bare Island, Holmes, Poplar Island/Lackawaxen, Orient Fishtail
Early Woodland (EW) Piscataway, Calvert, Woodland side-notched
Middle Woodland (MW) Selby Bay
Late Woodland (LW) Levanna, Madison, triangle
Figure 4-22. Chronologically Diagnostic Points Grouped by Time Period and Stratum,
Peter House Excavation Block.
Spatial Analysis and Activity Area Identification

The spatial distribution of artifacts within the site revealed information about the
processes of site formation, both natural and cultural, that were responsible for the
documented archaeological record. Two main areas were the focus of analysis: the plow
zone area in the yard behind the Peter House and the adjacent row houses; and the excavation
block at the base of the slope north of the row houses.
Plow Zone Analysis. The plow zone was sampled in thirteen 1-m2 excavation units
scattered throughout Peter House yard and row house foundations (Figure 4-3). In total, 800
artifacts were recovered from two layers: 698 from the plow zone stratum itself (Ap); and
102 from the top of the underlying pre-Holocene subsoil (3Bt). The artifacts are summarized
by general type and stratum in Table 4-29.
The artifacts in the deposit supported the interpretation of the Ap stratum as an early
plow zone, and thus comprised direct evidence of historic period agricultural use of the
84
landscape prior to urbanization. Most of the artifacts in the deposit were derived from
prehistoric occupations. Diagnostic historical debris in the plow zone was early nineteenth-
century in date, while the non-diagnostic artifacts were largely architectural (e.g., wrought or
cut nails typical of the nineteenth century). Thus, most of the debris appeared to have been
related to construction episodes or house maintenance and rubbish disposal, the latter
including coal and cinder from furnaces or stoves, animal bone, and shell. A small number
of artifacts occurred at the top of the subsoil layer in a pattern characteristic of the
intermixing of plow zone and subsoil due to root action, animal burrowing, and deep plow
cuts. Overall, the artifact deposit appeared consistent with a plow zone that had incorporated
the remnants of prehistoric occupation of the landform and over which nineteenth-century
architectural features were constructed, occupied, and demolished. When the structures were
eventually razed and the property cleared in the 1960s, the majority of the historical material
had been graded away, leaving the base of the plowed sediments generally intact.
type Ap 3Bt type Ap 3Bt
historical prehistoric
ceramic 24 4 flake/chip 389 34
glass 19 11 core 2 --
pipe 2 -- biface 11 --
glass 55 22 fire-cracked rock 58 1
nail 18 -- ceramic 23 1
brick 19 3
other 32 14
clinker, cinder 11 4
bone/shell 35 8
historical total 215 66 prehistoric total 483 36
Total 698 102
Table 4-29. Plow Zone Artifact Type Distribution, Peter House.
Excavation Block. The spatial distribution of artifacts within the infilled gully area,
investigated by the excavation block (Figure 4-23) revealed information about the processes
of site formation at the base of the slope. The initial analyses consisted of studies of lithic
refitting data, ceramic mends, and the examination of ceramic lot distributions. Following
this, the general horizontal distributions of artifacts by type were analyzed. The yard and
row house units were not included in these analyses since they were widely scattered and
contained relatively few artifacts. The three units adjacent to the Peter House foundation,
east of the main block of contiguous units (Figure 4-3), were similarly not included in the
spatial analyses. As with the yard and row house units, artifact frequencies were relatively
low in these proveniences, and the break in horizontal continuity with the main block made
interpretation more conjectural than for the contiguous units. In contrast, the two units at the
opposite (west) end of the block were included in the analysis. They contained considerably
more artifacts than the units at the east end, and more importantly, ceramic cross mends and
lithic refits occurred between those units and units within the excavation block, implying a
structural connection between the areas.
85
Figure 4-23. Block Excavation in the Eroded and In-

filled Gully at of the Base of Peter House Slope (view
east from the modern bridge over K Street).
Lithic Refitting. The results of a lithic refit study were used to interpret stratigraphic
integrity and to assess site formation processes—the degree to which the artifact distributions
seen archaeologically were derived from natural or cultural processes. Briefly, the study
involved laying the artifacts on tables by unit and stratum provenience, and examining items
of similar type and material for potential fits. Chipped stone was examined separately from
fire-cracked rock. As indicated in the field methods section of this report, artifacts were not
piece-plotted during excavation. Thus, the finest level of precision for horizontal
provenience in the refit data was a 1-m2 unit, and vertically, a 10-centimeter level. As a
consequence, the distances implied by refits between contiguous proveniences could not be
precisely determined. Only refits across more than one vertical or horizontal provenience
could be assumed to represent significant separation.
86
The results of the refit study are shown in Figure 4-24. Eight refit groups were
identified among fire-cracked rock fragments, all of which were intra-provenience matches,
suggesting that either they were examples of postdepositional breakage or that the fragments
had not been scattered extensively during or immediately after deposition.
Seven refit groups were identified among chipped stone artifacts, all but one
consisting of intra-provenience refits. Like the refitted fire-cracked rock fragments, the
chipped stone refits implied little scattering during deposition and little postdepositional
movement. The single inter-provenience refit was a core-flake match from proveniences that
were separated by between 4.5 and 6.5 meters horizontally. Vertical separation could not be
assumed since the two artifacts were contained in the roughly same level of the Cg1 stratum.
The two steatite vessel fragments from the site were an inter-provenience refit,
occurring within the Ab stratum and separated by between 4.5 and 6.0 meters.
Twenty-eight ceramic mend groups were recorded in the excavation block. Of these,
17 groups were intra-provenience mends, occurring within individual horizontal or vertical
proveniences or between contiguous horizontal proveniences. The remaining 11 groups were
true cross mends, reassembled across at least one full horizontal or vertical provenience.
Few multiple mends were encountered among either stone or ceramic artifacts.
While excessive weathering of sherd edges may have reduced the number of ceramic mends
that could be confidently identified, the total count of mends along with the small average
size of the individual sherds in the entire collection from the block suggested that the original
vessels were extensively broken and scattered. Scattered and unmatched fragments in turn
implied that a substantial proportion of the artifact assemblages were in secondary
deposition.
Little evidence was recorded of substantial vertical artifact movement within the
profile, since few mends occurred vertically across the depositional strata. More horizontal
movement was evident in the western part of the block than in the east, with three mends at
the west end of the excavation crossing distances of 4.5 and 6.5 meters. The greatest
distance overall between mended artifacts was approximately 15 meters: two sherds mended
across proveniences at opposite ends of the excavation block. This group was anomalous
both horizontally and vertically, since it was one of only two groups that mended between
the Ab and Cg1 strata. While non-archaeological factors such as post-excavation handling
errors might explain the finding, careful review of field records and handling procedures
suggested that the data were valid. The sherds comprised the only cross-mend among
ceramics from the Early Woodland period. Given that diagnostic material from that period
was relatively common in the midden and occurred in a generally scattered distribution, such
a degree of separation was not considered unlikely.
In the end, almost all of the mends and refits occurred within the midden-like deposit
represented by the Ab stratum, supporting the interpretation of that deposit as the primary
level of deposition at the site as highlighted in Figure 4-24. The data further implied that
such artifact movement or displacement as had occurred was generally horizontal, while
87
HORIZONTAL
23N
ceramic
chipped stone
fire-cracked rock
steatite
21N
19N
17N
4E 6E 8E 10E 12E 14E 16E 18E 20E 22E
VERTICAL
Ah
Ab
AC
Cg1
Cg2
4E 6E 8E 10E 12E 14E 16E 18E 20E 22E
Figure 4-24. Horizontal and Vertical Distributions of Refitted Lithic and Mended Ceramic Artifacts from the Peter
House Excavation Block (the main depositional layer, the Ab stratum, is highlighted in the vertical chart).
88
vertical mixing of the main depositional units had been relatively limited. No apparent
pattern could be recognized in terms of artifact displacement among ceramic ware types; i.e.,
the proportions of mends within each ware were similar. A high frequency of mends and
refits occurred between the isolated units at the west end of the excavation block and units
several meters to the east, suggesting more extensive postdepositional disturbance in this
area, possibly some form of excavation or site maintenance that occurred late in the
prehistoric period. In this case, the frequency of conjoined artifacts that originated from a
central location implied dispersal beyond mere surface scattering during or immediately after
deposition. The artifacts consisted of a wide chronological mixture including Early and Late
Woodland ceramics as well as the steatite vessel fragments. No evidence of historical
material was encountered in the deposits, implying that the disturbance was prehistoric,
while the presence of late prehistoric artifacts implied activity near the end of the sequence
of prehistoric occupations.
Ceramic Lots. Another measure of artifact dispersal within the deposits was the distribution
of sherds from ceramic lot groupings. Ceramic lots were designated on the basis of distinct
similarities in paste, thickness, and surface treatment, and were thought to represent sherds
derived either from individual vessels or from vessels of mutually similar manufacture
representing single episodes of site use. The characteristics of each ceramic lot are detailed
in Appendix B. Three lots were recognized in the artifacts from the Peter House block
excavation. As was the case with cross-mend data, analysis of the distribution of ceramic
lots indicated varying amounts of horizontal movement within the Ab stratum. In contrast, a
substantial amount of vertical artifact displacement was also implied by the analysis. The
lots are considered below in approximate chronological order.
Lot #5 consisted of 30 limonite-tempered, net-impressed sherds presumed to be

Early-to-Middle Woodland in date, based on characteristics of paste, temper, and surface
treatment. Their distribution is indicated in Figure 4-25 by three ellipses, each polygon
indicating the horizontal distribution of the lot sherds in a given stratum. Note that the
circles in the figure encompass the widest extent of the sherd distributions, but do not reflect
relative frequencies in any one excavation provenience. The greatest concentration of sherds
from Lot #5 occurred at the east end of the block, in the AC and Cg1 deposits. The highest
frequencies were recorded in the AC stratum, implying that the vessel or vessels from which
the sherds were derived were deposited at the base of the AC. Additional sherds from the
group were found in the Ab stratum, where they were generally recovered as individual and
widely scattered occurrences, suggesting dispersal downslope as the midden-like deposit (Ab
stratum) continued to develop on the earlier Woodland surface. None of the artifacts in Lot
#5 mended.
Lot #3 consisted of 16 crushed quartz-tempered, cord-marked sherds with a

distinctive micaceous paste. As a group, the sherds were typed as Potomac Creek. The
artifacts were more tightly concentrated than the sherds in Lot #5, clustered east of center
within the block excavation in three strata (Figure 4-26). The majority of the sherds occurred
in the Ab deposit in the units at 20N 14E and 15E. More were scattered in the underlying
AC stratum, while a single sherd occurred in the overlying Ah wash layer. One pair of sherds
in the lot (#1371-6 and #1381-10) mended. Based on the distribution of the artifacts
89
Figure 4-25. Distribution of Ceramic Lot #5, Block Excavation, Peter House.
comprising Lot #3, the original area of deposition appeared to have been within the Ab
stratum in the vicinity of the grid node at 20N 15E. The fragments in the AC stratum were
recovered from the uppermost 10 centimeters of the deposit, and thus the amount of
separation between these sherds and those in the overlying Ab stratum may have been minor.
The sherd in the Ah wash layer may have eroded out of the Ab to the east or south.
Lot #4 consisted of 17 sherds typed as Townsend, tempered with mussel shell and
having exteriors impressed with bundled fabric. The artifacts in Lot #4 were more widely
scattered than those in Lots #3 or #5 (Figure 4-27). None of the sherds mended. Where
present in the intact strata (Ab and AC), the Lot #4 sherds occurred at a rate of one per unit.
The scatter in the Ab stratum stretched across 5 meters, and in the AC stratum, 4 meters.
Two even more broadly separated sherds from Lot #4 are indicated in the figure by dashed
lines—one to the west in the Ab stratum, and another to the east in the AC stratum. The
distribution implied that deposits were in general more disturbed in this part of the site than
to the east, where Lot #3 was recorded. In addition, more evidence was present of the
erosion of artifacts from the Ab stratum, with more sherds occurring in the Ah than in the
Ab.
In summary, the ceramic lot data were roughly ordered chronologically with depth.
Lot #5 contained the earliest artifacts, which appeared to have been deposited lower than the
remaining lots, supporting the inference of an early date for the AC stratum. The sherds had
combined with material in the overlying midden-like deposit and had become scattered in the
process. The later lots, #3 and #4, occurred in the overlying Ab stratum. The tight
distribution of Lot #3 implied a limited amount of mixing in that portion of the deposit,
90
91
possibly indicating that the fragments were late and had had less chance to become
scattered. Lot #4 implied considerably more disturbance at the western end of the block.
Artifact Distributions. The spatial analyses that follow are based on artifact type
distributions recorded in field data recovered from the site. The analyses are fine-grained
and particular, at a level of detail called for in part by the nature of the artifact assemblages
in hand. That is, the artifacts were not internally distinctive in terms of tool forms or raw
material frequency distributions. Thus, differences that might provide information about site
structure, site formation processes, or activity area variation were sought primarily in
examinations of both the attributes and spatial distributions of the most commonly occurring
artifacts—chipped stone flaking debris and fire-cracked rock. The results of the analyses are
summarized in the following sections of the report. Additional details, particularly those
related to the characteristics of flaking debris and the implications for lithic reduction
strategies, are presented in Appendix C.
Sedimentological and artifact distribution data suggested that the material in the Ab stratum
at the Peter House site comprised a series of Late Woodland midden-like deposits that had
accumulated in a natural gully feature. The distribution of fire-cracked rock in the Ab was
uniform, and discounting obvious aggregates such as Features 363 and 374, variations in
horizontal distribution were indistinct. While other features may have been contained in the
deposit, they were less easily discriminated than were the documented features, having been
blended into the generalized deposition. In the underlying AC stratum, where artifact
frequencies were lower, clustering was more distinct. Evidence from spatial analyses of
diagnostic ceramics indicated that clusters in the AC stratum represented Middle and Early
Woodland activity or depositional areas. The later Woodland artifacts that formed the bulk
of the material in the dark deposit in the Ab stratum overlay these areas, and artifacts from
both layers were intermingled to varying extents, thus accounting for the seriation seen in
ceramic wares with depth (see Figure 4-15).
The spatial analysis conducted at the site focused initially on the clustering of fire-
cracked rock, concentrations of which were considered potential indicators of specific
prehistoric activity within the deposits, whether in the form of intact rock features, such as
hearths or roasting pits, or the disaggregated remains of similar features.
Ab Stratum. The Ab deposit was Late Woodland in age. Concentrations of diagnostic

ceramics occurred in association with four fire-cracked rock clusters (Areas 1-4, Figure 4-
28), two of which centered around visible features, Feature 363 and Feature 374. The main
episodes of artifact accumulation in the stratum appeared to have occurred during the first
half of the Late Woodland, based on the preponderance of Townsend ceramics, although
sedimentological analysis indicated that infilling of the gully probably began much earlier,
near the end of the Archaic period. Late Woodland sherds were widely distributed in the Ab,
and due to their overall frequency of occurrence, specific concentrations were comparatively
difficult to distinguish. In general, though, they mirrored the fire-cracked rock
concentrations delineated in the original cluster analyses.
92
Fire-Cracked Rock Ab Stratum
Area 4
(contour interval = 700 gm)
Area 3
Area 2
Late Woodland Ceramics Area 1
(contour interval = 2)
Middle Woodland Ceramics
(contour interval = 0.5)
Figure 4-28. Fire-Cracked Rock Clusters and Concentrations of Late and Middle Woodland
Ceramics in the Ab Stratum, Peter House.
First indications were that the artifact clusters in the Ab stratum evidenced some
depth. That is, when the entire block profile was initially examined from a top-down
perspective, beginning in the Ab stratum, it appeared that the concentrations observed in the
upper layer continued into the AC stratum and below. This perspective was in fact
inappropriate chronologically, assuming that the lower artifact clusters had been deposited
first. That is, the AC and Cg1 strata both contained relatively distinct clusters of activity
debris, distinct both spatially and chronologically. Some of this material had eventually
become incorporated into the Late Woodland deposit, and thus several early artifact
concentrations remained visible there. Artifact frequencies were greater overall in the later
deposit, and thus the amount of distributional noise was substantially greater, rendering
individual concentrations relatively indistinct. While concentrations of Early and Middle
Woodland ceramics remained visible in the Ab, generally their locations did not exhibit
precise correspondence with concentrations in the underlying AC or Cg1, implying that the
material had migrated somewhat as it was incorporated into the Ab deposit. Refit and
ceramic lot analyses provided clear indications of artifact displacement. While refits were
not numerous, distances of 4-6 meters between several refitted pieces suggested that artifacts
had been at or near the surface for long periods of time which allowed them to be moved
considerable distances, either incrementally or as a result of single episodes of disturbance.
One long mend between Early Woodland Accokeek fragments, extending across most of the
93
length of the block excavation (15 meters) and two vertical strata, provided further evidence
that material from early, discrete activity areas became included in the later midden
incidentally as the midden developed on the older surface.
As originally suggested by the distribution of fire-cracked rock across the Ab stratum,

the comparatively undifferentiated nature of the full artifact assemblages from the areas,
including both chipped stone and ceramic items, suggested the presence of a series of
overlapping depositional episodes within the midden. Flaking debris from several activities
was present throughout. Quartzite had typically been employed for the production of flake
tools, although evidence of quartzite biface manufacture was present as well. Reliance on
flake tools was inferred from the general absence of formal tools in the assemblages. In
contrast to quartzite, quartz appeared to have been the preferred stone for the production of
bifacial edges, based on the general predominance of late stage bifaces of quartz, coupled
with size distributions among quartz flake that were more often typical of complete biface
reduction sequences. There were obvious variations in this pattern, such as the flaking debris
associated with Feature 363, noted below, where little evidence of biface reduction was
present. Non-local lithic materials, specifically rhyolite and siliceous cryptocrystalline
material such as chert or jasper, were poorly represented in most proveniences, and thus did
not appear to have been utilized extensively.
Analysis of lithic flaking debris and bifaces implied that the manufacture of finished
bifaces, such as projectile points, was not a primary focus of activity during any occupation.
Most of the points or fragments in the deposit were reworked, occasionally to the degree that
extensive reuse was implied. The artifacts had often been discarded as broken or exhausted
tools. The breaks observed were usually transverse, oblique, or bending snaps, typically
associated with cutting or prying actions—there was little evidence of impact fracture. Only
occasionally were unfinished points recovered or bifaces observed with perverse fractures
along flaw planes suggesting incomplete manufacture. Analysis of the distribution of
particular biface forms—lanceolate, oval, and triangular—provided no evidence of specific
lithic reduction activity areas or workshops. The data implied that during most of the
episodes of site use represented in the Ab deposits, the area was used as a resource
procurement and preparation locale, with lithic technology specifically tailored to support
those activities. Flake tool production appeared to have been important, with a heavy
reliance on quartzite as raw material. Quartzite was locally abundant and appeared to have
provided cutting edges sufficient for the tasks at hand. Few recognizable hammerstones
were recovered in the deposits, supporting the interpretation of expedient flake tool
production—the quartzite cobbles that were the focus of lithic manufacture may themselves
have been used temporarily as hammerstones.
AC Stratum. Early and Middle Woodland diagnostic material was more prominent in the
finer portion of the gully infilling sequence, the AC stratum. Middle Woodland sherds
occurred in concentrations in Area 1 and Area 2 (Figure 4-29) in association with fire-
cracked rock concentrations that appeared distinct from overlying features in the Ab stratum.
To the west, in Areas 3 and 4, Middle Woodland sherds were thinly distributed.
94
Fire-Cracked Rock AC Stratum
Area 4
Area 3
Area 2
Middle Woodland Ceramics Area 1
Early Woodland Ceramics
Figure 4-29. Fire-Cracked Rock Clusters and Concentrations of Middle and Early
Woodland Ceramics in the AC Stratum, Peter House.
A concentration of Early Woodland ceramics was noted in Area 1 that may have been
derived from a more substantial concentration immediately below, in the Cg1 stratum (Figure
4-30). Sedimentologically, coarse gravel and cobbles from the underlying lag deposit in the
Cg1 extended upward into the AC layer, leading to an indistinct separation between the two
strata and the cultural material in them. Early Woodland sherds were widely dispersed in the
central portions of the block, in Areas 2 and 3, but occurred in higher frequencies in a more
mixed part of the block, Area 4. Whether the sherds in Area 4 were associated with Feature
374 was unclear due to the narrow window provided by the excavation units in a part of the
site heavily dissected by historical features. Late Woodland ceramics were scattered
throughout the AC deposit, but artifact frequencies implied no substantial primary deposition
related to that period. A degree of clustering of Late Woodland sherds was apparent in Area
2 that suggested intermixing from concentrations in the midden in the overlying Ab stratum.
Field observations indicated that the division between the Ab stratum and the underlying AC
was uneven, exhibiting a gradual transition, so that the separation between the Ab and AC
deposits was not always clearly distinguishable. Again, coarse sediments from the
underlying lag deposit in the Cg1 in Area 2 extended high into the profile, suggesting the
potential for the intermingling of components through settling.
95
Non-diagnostic artifacts could not be distinguished analytically by period, but overall

trends in lithic technology were noted. Quartzite was the predominant lithic raw material in
each area within the block excavation in the AC stratum. Points and other bifaces generally
appeared as exhausted tool forms, rather than unfinished manufacturing rejects, implying that
biface production and finishing were probably not important activities during any of the
occupations represented. Quartz reduction was largely geared toward the bipolar reduction
of pebbles, probably for expedient flake tool manufacture.
Cg1 Stratum. In the Cg1 stratum, concentrations of Early Woodland ceramics were
documented in the eastern half of the block excavation, in Area 1 and Area 2 (Figure 4-30).
Both concentrations were associated with fire-cracked rock clusters in the stratum, and
neither appeared to have been related spatially to later artifact distributions documented in
the overlying strata. Evidence thus implied that much of the cultural material in the Cg1
stratum represented separate, chronologically discrete occupation components. Artifact
attribute and geoarchaeological analyses suggested that the deposits had been reworked to
some extent by erosion during the early development of the gully sequence. Few if any
ceramic sherds occurred in the western half of the block.
Fire-Cracked Rock Cg1 Stratum
Area 4
Area 3
Area 2
Early Woodland Ceramics Area 1
Figure 4-30. Fire-Cracked Rock Clusters and Concentrations of Early Woodland Ceramics
in the Cg1 Stratum, Peter House.
While fire-cracked rock concentrations were documented in the Cg1 stratum,

frequencies were low in comparison with those in overlying strata, implying relatively little
fire-related activity. Quartzite was the predominant lithic raw material represented in tools
and flaking debris. Few bifaces or cores were present, while a large proportion of the flaking
debris was cortical, suggesting the importance of early stage biface reduction or, more likely,
pebble and cobble core reduction for flake tool manufacture.
96
Cg2 Stratum. The Cg2 stratum represented the basal deposit at the Peter House site,
consisting of a fine-grained, early Holocene or possibly late Pleistocene alluvial or marine
terrace deposit. By definition, the deposit predated cultural activity in the region. While
artifacts were contained in portions of the deposit, they were considered to have been
intrusive from the overlying Cg1 levels. Comparative analysis of artifact distributions in the
stratum indicated only two areas of concentration, both generally aligned with fire-cracked
rock concentrations in the overlying Cg1 stratum (Figure 4-31).
Cg1 Stratum
Area 4
Area 3
Area 2
Cg2 Stratum
Area 1
(contour interval = 2)
Figure 4-31. Comparison of Fire-Cracked Rock Clusters in the Cg1 Stratum and Artifact
Concentrations in the Cg2 Stratum, Peter House.
97
98
Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Studies / Ramp 3
5.0 RAMP 3 PREHISTORIC SITE (51NW117):

Phase I Survey
Phase I survey at Ramp 3 conducted as part of the current investigations consisted of
the excavation of a single trench approximately eight meters in length (Figure 5-1). The
trench was placed in an area shown on nineteenth-century insurance maps as occurring
within or near a back alley known as Reed Alley. The excavation was begun at a point near
Rock Creek Parkway and extended a short distance to the southeast, on a line roughly
diagonal to historical property lines. A shift in orientation was necessary to avoid an
unmarked utility line, producing a north/south dogleg. The excavation revealed a series of
deep fills overlying an apparently intact nineteenth-century deposit, that was immediately
followed by remnant prehistoric deposits.
4" gas line N
50N 11E
Y
KWA
50N 13E
PAR
51N 16E
Phase II Trench
EEK
K CR
Phase I Trench 50N 18E

ROC
(TR 1-1)
51N 24E
Phase I
Deep Test
Phase II Trench
44N 17E
deep utility
distrubance
0 10 FEET
0 2 4 METERS
Figure 5-1. Locations of Phase I and Phase II Excavations at Ramp 3.
99
Beneath a recently accumulated topsoil layer approximately 15 centimeters in

thickness lay overburden consisting of two massive fill deposits. The first fill layer was
characterized as mixed, gravelly clay fill containing brick, metal, and fragments of modern
bottle glass. The deposit extended to 45 centimeters below grade. The second fill layer
consisted of sandy clay containing scattered gravel and chunks of asphalt. It extended to a
depth 1.5 to 1.7 meters below grade, where an abrupt transition was noted to a dark gray silty
loam stratum. This underlying layer extended to a depth of approximately 2 meters below
grade and contained brick bits and other artifacts. A shovel test was excavated into the
deposit for controlled recovery of artifacts, yielding datable material from the nineteenth
century, including fragments of transfer printed whiteware, glazed redware, a kaolin pipe
bowl fragment, and cut nails, along with a carved wood ornament, a small amount of non-
diagnostic bottle glass, oyster shell, and several quartz flakes. The deposit was interpreted as
potentially related to the nineteenth-century alley and a pre-existing prehistoric occupation.
The abrupt transition from the overlying fill layer indicated that the stratum had been cut
prior to fill deposition.
Deep testing was conducted at one end of the trench in an effort to identify
Pleistocene age alluvium that would indicate pre-cultural deposition. Below the dark loamy
stratum a gradual transition was observed to micaceous sandy clay. This material was
compact and stiff, exhibiting a blocky structure that indicated soil development. The deposit
represented an intact B-horizon that extended to a depth of 2.7 meters below grade.
Underlying the B-horizon was loose, micaceous silty fine sand that represented an intact
alluvial C-horizon. The transition from the overlying B-horizon soil was abrupt, but natural.
The maximum depth excavated in the trench was approximately 3.5 meters below grade.
Phase II Testing
Based largely on the discovery of a potentially intact early nineteenth-century
alleyway deposit, Phase II evaluative testing was recommended at the Ramp 3 site.
Increased exposure of the archaeological deposit was proposed to locate architectural
features, secure a larger artifact sample, and determine whether intact prehistoric levels were
present. Additional research was also recommended on historical use of the area in order to
furnish potential associations or contexts for the artifacts.
An additional 27.5 linear meters of exploratory backhoe trenching was conducted,

and six 1-m2 test units were excavated. Two sections of trench were excavated to expose the
nineteenth-century deposit, one segment measuring 18.3 meters on an east/west axis and one
measuring 9.2 meters on a north/south axis (Figure 5-1). A metric grid was overlaid on the
area using a transit and tape measures. Test units were excavated within the trenches in
locations aligned with the grid (Figure 5-2).
The main stratigraphic deposits observed in the Phase I trench were identified in each
test unit, although variations were observed in the thickness and complexity of the historical
deposit, particularly to the south, in the unit at 44N 17E. A transitional zone was noted
below the historical surface in most units, in which prehistoric artifact frequencies were
typically higher than historical artifact frequencies. Several historical features were
100
documented in the nineteenth-century stratum, some of which cut into the underlying
transitional and subsoil deposits. The features included shallow basin-shaped pits, straight-
sided, rectilinear pits, and a posthole. Other than the posthole, no functional interpretations
were advanced for the features at this stage of investigation. A deep disturbance was noted
in the west profile of the unit at 44N 17E. Few artifacts were recovered in association with
the disturbance, and with the
evidence at hand, the feature was
interpreted as natural.
The unit at 50N 11E yielded

prehistoric artifacts in the subsoil
horizon extending to a depth of 50
centimeters, well below the level of
cultural deposition in other units.
The artifacts consisted of 84 quartzite
flakes, 1 quartz flake, and 1 jasper
flake. No evidence of stratigraphic
disturbance was observed in the
excavation to account for the
occurrence of artifacts at these
depths.
Artifact analysis indicated that

the historical deposit identified
throughout the site contained early-
to-mid-nineteenth-century artifacts,
including a large amount of animal
bone, some with evidence of
butchering. Little or no twentieth-
century material was present.
Prehistoric artifacts included Archaic
and Woodland period projectile
points, ceramic sherds, knapping
debris, and fire-cracked rock. Given Figure 5-2. Phase II Excavations at Ramp 3 (view
the gradual transition in sediments west toward Rock Creek Parkway).
and the varying proportions of
historical and prehistoric artifacts noted with depth, the earlier interpretation that the
historical deposit represented the nineteenth-century alley surface that had developed directly
over an existing prehistoric surface was confirmed.
Based in the identification of an intact alley surface from the turn of the nineteenth
century and of potentially intact prehistoric deposits below, the site was recommended
eligible to the National Register of Historic Places, and a data recovery program was
designed to mitigate the adverse effects of the planned development of the property.
101
Phase I and II investigations showed the presence of intact historical and prehistoric
deposits buried beneath 1.4 to 2 meters of twentieth-century overburden. The historic period
deposits consisted of early nineteenth-century sheet refuse associated with Reed Alley, a
back passage serving properties fronting on 27th and 28th Streets and connecting with I Street
to the south. In general, the work plan developed for the Phase III data recovery excavations
at Ramp 3 called for the removal of the mixed overburden to expose a wide area of the
nineteenth-century alley surface and any surviving structural features associated with it.
Excavation would then proceed through the prehistoric deposits that lay below.
Fill was removed with the aid of a backhoe from an area of approximately 210 square
meters. A new control grid was established for the Phase III investigation oriented
north/south to correspond with historic period property lines (Figure 5-3).
4 " gas
N
pipline
edge of
Rock Creek Parkway
0 5 10 FEET
0 1 2 METERS
51
110 N -
N
/11
50
E
N/
51
11
109N/201E
N/
E
12
E
50
108 N -
g
N/
rin
13
ea
E
49
f cl
N/
it o
13
19th century
E
lim
architectural features
106 N - 106N/204E
51
N/
16
E
194E 195E
104N/204E
104 N - 104N
50
N/
18
E
e
anc
103N
rb
istu
aring
102N/197E 102N/199E 102N/204E 102N/205E

ty d
102N
102 N -
utili
of cle
44
N/
limit
17
43
19th century
E
N/
44
architectural features
17
N/
E
100N/201E
18
100N/197E
100 N -
E
51
N/
99N/200E
24
E
99N/196E
98 N -
architectural
features
96 N - Phase II units
shown in gray
-
192 E 194 E 196 E 198 E 200 E 202 E 204 E
Figure 5-3. Locations of Phase III Data Recovery Excavations at Ramp 3 (note that
the Phase II grid was aligned approximately 40 degrees west of north to accommodate utility
lines, while the Phase III grid was re-oriented relative to property lines).
102
The nineteenth-century
alley deposit lying below the fill
layers was consistent in thickness,
measuring 30 to 40 centimeters
across most of the excavation area.
Historic period features were
encountered in both the northern
and southern sections of the area.
Prehistoric deposition was shallow
in the eastern two-thirds of the
excavation area and was generally
mixed with material from the
nineteenth-century alley surface.
The placement of excavation units
in that part of the site therefore
followed the location of the
historic period deposits of interest.
The historical deposits and features
are documented in a separate report
(Crane et al. 2006). Prehistoric
deposits were progressively thicker
to the west, toward Rock Creek.
At the western edge of the area,
where deposition was deepest, a
block excavation was used to
recover artifacts and sediment data
from a series of contiguous
proveniences (Figure 5-4). The
Figure 5-4. Block Excavation, Ramp 3 (view north). block consisted of nine units: three
1-m2 units that had been excavated
on the Phase II grid; four 1-m2 units excavated on the Phase III grid; and two smaller units,
also on the Phase III grid—one connecting the Phase II and III grid segments, and one filling
in an area between the block excavation and a concrete-lined utility trench that formed a
practical western boundary to excavation. Investigation further to the west was impeded by
the utility trench and the Rock Creek Parkway right-of-way. Overburden in the area
immediately bordering the parkway extended to a depth of 2.2 meters. Prior to excavation, a
structural engineer was consulted with regard to safety issues associated with potential
undermining of the road bed. The excavation was considered safe, but concrete barriers were
placed along the curb of the roadway for added security from traffic.
Excavation and documentation procedures at Ramp 3 conformed to descriptions

presented in the general methodology section of this report—no special procedures were
adopted for the site. Geoarchaeological observations and sediment sampling were conducted
several times during the course of the excavations. A deep backhoe cut was made in the
eastern portion of the area after completion of all hand excavations to verify the
103
identification of Pleistocene deposits. Deep testing was not attempted in association with the
block excavation due to the proximity of the adjacent parkway.
At the time of the investigation, the site consisted of a gently sloping, grass covered
surface with several large and small trees scattered across the area (Figure 5-5). Surface
topography was artificial, built up with fill to level the natural westward slope to Rock
Creek. Immediately to the south of the excavation area lay an unfinished freeway overpass
supported by wide concrete columns surrounded by an open, gravel-covered surface.
Ground disturbance associated with construction of the overpass extended beyond the width
of the roadway overhead. The precise extent of the disturbance was not determined
archaeologically since the investigations were confined to potential impacts from proposed
construction. The western edge of the excavation abutted Rock Creek Parkway. A large oak
was located at the southeast corner of the excavation area: it was eventually removed due to
safety concerns, as was a street lamp located along the parkway curb.
Figure 5-5. Ramp 3 Excavation Area (view northeast

toward 27th and K Streets; Rock Creek Parkway is in
foreground).
104
Descriptions of the sediment stratigraphy at the Ramp 3 site were organized around
four temporally and morphologically distinct components which included five Universal
Stratigraphic Units (USTRs), using the convention noted in Section 3.0 (Methods). Artifact
and radiocarbon data have been summarized in the following descriptions to clarify
stratigraphic relationships. More complete presentations of artifact, radiocarbon, and
ethnobotanical data are included in the report sections immediately following the
stratigraphic summary. Detailed geoarchaeological descriptions are provided in Appendix D.
The oldest component at the site consisted of pre-Holocene age sediments,

comprising the upper extent of the remnant terrace upon which the archaeological site
formed (Figure 5-6). This terrace would likely have been available for use by prehistoric
occupants of the area throughout the Holocene, although its surface would have been prone
to erosion. Relevant USTRs incorporated in this component included 3Bt, 3BC, and 3Cox
strata, characterized as alluvial sediments derived from Rock Creek during an earlier stage of
terrace development that likely predated human occupation of the valley. Cultural materials,
including a minor prehistoric component and a proportionately smaller historical component,
were recovered from the upper extent of these strata, but the artifacts were considered to be
secondary or intrusive. The 3Bt-3BC-3Cox sequence was capped by late-Holocene
sediments and historical fills.
Late-Holocene age sediments were preserved in a 20-30-centimeter thick, midden-

like deposit on the remnant terrace. Relevant USTRs in this component included the 2AB
and 2Ab strata, which represented incremental additions of fine-grained sediment and coarse-
grained artifacts to the soil column. The sediments resulted from sheetwash and flood
deposition, while the artifacts resulted from primary deposition and subsequent reworking of
the deposits by both natural and cultural agents. Variable rates of deposition were indicated
by the degree of sediment weathering and the relative integrity of distinct artifact
associations. Artifacts were dominated by Late Woodland material throughout, although the
remnants of minor occupations related to the Middle Woodland and portions of the Archaic
period were also present. No clearly defined Early Woodland components were recognized.
The 2AB stratum represented the basal layer within the late Holocene sequence. It extended
across the excavation block, measuring 10-15 centimeters in thickness. The deposit
exhibited a loamy texture; fine and distinctive charcoal inclusions were common.
Temporally diagnostic material included single projectile points of Archaic and Woodland
age, along with Middle and Late Woodland ceramics and a single radiocarbon age estimate
of 1430±50 BP (from organic residue on the interior of a ceramic sherd). The 2Ab stratum
overlay the 2AB stratum, but was not continuous across the excavation. It appeared to have
been limited to a lower-lying bench in the western part of the excavation, although it may
have been truncated and incorporated into the overlying historical deposits higher on the
terrace to the east. The 2Ab stratum measured 10-15 centimeters in thickness and exhibited a
loamy texture. Chronological evidence included Middle and Late Woodland ceramics, and
radiocarbon age estimates of 1440±40 BP and 1710±50 BP were obtained from organic
residues on ceramic sherds.
105
Figure 5-6. Reconstructed Stratigraphic Section through Ramp 3 Site (view north, 2x vertical exaggeration).
106
A large and culturally distinct feature, comprised of a deep, oval pit (Feature 283),
was located along the western edge of the excavation area, extending from the base of the
2Ab stratum through the subsequent sediments and ending approximately 70 centimeters into
basal sands (3Cox) (Figure 5-7). The matrices associated with this feature were organized
descriptively into three components: basal sediments that had been reworked as a result of
prehistoric excavation; a rock concentration; and displaced fill. The basal sediments
measured 10-20 centimeters thick and consisted of sandy loam to loamy sand, with oxidized
or burned areas, and artifacts—including lithics, charred wood, bone, antler, and shell—that
appeared to represent an assemblage of burial goods attributable chronologically to the late
overburden
2Ad utility
trench
2 Ab
2AB
displaced fill
utility
trench
Feature 283
subsoil
Figure 5-7. Stratigraphic Profile Section, Feature 283 and Overlying Deposits,
Ramp 3 Excavation Block (view west).
Middle Woodland sub-period. A rock concentration, consisting of tabular stone, rounded
and subrounded cobbles, and fire-cracked rock, overlay the basal sediments in a dispersed
layer that ranged from one to three clasts deep. The size and arrangement of the stones
indicated that deposition was deliberate and cultural in origin. The displaced fill component
of the feature consisted of a layer of redeposited sediment measuring 40-60 centimeters in
thickness that had been exhumed from the 3Bt, 3BC, and 2AB strata during excavation of the
pit and had been subsequently replaced. Occasional artifacts in this fill layer included
ceramic sherds, debitage, and fire-cracked rock fragments that were not associated with the
artifacts at the base of the feature. The upper boundary of the fill was indistinct due to
pedogenic processes and cultural disturbances originating during later prehistoric
occupations. Radiocarbon age estimates of 1290±70 BP and 1330±50 BP were derived from
charred wood samples collected at the base of the feature.
107
The youngest intact sediment component at the site consisted of historic period
material configured as a surface horizon measuring 5-15 centimeters in thickness. The
deposit included disturbed elements of the underlying late-Holocene sequence, as well as
additions of historic period sheetwash deposits and culturally derived accumulations. The
sediment was referred to by site convention as the 2Ad stratum. It exhibited a loamy texture
with a slightly higher sand content than the underlying 2AB and 2Ab soils from which much
of it was apparently derived. Archaeological materials in this stratum included redeposited
prehistoric artifacts, as well as historical artifacts in both mixed and undisturbed contexts.
Many inclusions of fine-to-large fragments of charcoal were noted. A single radiocarbon age
estimate of 7670±80 BP was returned on free carbon from the stratum, contrasting markedly
with the surrounding cultural material. The presence of coal in the soil matrix suggested that
the assay may have reflected contamination with “dead” carbon.
Capping the sedimentary sequence was a thick layer of overburden that was relatively
uniform in depth. The fill consisted of mixed gravelly clay and sandy clay sediments
containing brick, metal, concrete, asphalt, and fragments of early-to-mid-twentieth-century
bottle glass and other debris. Near the base of the deposit, artifacts from portions of the
nineteenth century, including a Civil War-era Minie ball, were recovered. The overburden
measured 1.5 to 1.7 meters in thickness, being relatively level at ground surface but slightly
thicker to the west, following the natural, south-southwest trending slope of the pre-fill
landscape.
5.5 Data Analyses
Features
Two features were documented at the Ramp 3 site: Feature 283 and Feature 285.
Feature 283 was a large pit feature that contained the remains of a cremation burial, and
Feature 285 was a small pit that contained lithic flaking debris.
Feature 283. Feature 283 consisted of a wide pit that, as noted above, had been excavated
through the existing early Middle Woodland occupation surface (the 2AB stratum) into
subsoil. The pit measured approximately 70 centimeters in depth and was flat bottomed with
gently sloping sides (Figure 5-8). A concrete-lined utility trench truncated the western edge
of the feature, making it difficult to determine with complete confidence the overall shape of
the feature. Nevertheless, in plan, the feature appeared approximately round, the opening
measuring 2.2 meters in diameter.
Due to leaching of the sandy sediment, the outline of the pit at its opening was not
readily discernable, nor was the profile of the upper portion easily distinguished. Particle
size analysis detected no variation in the sediments from the top of the feature to the cobbles
at the base of the pit, suggesting the presence of well-mixed feature fill.
The uppermost 40 centimeters of the pit contained relatively few artifacts in

comparison with the overlying cultural layers, and diagnostic artifacts that could be
confidently assigned to the fill consisted of Middle Woodland ceramics (mostly Popes
108
Creek). A number of Townsend sherds in the sediment appeared to have originated in the
overlying, Late Woodland deposit, as evidenced by mends and ceramic lot matches, the latter
based on characteristic paste and surface treatment attributes.
193 / 102 N 103 N 104 N

193.5 E
overburden
utility
trench
2Ad
2Ad
2Ad
2Ab
2AB 2Ab
utility
trench
F-283 fill
3BT F-283 fill
3BC
E193.5
KEY
2Ad - historical surface

2Ab - late Woodland deposit
2AB - early /middle Woodland deposit
3BT/3BC - pre-Holocene subsoil

N102
- carbonized wood
- unmodified stone
E193
SECTION LOCATION
Figure 5-8. Feature 283, Profile Section at 193 E, Ramp 3.
At a level 20-30 centimeters from the base of the pit was a layer of cobbles (Figure 5-
9), consisting of large tabular fragments of schist; large and small waterworn quartz and
quartzite cobbles; angular, fragmented cobbles of the same materials; several quartz cobbles
that appeared to have been worked; and several angular quartzite cobbles that may have been
recycled fire-cracked rock. The stone was loosely scattered across the width of the pit at this
level. The cobbles were occasionally stacked two, or in some cases three deep, but were not
piled or mounded, for the most part forming a single, if somewhat irregular layer. The
cobbles had been pressed into the underlying matrix by the weight of the overburden. The
109
194E 195E
104N
nch
y tre
utilit
193E
103N
102N
- carbonized wood
- unmodified stone
0 2 4 FEET
0 0.5 1 METERS
Figure 5-9. Feature 283, Plan View at Top of Cobble Layer, Ramp 3.
110
soil matrix consisted of a mix of reddish brown (7.5YR 5/6) and dark gray-to-black (10YR
3/2 and 2/1) medium coarse sandy loam that was micaceous and extensively mixed with
charcoal. Pockets of lighter colored (7.5YR 6/4) sand were present, along with numerous
concentrations of burned clay, appearing as both reddened and blackened patches. Charcoal-
smeared areas were also noted, along with large pieces of carbonized wood, some still
recognizable as branches. The carbonized wood lay randomly within the fill both at the level
of the cobbles and at the base of the pit excavation.
At the bottom of the pit, scattered charcoal lay on a thin (<1 centimeter) layer of
coarse sand that had either been placed in the pit as lining or represented wind-borne
sediment, perhaps an indication that the pit lay open for a short period of time.
Cultural material below the cobbles consisted of the following (Figure 5-10):
! a concentration of bone, both human and from a large raptor species of bird,
occurring near the center of the feature
! a large slate pendant occurring in the south central portion of the pit, near the
main concentration of bone
! incised antler fragments occurring near the south edge of the feature, in
association with a complete shark tooth
! a large triangular point located within a patch of charcoal-smeared and
reddened clay approximately 50 centimeters north of the pendant, near the
center of the feature
! a small schist pendant located on the eastern edge of the pit, also in a patch of
reddened and charcoal-smeared clay
! additional shark teeth and fragments, as well several bone disks scattered
throughout the deposit
! a sandstone phallic effigy recovered from the west edge of the feature
! a wooden bead, several bone disks, and numerous textile fragments found in
soil samples
Feature 285. Artifacts were recovered from deep in the 3Bt stratum in the excavation unit at
50N 11E. Sedimentological analysis later determined that the material lay in an excavated
pit, but that visible evidence of the pit had been overwritten by soil formation processes. The
feature was designated after the fact as Feature 285. The depths of the artifacts suggested
that the feature extended approximately 80 centimeters into the 3Bt stratum; horizontal
dimensions of the feature were not recorded. Evidence from profile sections in surrounding
units, along with sediment and artifact distribution analyses, suggested that Feature 285 was
an isolated pit, unaccompanied by artifact concentrations or other features. Eighty-four
quartzite flakes and one flake each of quartz and jasper were recovered from the deposit.
The
111
194E 195E
104N
approximate
feature boundary
ch
* *
tren
*
y
utilit
193E
103N
triangular
biface
human *
*
bone *
*
large pendant
* small pendant
102N
*
* *
antler comb * *
fragments *
* *
* - carbonized wood
- charcoal smudging
- reddened clay
- unmodified stone
- shark tooth
- fabric
- antler disk
- bird bone
N
- hammerstone
0 2 4 FEET note: symbols with an asterisk indicate artifacts

not individually plotted within unit of occurrence
0 0.5 1 METERS
Figure 5-10. Feature 283, Plan View, Artifact Distribution below Cobble Layer, Ramp 3.
112
flake size distribution of the quartzite debris (Table 5-1) peaked

quartzite
in the smallest complete interval, size grade 3, and no flakes size grade
flakes
were present in the largest interval, size grade 1. Remnant 1 0
cortex was observed on 43 percent of the quartzite flakes, 2 38%
suggesting that the debitage had resulted in large part from the 3 55%
primary reduction of one or more small cobbles. Cortical 4 7%
frequencies among the main size grades supported this notion, n=84
with over one-half (56 percent) of the larger, size grade 2 flakes Table 5-1. Size Grade
identified as cortical, and 37 percent of the smaller, size grade 3 Distribution of Quartzite
flakes cortical. Flakes in Feature 285.
Radiocarbon Data
Six carbon samples from the Ramp 3 excavations were submitted for assay, including
three samples from dispersed charcoal and three from ceramic residues (Table 5-2). Figure
5-11 provides a comparative plot of the calibrated results for Woodland period dates,
displayed with a 95 percent (2-sigma) confidence interval.
Sample Radiocarbon Calibrated Results

Provenience Material Analysis Age (2 sigma) Sample Number
N102/E194 dispersed radiometric-

Feature 283 charcoal standard 1290±70 BP AD 640-890 Beta-95445
N103/E194 dispersed radiometric-

Feature 283 charcoal standard 1330±50 BP AD 640-790 Beta-96398
N44/E18 ceramic
2AB residue AMS 1430±50 BP AD 555-680 Beta 113872
N104/E195 ceramic
2Ab residue AMS 1440±40 BP AD 560-665 Beta-113873
N103/E195 ceramic
2Ab residue AMS 1710±50 BP AD 235-435 Beta-113871
N103/E194 dispersed
2Ad charcoal AMS 7670±80 BP 6370-6600 BC Beta-104469
Table 5-2. Radiocarbon Dates, Ramp 3 Block Excavation (arranged in chronological order).
Two dates were derived from large pieces of carbonized wood from Feature 283,
returning late Middle Woodland estimates of 1290±70 BP and 1330±50 BP. Two slightly
earlier dates were returned on residue samples from ceramic sherds in the strata overlying the
feature: 1430±50 BP, on a sherd typed as Townsend; and 1440±40 BP on an untyped,
hornblende-tempered sherd with fabric-impressed exterior. A third residue date, 1710±50
BP, was from an untyped, quartz-tempered and cord-marked sherd from the 2Ab stratum.
Together, these dates suggested that the pit comprising Feature 283 had been excavated
during the late Middle Woodland, cutting through an existing early Middle Woodland
surface.
A final AMS date of 7670±80 BP was returned on a sample of carbonized material in the
2Ad stratum. As noted in the stratigraphic summary above, the 2Ad deposit was eventually
113
determined to contain mixed historical (nineteenth century) and prehistoric deposits.

Detailed analysis of the substance forming the dated sample was inconclusive. While the
sample did contain small fragments of charcoal, identified as Quercus, it also included an
indeterminate vitrified material (see Appendix F). The sample may have included dead
carbon in the form of coal, given that coal was used extensively as fuel in the nineteenth
century and was present in the surrounding historical strata. The date was disregarded in
further analyses.
1000
900
800
700
a. b.
600
c. d.
500
400
AD
300
200 e.
100
a). Feature 283

b.) Feature 283
c.) 2AB ceramic residue
d.) 2Ab ceramic residue
e.) 2Ab ceramic residue
Figure 5-11. Plot of Radiocarbon Data from the Ramp 3 Block

Excavation (Woodland period dates, using 2-sigma calibrated ranges and
conventional age–calibration curve intercept).
Pairwise significance tests for contemporaneity (Thomas 1976:249-50) were run on

the Woodland period dates from the deposits. The statistic calculated for the tests was the t-
ratio, and the calculations were conducted on uncalibrated dates. With the rejection region at
$ = .01 and with infinite degrees of freedom, the table value of t is 2.58. The results of the
tests are presented in Table 5-3. Statistically significant comparisons, suggesting
114
contemporaneity, are highlighted. The tests implied that, based on their probability
distributions, the samples from the later Middle Woodland period, including the charcoal
from Feature 283, could have been contemporary, while the date from the overlying 2Ab
stratum was characteristic of separate and slightly earlier deposition.
F-283 1290%70 0.00

F-283 1330%50 0.46 0.00
2AB 1430%50 1.63 1.41 0.00
2Ab 1440%40 1.86 1.72 0.16 0.00
2Ab 1710%50 4.88 5.37 3.96 4.22 0.00
1290%70 1330%50 1430%50 1440%40 1710%50
Table 5-3. Pairwise Tests for Contemporaneity of Radiocarbon Dates, Ramp

3 Block Excavation (highlighted calculations indicate implied contemporaneity).
Seeds. Charred and uncharred seed and nutshell remains were recovered from flotation
samples taken from several proveniences within the Ramp 3 excavation block. Only charred
materials were assumed to have been prehistoric in origin. Table 5-4 summarizes the
findings. Brief descriptions of ethnographically documented uses of the plants follow.
identification provenience
seeds
Asteraceae 1031N 195E 2Ab
Galium 1031N 195E 2Ab
1031N 195E
Phytolacca americana Feature 283 2Ab
nutshell
Juglans Feature 283
Table 5-4. Charred Seeds and Nutshell Identified in

Ramp 3 Flotation Samples.
Galium, or bedstraw, Phytolacca americana, or pokeweed, and Juglans (walnut or

butternut) were described in association with macrobotanical results at the Peter House
remains. The family Asteraceae includes sunflower, ragweed, dandelion and chickory.
Various seeds and leaves of plants from this family were consumed as food (Densmore
1928), while various other parts were used to treat snake-bite or internal complaints, to
relieve fever, or as analgesics (Moermann 1986).
Charcoal. Fragments of charcoal from Feature 283 were submitted for wood species
identification, and the results are presented in Table 5-5. The material included charcoal bits
recovered in flotation samples from feature fill, as well as larger fragments from the feature
that were submitted for radiometric analysis. Ash (Fraxinus), pine (Pinus), and honey locust
(Gleditsia triacanthos) were the most heavily represented woods among the large charcoal
fragments identified from the feature.
115
wood charcoal identification provenience

Carya Feature 283
Cornus Feature 283
Fraxinus Feature 283
Juglans Feature 283
Juniperus virginiana Feature 283
Gleditsia triacanthos Feature 283
Morus Feature 283
Pinus Feature 283
Quercus Feature 283
Table 5-5. Wood Charcoal Identified from the Ramp 3

Excavations (listed in alphabetical order).
The characteristics and environmental ranges of many of the wood types identified at
the site have been discussed in the description of the Peter House findings. Wood types not
previously mentioned included Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust), Juniperus virginiana
(juniper), and Pinus (pine).
Honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) grows in both mesic bottomlands and dry sandy
upland soils (Preston 1989). The bark of the honey locust was used to brew a tea that
induced sweating as a cure for colds (Kraft 1986). The trees are also known as Black locust,
Sweet locust, or Thorny locust, the latter due to its long, tough spines. Although there are no
specific ethnographic accounts of their use by Native American groups, the spines were used
historically as pins: the tree is known colloquially in the South as the Confederate Pintree,
since Confederate soldiers used the spines to pin together ragged uniforms. The tough and
springy wood of the locust was occasionally used by eastern Indian groups for bows (Peattie
1991).
The Eastern Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is common across eastern North
America. Referred to as the most widely distributed eastern conifer, it grows in a variety of
environments from dry uplands to wet bottomland and swamps (Little 1980). The tree has a
distinctive aromatic wood and an oily sap.
Pines (Pinus) include a large number of species. Most grow in acidic soils, often in
disturbed areas and particularly after forest fires (Preston 1989). Pines are often found in
pure stands, which may be due in part to the effect of decomposing needles which augment
soil acidity and discourage the growth of other vegetation. Pines occur in a variety of
settings: Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus), for example, is found in well-drained sandy
soils; Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) in shallow, gravelly soils in stream valleys and swamps
(Little 1980). Pine wood is typically soft and resinous.
Pollen. Pollen and phytolith analyses were conducted on sediment samples recovered at
regular intervals in a column beginning with the subsoil below Feature 283, and continuing
upward through the profile, through the feature fill and into the deposits above the feature.
116
Arboreal pollen identified in the subsoil below the feature was characteristic of a
mixed pine and hardwood forest, the latter including oak, hickory, and birch. Additional
pollen grains implied that ground cover in the area consisted of various herbaceous plants,
including grasses (Poacecae), Cheno-ams, and weedy plants such as ragweed, mustard, and
medick. These plant types suggest the presence of cleared areas or open, frequently
disturbed areas along stream banks.
No pollen was present in the sample from Feature 283, although pollen grains were
identified in the samples below and above the feature. Pollen grains in the samples above the
feature were again attributed to a variety of arboreal and grassy or weedy plants. High
frequencies of pollen associated with Low-spine Asteracea were documented. Low-spine
Asteracea is often interpreted as evidence of an increased incidence of ragweed related to
heavy disturbance during the historic period. Given the mobility of pollen grains through the
soil column, the evidence suggested that the pollen record in the upper strata of the Ramp 3
excavation block were at least partially contaminated by material from the overlying
historical deposit.
Phytoliths. Phytolith analysis was conducted in conjunction with pollen analysis on the
same samples. The findings generally supported an interpretation of vegetation in the area
consisting of a mixed hardwood forest with an accompanying herbaceous groundcover. The
samples directly below and within Feature 283 also contained phytoliths characteristic of
magnolia, suggesting the use of the leaves or flowers of that plant in the burial at the base of
the feature. Phytoliths associated with grasses were common in the feature itself, further
suggesting the possibility that grasses were used in the interment, either as lining at the base
of the pit, as part of the textile fragments recovered from the feature, or as fuel or tinder in an
associated fire ritual.
Artifacts
In total, 31,170 artifacts were recovered from the Ramp 3 excavations. Of these,
2,695 were prehistoric, including 1,560 chipped stone artifacts, 9 ground or pecked stone
artifacts, 306 ceramic sherds, 150 organic-based artifacts (bone, textile, or wood), and 670
fragments of fire-cracked rock. Approximately 25 percent of the prehistoric artifacts
(n=684) were recovered from demonstrable fill strata that capped intact deposits at the site.
The remaining 2,055 prehistoric artifacts were recovered from intact strata, beginning with
the nineteenth-century alley deposit, 2Ad. These artifacts form the basis for the descriptive
analyses that follow. The analyses are grouped by main stratigraphic component, beginning
with the 2Ad stratum. Summary descriptions of lithics are provided, including data on points
(for chronological implications) and other lithic objects, followed by summary descriptions
of ceramic artifacts. A sample of diagnostic points is illustrated for each main provenience.
cordage twist, are included in Appendixes B, H, and I.
117
Stratigraphic Components.
2Ad Stratum. The 2Ad stratum contained a mixture of historical and prehistoric artifacts.
Almost 4,500 historical artifacts were recovered from the deposit. The artifacts are treated in
detail in a separate report on the historical occupations at the Whitehurst Freeway sites
(Crane et al. 2006). Briefly, the temporally diagnostic items included hand-wrought and cut
nails, several fragments of white salt-glazed stoneware, along with creamware and pearlware,
the latter two wares comprising over 60 percent of the total sherd count. Of more than 600
fragments of bone and shell in the deposit, all but 13 bone fragments were non-calcined and
were presumed to have been historical in origin—the calcined or burned fragments may have
been either historical or prehistoric in origin.
The 2Ad stratum appeared to have been an early nineteenth-century surface that had
accumulated on an existing prehistoric surface. In total, 678 prehistoric artifacts were
recovered from the deposit. The results of spatial analyses, described below, implied that
horizontal disturbance to the prehistoric artifacts in the deposit was limited in many parts of
the excavation area. Since the artifacts occurred in good contexts, they have been included
in the detailed descriptive analysis. Sixty percent of the artifacts consisted of chipped stone,
25 percent fire-cracked rock, and 15 percent ceramic sherds (Table 5-6). Quartz was the
dominant lithic raw material among the chipped stone flaking debris (Table 5-7), while
quartzite was an important minor component and small amounts of cryptocrystalline (chert
and jasper), siltstone, and rhyolite were also present.

flake 369 55% quartz 238 59%
point 6 1% rhyolite 5 1%
uniface 1 <1% total 406
ceramic vessel 100 15% Table 5-7. Chipped Stone Raw Material
Distribution, Ramp 3 Excavations, 2Ad
total 678 Stratum.
Distribution Ramp 3 Excavations, 2Ad
Stratum.
Points. Six points were recovered from the 2Ad stratum, including one that was diagnostic
of the Archaic period, two diagnostic of the Woodland period, and three that were too
fragmentary to be typed (Figure 5-12). The Archaic point was characteristic of the Early-to-
Middle Archaic Otter Creek type; it was made of quartzite and exhibited extensive damage at
the distal and proximal ends. Woodland period points included a small side-notched point
made from chert and a triangle related to the Levanna type, also manufactured from chert.
Three point fragments recovered from the 2Ad stratum were too small to be typed
morphologically, but exhibited characteristics such as finely flaked edges indicating that the
118
Figure 5-12. Sample of Points from 2Ad

Stratum, Ramp 3 (Otter Creek [3242-15]; Woodland
side-notched [3093-12]; Levanna [215-92]).
fragments were derived from finished bifaces. Two specimens—one of chert, the other of
quartz—were cataloged as distal fragments, or point tips. The third was the medial fragment
of a quartzite point.
Other Chipped Stone. Eight bifaces were recovered from the 2Ad stratum, including three
early and five late stage forms. All three early stage bifaces appeared to have been
manufacturing errors: two bore perverse fractures and the third had snapped at a material
flaw. The late stage specimens bore either minor distal snaps or oblique-to-transverse snaps
that could have been associated with either use or manufacture.
One uniface was identified among the tools from the 2Ad stratum. It was formed on
a small, non-cortical jasper flake, and extensive step fractures and undercutting were visible
on the working edge.
Three cores recovered from the deposit. One was a large quartzite cobble with
several flakes removed, either to test the quality of the raw material or to produce expedient
flake tools. The remaining cores—one a multi-directional freehand core, the other a bipolar
core—were smaller and probably originated from quartz pebbles.
Table 5-8 displays the frequency distributions of raw material types among flaking
debris (including flakes and chips), bifacial tools forms, and cores for the entire 2Ad stratum.
At the stratum-wide level, analysis was limited to raw material frequencies in order to
provide a general assessment of the character of the lithic material in the deposit. Variations
in the relative frequencies of raw materials between the categories may reflect the results of
several formation processes across the entire excavation area. Results of additional attribute
analyses, including flake size and cortical frequency distributions, are reported for particular
119
groups of artifacts in the spatial analyses described below. One jasper flake from the deposit
exhibited unifacial wear along one edge.

quartz 60% 22% 17% 67%
quartzite 34% 78% 33% 33%
cryptocrystalline 3% -- 50% --
rhyolite 1% -- -- --
n= 388 8 6 3
Table 5-8. Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking Debris,
Bifacial Tools, and Cores in 2Ad Stratum, Ramp 3.
Ceramic Artifacts. One-hundred ceramic sherds were recovered from the 2Ad stratum,
among which 61 percent were sufficiently distinct in attributes to be catalogued according to
accepted ware descriptions (Table 5-9). Chronologically, nearly 75 percent of the typed
sherds were Late Woodland in date, and the remainder Middle Woodland. No Early
Woodland sherds were identified among the ceramics from the deposit. Cordage twist was
identified on eight sherds from the 2Ad stratum. The untyped sherd with final z-twist was
sandstone-tempered.

s-twist z-twist
Mockley 7 7% 1 --
Potomac Creek 7 7% 3 --
Townsend 38 38% 1 2
untyped 39 39% -- 1
total 100 5 3
Table 5-9. Ceramic Ware Distribution in the 2Ad Stratum, Ramp 3.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The 2Ad stratum contained 172 fragments of fire-cracked rock,
weighing a total of 7.5 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 44 grams). More than one-half of
the fragments were quartzite, while quartz and siltstone comprised approximately 20 percent
of the total each.
2Ab Stratum. Like the overlying 2Ad stratum, the 2Ab stratum contained a mixture of
historical and prehistoric artifacts. While historical material comprised almost 90 percent of
the total artifact count in the 2Ad stratum, the underlying 2Ab stratum contained primarily
prehistoric artifacts. Of a total of 497 artifacts recovered from the 2Ab stratum, historical
material (including shell and non-calcined bone) accounted for 21 percent. Temporally
diagnostic items among the historical artifacts included hand-wrought and cut nails, and
several fragments of creamware and pearlware, indicating their probable origin in the
overlying historical deposit.
120
In total, 394 prehistoric artifacts were recovered from the 2Ab deposit, 48 percent
consisting of chipped stone, 27 percent fire-cracked rock, 24 percent ceramic sherds, and one
percent antler (Table 5-10). Quartz was the dominant lithic raw material among the chipped
stone flaking debris (Table 5-11). Quartzite was an important minor component, and small
amounts of cryptocrystalline (chert, jasper, and chalcedony), rhyolite, and siltstone were also
present.

flake 166 43% quartz 114 60%
core 7 2% cryptocrystalline 8 4%
point 2 <1% siltstone 2 1%
antler 4 <1% Table 5-11. Chipped Stone Raw Material
Distribution, Ramp 3 Excavations, 2Ab
total 394 Stratum.
Distribution Ramp 3 Excavations, 2Ab
Stratum.
Points. Two projectile points were recovered from the 2Ab

stratum. One was a Late Woodland triangular made from
quartzite that exhibite a minor transverse distal snap break
(Figure 5-13). The second was a small distal fragment of
rhyolite.
Other Chipped Stone. Four early stage bifaces and one late
stage biface were recovered from the 2Ab stratum. Three
of the early stage bifaces were quartzite, exhibiting
transverse snaps that may have been the result of end
shock. The fourth early stage biface was quartz and bore
multiple perverse fractures that resulted from production
failure, judging from the alignment of breaks along flaw Figure 5-13. Point from 2Ab
Stratum, Ramp 3 (Levanna
planes. The late stage specimen was quartzite and was [209-15]).
unbroken.
Of seven cores recovered from the deposit, all were quartz. Three were multi-
directional freehand cores, including one large cobble weighing over 1.3 kilograms. The
remaining four were small bipolar cores.
debris (including flakes and chips), bifacial tools forms, and cores for the entire 2Ab stratum.
At the stratum-wide level, analysis was limited to raw material frequencies, in order to
121
provide a general assessment of the character of the lithic material in the deposit. The raw
material proportions generally corresponded with the proportions noted among bifaces,
although sample sizes were small, making confident interpretation difficult. Results of
additional attribute analyses, including size and cortical frequency distributions, are reported
for particular artifact groups in the report section below on spatial analyses.

quartz 61% 60% 50% 100%
quartzite 33% 40% -- --
cryptocrystalline 5% -- -- --
siltstone <1% -- -- --
rhyolite <1% -- 50% --
n= 175 5 2 7
Debris and Bifacial Tools in 2Ab Stratum, Ramp 3.
Ceramic Artifacts. In total, 93 ceramic sherds were recovered from the 2Ab stratum. Of
these, 68 were sufficiently distinct in attributes to be catalogued according to accepted ware
descriptions (Table 5-13). Chronologically, over 75 percent of the typed sherds were Late
Woodland in date, and the remainder Middle Woodland. No Early Woodland sherds were
identified among the ceramics from deposit. Cordage twist was identified on 10 sherds from
the 2Ab stratum, final s-twist generally occurring on Middle Woodland sherds, z-twist on
Late Woodland sherds. The untyped sherds consisted of a schist-tempered shed with final s-
twist and two chert-tempered sherds with final z-twist.

s-twist z-twist
Mockley 9 10% 2 --
Townsend 49 53% 1 4
untyped 25 27% 1 2
total 93 4 6
Table 5-13. Ceramic Ware Distribution in the 2Ab Stratum, Ramp 3.
Antler. Four fragments of worked antler were recovered from the 2Ab deposit. Two
appeared to be from the upper edge of a large comb, similar to and probably part of the
specimen described below from Feature 283. Two other pieces were parts of long, narrow
spurs that may have been comb tines or pins.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The 2Ab stratum contained 108 fragments of fire-cracked rock,
weighing a total of 9.5 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 89 grams). Approximately 37
percent of the fragments were quartz, 36 percent quartzite, 20 percent siltstone, along with a
small amount of sandstone.
122
2AB Stratum. The 2AB deposit was an intact prehistoric deposit that appeared to have been
associated with the early portion of the Middle Woodland period. While historical artifacts
comprised 30 percent of the artifact total, they were assumed to have been intrusive from the
overlying depositional layers. The relatively high frequency of historical material was
attributed to the fact that the 2AB lay in direct contact with the historical alley surface (the
2Ad stratum) in units in the eastern part of the Ramp 3 excavation area. In total, 370
prehistoric artifacts were recovered from the excavated portion of the deposit: 53 percent
chipped stone, 29 percent fire-cracked rock, 16 percent ceramic sherds, and less than one
percent ground or pecked stone (Table 5-14). Quartz was the majority raw material among
the chipped stone artifacts, with quartzite an important minority type (Table 5-15). Small
amounts of chert, jasper, and siltstone were also present.

flake 186 50% quartz 126 63%
biface 3 <1% siltstone 1 <1%
point 2 <1% total 200
anvil 1 <1%
hammerstone 1 <1% Table 5-15. Chipped Stone Raw Material
fire-cracked rock Distribution, Ramp 3 Excavations, 2AB
109 29%
Stratum.
total 370

Distribution Ramp 3 Excavations, 2AB
Stratum.
Points. Two projectile points were recovered

from the 2AB stratum (Figure 5-14). One, a
side-notched point made from quartz with
serrated blade edges and ground base,
conformed to descriptions of the Early Archaic
Kirk type. The second point was a small
triangle of chert, similar to the Levanna type.
Other Chipped Stone. Three bifaces were

recovered from the 2AB stratum. One was a
fragment of an early stage biface of quartzite Figure 5-14. Points from 2AB Stratum,
with an oblique snap break. The second was a Ramp 3 (Kirk [3245-1]; Levanna [3142-21]).
small fragment from a quartz late stage biface
bearing multiple perverse fractures. Breakage in each of these cases may have resulted from
123
production errors, give the early manufacturing stage and form of break, respectively. The
third specimen was the distal end of a quartzite late stage biface Two cores were recovered
from the 2AB deposit. One was a small, multi-directional freehand core of quartzite; the
other a small, bipolar quartz core.
debris (flakes and chips), bifacial tools forms, and cores for the entire 2AB stratum. The
importance of quartz is apparent throughout the categories.

quartz 64% 33% 50% 50%
quartzite 35% 67% -- 50%
cryptocrystalline <1% -- 50% --
siltstone <1% -- -- --
n= 193 3 2 2
Debris and Bifacial Tools in 2AB Stratum, Ramp 3.
Ground or Pecked Stone. Ground or pecked stone artifacts from the 2AB stratum consisted
of knapping tools: a small hammerstone made of dense quartzite, and a small siltstone anvil.
The hammerstone exhibited minor battering on both ends of the long axis. The anvil
consisted of a large fire-spalled cobble fragment with evidence of battering or wear on the
cortical face.
Ceramics. In total, 59 ceramic sherds were recovered from the 2AB stratum. Of these, 40
were catalogued according to accepted ware descriptions (Table 5-17). Chronologically,
almost 70 percent of the typed sherds were Late Woodland, and the remainder Middle
Woodland. No Early Woodland sherds were identified among the ceramics from the deposit.
Cordage twist was identified on five sherds from the 2AB stratum. The untyped sherd with
final z-twist was jasper-tempered.

s-twist z-twist
Mockley 1 2% -- --
Townsend 30 51% 1 3
untyped 19 32% -- 1
total 59 1 4
Table 5-17. Ceramic Ware Distribution in the 2AB Stratum, Ramp 3.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The 2AB stratum contained 109 fragments of fire-cracked rock,
weighing a total of 3.7 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 68 grams). More than 50 percent
of the fragments were quartzite, with siltstone and quartz comprising approximately 20
124
percent of the total each. In addition, small amounts of sandstone, schist, and chert were
present.
Feature 283. Feature 283 comprised a unique provenience at the site, and thus the artifacts
are detailed separately from those in the horizontally extensive stratigraphic proveniences.
In total, 303 prehistoric artifacts were recovered from the feature (Table 5-18). Sixty-two
percent of the total consisted of organic material, such as bone, wood, or textile; 22 percent
consisted of fire-cracked rock; 10 percent chipped stone; three percent ceramic sherds; and
two percent ground or pecked stone. Quartz was the most frequently occurring raw material
among chipped stone artifacts (Table 5-19).

flake 25 8% quartz 21 70%
point 1 >1% rhyolite 2 7%
ground/pecked stone 7 2% total 30
antler 97 32%
bone 43 14% Table 5-19. Chipped Stone Raw
wood 1 >1% Material Distribution, Ramp 3
Excavations, Feature 283.
textile 6 2%
sharks tooth 41 14%
total 303

Distribution Ramp 3 Excavations,
Feature 283.
General descriptions of the artifacts from the feature are provided below, organized
on the basis of two main proveniences. An assemblage of burial goods, illustrated in Figure
5-15, was encountered at the base of the pit is described first. The results of special analyses
conducted in association with these artifacts are summarized, while details of the findings are
included in various appendices to the report and that are referenced where appropriate. The
second main provenience consisted of backfill from the original excavation of the pit. This
sediment contained lithic and ceramic artifacts which are described in the paragraphs
following the artifacts from the burial assemblage.
Point. A single projectile point was recovered from Feature 283. The artifact
consisted of a large chert triangle that measured 6.3 centimeters in length, 4.5 centimeters in
width, and 9 millimeters in thickness. The point was isosceles in form, with slightly
asymmetrical blade edges. The chert was black and oolitic, identified as from the Great
Valley Sequence of western Virginia (Appendix G). Microscopic examination of the artifact
125
Figure 5-15. Artifact Assemblage at the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3 (clockwise from left: comb [3216-1]; bead [5007-1]; slate pendant
[3250-1]; schist pendant [3234-1]; point [3250-2]; antler disks [3216-2; 3249-3,4; 3265-4; 5009-4; 5013-1]; shark teeth [223-1; 3216-5,12; 3249-1,2;
3265-1,3; 5009-1,3]; hammerstone [3216-15]; phallus effigy [5007-2]) .
126
revealed isolated patches of striation on raised areas, probable evidence that the point had at
some time been hafted and may have been used for cutting. No wear was visible on the
edges of the artifact other than in the hafting area. Two hairs from an undetermined
mammalian species were observed on the proximal end, and were presumed to have been
lodged beneath the haft (Appendix K).
Ground or Pecked Stone. Two pendants, one of slate and the other schist, were recovered at
the base of the pit as part of the burial (Figure 5-16). The larger of the two pendants (3250-
1) was of a form that Ritchie (1994) described as a long, narrow isosceles trapezoid. The
pendant measured 12.8 centimeters in length, ranged from 2.2-5.5 centimeters in width, and
varied from 4-9 millimeters in thickness. A single perforation was centered 28 millimeters
below the upper edge of the artifact. The hole had been drilled from opposite sides, as
indicated by its varying diameter, which measured 5 millimeters on one face and 4
millimeters on the opposite face. The color of the slate was very dark gray (Munsell
2.5Y3/1). The raw material appeared to be Martinsburg slate of the Great Valley sequence
of western Virginia. Residue was noted on the pendant, identified as resin that was likely
derived from burned wood.
Figure 5-16. Pendants from the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3

(left, 3250-1; right, 3234-1).
127
The second pendant (3234-1) was made from schist that may have been of local
origin. The artifact was less than half the length of the slate pendant, and it was somewhat
less formally shaped. It measured 5.5 centimeters in length, and varied from 1.2-2.4
centimeters in width and 2-4 millimeters in thickness. A single perforation was centered 12
millimeters below the upper edge of the artifact, and as on the slate pendant, the hole
measured 5 millimeters in diameter on one face, and 4 millimeters in diameter on the
opposite face. The color of the schist was dark gray (Munsell GLEY1/4).
A portion of a stone phallus effigy was recovered from the base of Feature 283
(Figure 5-17). It was fashioned from a sandstone cobble containing a natural quartz vein that
resulted in a realistic likeness. Modification to the natural stone appeared to have been
minimal, consisting of minor abrading of the edges to make the artifact symmetrical, and the
addition of a shallow incised line on one end. An undetermined portion of the effigy was
missing from the proximal end along a weathered break, while the artifact was recovered in
two pieces that had separated along a relatively unweathered break. A portion of the stone
was blackened, probably the result of burning. Heat damage likely accounted for the
fragmentary condition. The maximum width of the artifact was 3.8 centimeters.
Figure 5-17. Phallus Effigy from the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3 (5007-2;
left, lateral view; right, oblique view of distal end).
Ground or pecked stone artifacts from the feature included three quartzite cobbles
that appeared to have been used as hammerstones (Figure 5-18). Two of the specimens
exhibited only minor battering on one end. The third hammerstone was slightly tabular in
shape and showed moderate battering along its entire perimeter.
128
Figure 5-18. Hammerstones from the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3

(left to right, 3216-15; 3234-7; 3248-12).
Antler. Portions of a large, incised antler comb were recovered in 83 pieces. When
reassembled (Figure 5-19), the artifact measured 14 centimeters in width at the proximal end
(across the top of the body), 6 centimeters at the waist (at the start of the tines), and 5
centimeters across at the distal end of the tines. The body was 14.5 centimeters in length and
the tines 15 centimeters in length, for a total length of 27.5 centimeters. The tines measured
an average 5 centimeters in width. The wide, flat body of the comb was decorated with a
pattern of intricately incised lines. The pattern was zoned, with vertical lines in the upper
zone interspersed with needle or tine-like devices. Two horizontal or transverse lines
separated the upper zone from the lower zone. The latter contained groups of additional
vertical lines packed together within rectangles, like sticks or reeds bundled with wide strips
of leather or fabric. The upper edge of the comb appeared to have been cut with a tight
dentate pattern. The lower half of the comb consisted of five teeth or tines ending in slightly
beveled points. All of the comb fragments were calcined.
Fourteen additional fragments of carved antler were recovered that mended to form
six small oval disks (Figure 5-20). The disks were in the same calcined condition as the
antler comb. The complete disks or measurable fragments ranged from 2-2.7 centimeters in
length, 1.2-1.5 centimeters in width, and 4-6 millimeters in thickness (Table 5-20). The
disks appeared to have been gaming or ritual pieces (Appendix M).
129
Figure 5-19. Antler Comb from the Base of Feature 283, Ramp
3 (reconstruction with inset detailing incised decoration).
Figure 5-20. Antler Disks from the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3
(left to right: [3216-2; 3249-3,4; 3265-4; 5009-4; 5013-1]).
130
Length Thickness
Artifact Number Width (mm)
(mm) (mm)
3216-2 20 12 4
3249-3 27 13 6
5013-1 25 15 5
Table 5-20. Sizes of Reconstructed Antler Disks from the

Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3.
Bone. Forty-three fragments of calcined bone were recovered (Table 5-21). Ten of the
fragments were from one or more large birds. The fragments were mended into two groups:
part of the wing and part of the tail of a large falconiform bird, such as an eagle, hawk, or
osprey. Specifically, the bones consisted of fragments of the left humerus and part of a
coccygeal vertebra. In addition, three very small pieces were identifiable only as
representing bird bone (Appendix M).
The remaining 33 bone fragments were human in origin. Mending of the fragments
resulted in the identification of 18 partial bone specimens, including a small fragment of
cranium; a small fragment of scapula or pelvic bone; a fragment of clavicle; and portions of a
tibia and fibula. All appeared to be from a single individual: a small adult, possibly female,
aged around 40 years (Appendix L).
Textiles. Small fragments of burned textile fabric were recovered from the southern half of
the feature (Figure 5-21). The material may have represented part of a burial wrap or shroud,
or possibly a pouch that had contained the human remains or burial goods when placed in the
feature. Parts of two separate fabrics were identified, each consisting of a plain weave
formed by the interlacing of two sets of yarns. The yarns were single-ply and double ply:
the former identified as from a monocot stem or leaf, such as bulrush, cattail, or one of
several grasses; the latter from the bark of the pawpaw tree that had probably been pre-
treated by boiling. Most of the fragments were very small, consisting of only one or two
strands. The largest fragments measured 34 by 40 millimeters and 20 by 44 millimeters
(Appendix I, J).
Shark Teeth. Forty-one shark tooth fragments, representing a minimum of 14 individual

shark teeth were recovered from the base of Feature 283 (Figure 5-22). The minimum count
was determined by refitting the fragments and counting the number of crown apexes (tips).
Four of the more complete teeth (3216-5, 3216-6, 3216-7, and 5009-1) were analyzed
for species determination. The fragments were identified as upper teeth of the great white
shark (Carcharodon carcharias). The grey and black specimens were fossils, while the
single white tooth (Figure 5-22, top row, 3216-7) consisted of a recent, pre-functional
enamaloid shell. This tooth may have been obtained from a beached shark, possibly from
New England or the Middle Atlantic. The sources for the fossil teeth could not be specified.
Likely source areas included Early Pleistocene marine sediments that occur from Norfolk,
Virginia to Florida, or possibly Late Miocene sediments along the Choptank River, in
Maryland (Appendix N).
131
number of number of artifact

description length width weight
specimens fragments number
bird
portion of diaphysis of
left humerus of large 1 2 27mm 8mm 0.6 gm 3216-3
bird, probably falconiform
portion of diaphysis of
left humerus of large 1 4 94mm 8mm 2.5 gm 3249-7 (i)
bird, probably falconiform
portion of first coccygeal

vertebra of large 1 1 7mm 5mm 0.1 gm 5025-1
falconiform bird
unidentified bird bone

3 3 <11mm <4mm 0.1 gm 3249-7 (j)
fragment
total 6 10 3.3 gm
human
distal diaphysis of left
1 5 102mm 10mm 9.8 gm 3249-7 (a)
fibula
proximal condyle of tibia
with trace amount of 1 2 30mm 25mm 1.7 gm 3249-7 (b)
arthritic lipping
probable sacrum,
innominate, or glenoid 1 1 24mm 11mm 1.4 gm 3249-7 (c)
area of scapula
clavicle fragment 1 1 45mm 13mm 2.7 gm 3249-7 (d)
unidentified larger frags.,
4 12 45-72mm 14-28mm 13.4 gm 3249-7 (e)
probably longbones
unidentified medium
frags., probably 4 6 16-31mm 11-20mm 3.6 gm 3249-7 (f)
longbones
unidentified smaller
frags., probably 5 5 <18mm <8mm 1.0 gm 3249-7 (g)
longbones
probable cranial
1 1 20mm 16mm 0.8 gm 3249-7 (h)
fragment
total 18 33 34.4 gm
Table 5-21. Details of Bone Recovered from the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3.
Wear was observed on the edges of many of the specimens. The wear was more
extensive than is typically present on non-archaeological shark teeth, suggesting their use as
tools prior to inclusion in the mortuary assemblage. All of the teeth exhibited pitting and
striations, several bore dulled edges with bright polish, and others had abraded edges with
polish at the ends of the serrations. Fibers, possibly of animal origin, and a dark residue that
may have been a form of mastic were found near the perforation on two fragments,
suggesting evidence of hafting. In addition, probable blood residues were identified on two
specimens, and an unidentified plant tissue was found trapped between two serrations on
another fragment. One tooth, with an edge dulled to the degree that the serrations had been
worn away, had a macroscopically visible residue that covered the extent of the left margin;
however no diagnostic features were identified to suggest origin of the wear (Appendix K).
132
Figure 5-21. Selection of Textile Fragments from the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3.
Figure 5-22. Shark Teeth from the Base of Feature 283, Ramp 3 (top row: 223-1, 3216-5,
3216-6, 3216-7, 3216-8, 3216-9; middle row: 3216-10, 3216-11, 3216-12, 3249-1, 3249-2, 3265-1,
bottom row: 3265-2, 3265-3, 5009-1, 5009-2, 5009-3).
133
Wood. A single wooden bead

(Figure 5-23) was recovered from
Feature 283. Examination of the
artifact at 500x magnification
revealed tracheids and bordered pits
indicating that the bead was made of
a softwood (gymnosperm) species.
The bead was round and measured 6
millimeters in diameter. The
perforation measured approximately
1 millimeter in diameter on one side
and 4 millimeters on the opposite
side. The artifact was singed and Figure 5-23. Wooden Bead from the Base of Feature
crazed, indicating heat damage. 283, Ramp 3 (5007-1).
Artifacts from Feature 283 Fill. Chipped stone, ceramic sherds, and fire-cracked rock
unrelated to the burial were recovered from the upper portion of the pit fill and are detailed
below.
Flaking Debris. Table 5-22 displays the frequency distributions of raw material types among
flaking debris (flakes and chips) and cores recovered from the feature fill. As in many
proveniences at the site in general, quartz was the dominant raw material. One quartzite
flake from the deposit exhibited bifacial retouch.
material flaking debris cores

quartz 70% 100%
quartzite 19% --
rhyolite 7% --
cryptocrystalline 4% --
n= 27 2

Flaking Debris and Cores in Feature 283 Fill, Ramp 3.
Ceramics. In total, 10 ceramic sherds were recovered from the Feature 283 fill. The
majority were typed as early Middle Woodland Pope’s Creek (Table 5-23). The untyped
sherd was sand tempered. Cordage twist was identified on two sherds from the fill, final s-
twist on the Middle Woodland Mockley sherd and final z-twist on the Late Woodland
Townsend sherd.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The pit fill from Feature 283 contained 68 fragments of fire-cracked
rock, weighing a total of 26.6 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 390 grams). Approximately
32 percent of the stone was quartz, 29 percent schist, and 26 percent quartzite. Small
amounts of siltstone, sandstone, and chert were also present.
134

s-twist z-twist
Mockley 1 10% 1 --
Townsend 1 10% -- 1
untyped 1 10% -- --
total 10 1 1
Table 5-23. Ceramic Ware Distribution in Feature 283 Fill, Ramp 3.
3Bt Stratum. Most of the 3Bt deposit consisted of culturally sterile alluvium. Artifacts were
recovered from the deposit, but they were generally located in the uppermost levels of the
stratum and thus were considered to have been intrusive, having migrated into the sandy
matrix from the cultural levels. The artifacts in the 3Bt deposit are described below as a
group. In several units, particularly in the eastern part of the excavation area, the 2Ad
stratum lay directly over the 3Bt deposit, and thus a small amount of historic period material
was present in the lower stratum. Nineteen historical artifacts were recovered from the 3Bt,
including individual sherds of creamware, pearlware, whiteware, and redware, along with
several small fragments of brick, window glass, and nails. Four fragments of oyster shell
that occurred below the 2Ad stratum in one of the eastern units were also presumed to be
historical.
Of 167 prehistoric artifacts present, 61 percent consisted of chipped stone, 29 percent

fire-cracked rock, and nine percent ceramic sherds (Table 5-24). Quartzite and quartz were
the most frequent materials among chipped stone artifacts (Table 5-25).

biface 1 >1% cryptocrystalline 6 6%
point 1 >1% rhyolite 3 3%
fire-cracked rock 48 29% siltstone 1 1%
ceramic vessel 15 9% greenstone 1 1%
total 167 total 103
Table 5-24. Prehistoric Artifact Type Table 5-25. Chipped Stone Raw Material
Distribution, Ramp 3 Excavations, Distribution, Ramp 3 Excavations, 3Bt
3Bt Stratum. Stratum.
Chipped Stone. Flakes comprised the overwhelming majority of chipped stone artifacts in
the deposit, and thus the frequency distribution of raw material types among flakes was the
same as for all chipped stone (Table 5-25). In addition to flakes, a distal point fragment
(chert) and a late stage biface (quartz) were also present.
Ceramics. Fifteen ceramic sherds were recovered from the 3Bt stratum. Frequencies are
listed in Table 5-26. Cordage twist was identified on four sherds from the 3Bt stratum, final
135
s-twist on the Middle Woodland Mockley sherds and final z-twist on the Late Woodland
Townsend sherds.

s-twist z-twist
Mockley 6 40% 2 --
Townsend 5 34% -- 2
untyped 2 13% -- --
total 15 2 2
Table 5-26. Ceramic Ware Distribution in 3Bt Stratum, Ramp 3.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The 3Bt stratum contained 48 fragments of fire-cracked rock, weighing
a total of 2.6 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 55.9 grams). Quartzite comprised
approximately 60 percent of the fragments, quartz 30 percent, and the remainder siltstone.
Chronological Components. Temporal data from the Ramp 3 site suggested that the main
span of deposition on the terrace occurred during the Middle-to-Late Woodland sub-periods.
Little evidence of substantial earlier site use was noted. Ceramic and lithic diagnostic
evidence supported by radiometric data were the basis for this conclusion. Evidence was
documented of vertical disturbance of the profile, as seen in the mixing of diagnostic artifacts
in each of the main strata, although the extent and sources of disturbance (whether cultural or
natural) were not clear. A major distinction was observed in the relative distributions of
historical and prehistoric artifacts in the upper levels, which in part helped define the
historical alley surface (2Ad stratum) and differentiate it from the underlying prehistoric
layer (2AB stratum). Table 5-27 demonstrates the relative frequencies that signaled the
boundary of historical and prehistoric deposition in the two deposits. Yet, while the
distributions indicated the distinction between the main strata, they also implied the gradual
development of the historical surface directly on top of the prehistoric deposit.
artifacts overburden 2Ad 2Ab 2AB 3Bt

historical 97% 85% 13% 25% 5%
prehistoric 3% 15% 87% 75% 95%
th
mixed fill layers 19 -c. prehistoric subsoil
Table 5-27. Relative Frequencies of Historical and Prehistoric

Artifacts in the Ramp 3 Excavations (note reversal of majority
proportions as highlighted in historical and prehistoric deposits).
136
The vertical distributions of diagnostic prehistoric ceramics were more ambiguous in

terms of defining periods of site occupation. While the latest wares occurred more frequently
in the uppermost strata (Figure 5-24), the proportions of Middle Woodland wares were
comparatively even throughout. In the end, interpretation of the results was made difficult
by the small sizes of most of the samples; only Townsend sherds occurred in frequencies that
would easily support statistical analysis.
Popes Creek Mockley Townsend Potomac Creek

n=22 n=32 n=119 n=12
2Ad 2Ad
2Ab 2Ab
2AB 2AB
3Bt 3Bt
F283
frequency within ware

10% 20%
Figure 5-24. Frequency Distribution of Diagnostic Ceramics by Universal

Stratum, Ramp 3 (data from Feature 283 are included for comparative purposes).

Prehistoric artifacts were distributed across the Ramp 3 excavation area in several
site-wide strata. The dispersed excavation units did not lend themselves to formal,
computer-assisted cluster analysis, and so, prehistoric artifact distribution was assessed by
count per unit. Four artifact groups were examined separately for indications of assemblage
variation. The groups were defined in part on the basis of clustering in the locations of
excavation units, and so are to some extent arbitrary.
! Group 1 — 5 units on the Phase II grid in the northwest corner of the
excavation area: 49N 13E, 50N 11E, 50N 13E, 51N 11E, and
51N 12E
! Group 2 — 2 units on the southern edge of the area: 99N 200E , 100N 201E
! Group 3 — 2 units on the eastern edge of the area: 102N 204E, 102N 205E
! Group 4 — 9 contiguous units of varying size on the western edge of the area:
43N 17E, 44N 17-18E, 102-104N/194E, and 103-105N 195E
Three individual units with high artifact frequencies in comparison with the
remaining proveniences were also examined: 50N 18E, 102N 197E, and 109N 201E.
Results of analyses of these three proveniences are included as Other Units at the end of the
descriptions of the first three groups. The nine units in Group 4 comprised the excavation
block at the west edge of the area. This group is considered separately.
137
2Ad Stratum. The 2Ad stratum consisted of early-to-mid-nineteenth-century sheet refuse

that had collected on top of an undisturbed prehistoric surface, incorporating existing
prehistoric material into the deposit. The stratum was present across the entire Ramp 3
excavation area, and prehistoric artifacts were recovered from the deposit in most of the
sampled locations (Figure 5-25). The 2Ad stratum exhibited relatively uniform deposition,
with little internal sediment stratification. The deposit was by definition disturbed, but was
considered generally similar to a plow zone: that is, while blending of temporal components
had occurred, most of the disturbance appeared to have been on the vertical plane, so that the
potential for remnant horizontal clustering of artifacts remained.
51/11
110 Group 1 2Ad Prehistoric
10
50/11
13
13 51/12
109/201
23
108
8 50/13
49/13 23
51/16
106 106/204
8
6
105/195
NORTH 25
50/18
104 104/194 104/195 104/204
7 79 0
24
103/194 103/195
74 150
102/197 102/199 102/204 102/205
102 102/194
24
31 0 33 4
44/17
15
43/17 10
0 44/18 100/197 100/201
100
51/24
9 16 Group 3
14
99/196 99/200
Group 4 16 44
Block
Excavation Group 2
192 194 196 198 200 202 204
EAST
Figure 5-25. Distribution of Prehistoric Artifacts by Count per Unit, 2Ad Stratum,
Ramp 3 (grayed units exhibited low artifact counts and were not included in the spatial analyses).
The samples represented by the excavation units were small and scattered, and so,
conclusions drawn as to the general distribution of artifacts were necessarily tentative.
Further, low frequencies of chronologically diagnostic material rendered the definition of
distinct temporal concentrations in the horizontal plane difficult to achieve. Chronologically,
both Middle and Late Woodland ceramics were present across the stratum. Fire-cracked rock
138
fragments were larger and more frequent to the north, in the area encompassed by Group 1.
In addition, quartzite flaking debris occurred as frequently in this area as did quartz, whereas
in most other locations quartz was dominant. The wide distribution of Middle Woodland
ceramic sherds suggested that the Late Woodland occupation had incorporated material from
the earlier Woodland period surface. Together, the prehistoric components had eventually
been reworked by the development of the overlying historic period surface.
2Ab Stratum. The 2Ab stratum consisted of a late prehistoric surface on which the historical
2Ad stratum had in part developed. The 2Ab was limited in extent, identified only in the
deeper deposits at the western edge of the excavation area, corresponding with a lower
terrace of Rock Creek. The 2Ab deposit occurred only in the nine units comprising the
western block excavation, Group 4, which is described separately, below.
2AB Stratum. The 2AB stratum consisted of the prehistoric deposit on which the historic
51/11
Group 1
110
50/11
5 2AB Prehistoric
0
13 109/201
51/12
9
108
0 50/13
49/13
3
51/16
106 106/204
0 0
105/195
NORTH 0
50/18
104 104/194 104/195 104/204
0 73 0 0
103/194 103/195
19 0
102/197 102/199 102/204 102/205
102 102/194
12 16 1 0
44/17 0
26
43/17 1
44/18 100/197 100/201
100 26
51/24
8 38 Group 3
9
2 99/196 99/200
Group 4 54
Block
98
Excavation Group 2
192 194 196 198 200 202 204
EAST
Figure 5-26. Distribution of Prehistoric Artifacts by Count per Unit, 2AB Stratum,
139
period alley surface had developed in the eastern two-thirds of the Ramp 3 excavation area.
To the west, on the lower terrace containing Group 4, the prehistoric period 2Ab deposit
overlaid the 2AB stratum.
The same unit groups and individual units that were examined in the 2Ad stratum
were analyzed in the 2AB for comparison with the overlying deposits (Figure 5-26).
Fewer artifacts occurred in the 2AB stratum than in the overlying deposits, although
the artifacts appeared to have been in better context. While analysis of the 2AB stratum in
the excavation block (Group 4) suggested that the deposit was Middle Woodland in date, the
few diagnostic artifacts present in the eastern part of the 2AB were Late Woodland and
historical, indicating the impact of the later occupations in this part of the site. More and
larger fragments of fire-cracked rock occurred in the north part of the excavation area,
associated with the units in Group 1. The data were insufficient to determine whether the
material was related to the overlying stratum or represented a separate incidence of fire-
related activity.
3Bt Stratum. The 3Bt stratum consisted of a sandy alluvial soil that represented a surface
pre-dating human occupation of the terraces. Artifacts were recovered from the deposit, but
they appeared to have been intrusive from the overlying strata.
The same unit groups and individual units examined in the overlying deposits were
analyzed for prehistoric artifact content in the 3Bt stratum (Figure 5-27). Artifact evidence
from the unit groups and individual units occurred in the form of a few small items recovered
from the surface of the 3Bt deposit. This finding was interpreted as evidence of artifacts
migrating downward into the deposit from the overlying strata.
Group 4 – Block Excavation. Group 4 was located on the western edge of the Ramp 3
excavation area. A block of contiguous excavation units was used to investigate the deposits
in this part of the site. Each of the depositional strata identified in the eastern part of the
Ramp 3 excavation area was recognized in the block excavation, although the deposits varied
in certain attributes, including thickness and prehistoric artifact frequencies. The layers
included: the 2Ad stratum, a partially disturbed layer containing mixed nineteenth-century
historical and prehistoric artifacts; the 2Ab stratum, an intact Late Woodland layer that also
contained intrusive material from the overlying historical deposit; the 2AB stratum, a
remnant of an earlier Woodland occupation surface; and the 3Bt stratum, pre-Holocene
alluvium containing intrusive cultural material. The other main deposit of interest was a
large pit feature, Feature 283.
The terrace occupied by the Ramp 3 site stepped downward in elevation to the west,
toward Rock Creek, occurring as a lower bench (Figure 5-28). More extensive natural
sediment deposition was present atop the bench, and a deeper soil profile and more complex
cultural stratigraphy were recorded there. The distributions of prehistoric artifacts in each of
the main strata revealed in these excavations are summarized in Figure 5-29. The figure
140
51/11
110
Group 1 2Bt Prehistoric
19
50/11
35
16 109/201
51/12
Feature 285 3
108
0
50/13
49/13 0
51/16
106 106/204
2
1
105/195
NORTH 0
50/18
104 104/194 104/195 104/204
0 1 0
0
103/194 103/195
0 10 102/197 102/199 102/204 102/205

102 102/194
0 1 0 0
44/17 0
0
43/17
0 44/18 100/197 100/201
100 2
51/24
18
3 Group 3
99/196 2
2 99/200
Group 4 0
Block
98
Excavation Group 2
192 194 196 198 200 202 204
EAST
Figure 5-27. Distribution of Prehistoric Artifacts by Count per Unit, 3Bt Stratum,
displays a series of stacked maps containing the results of cluster analyses conducted on
artifact distribution data from the Group 4 block excavation. Additional details, particularly
those related to the characteristics of flaking debris and the implications for lithic reduction
strategies, are presented in Appendix C. Similar to deposition across the terrace in general,
the uppermost layer, the 2Ad stratum, contained a mixture of historical and prehistoric
artifacts. The majority of the prehistoric remains consisted of a concentration of Late
Woodland debris, which, assuming the distribution was not completely an artifice of historic
period disturbance, may have represented part of a shallow midden-like deposit or, possibly,
the remnants of a specific activity area.
141
Upper Terrace
5.2 m
4.8 m
110 Lower Terrace

108 or Bench
206
106
204
104 202
200
102 198
196
100
Group 4 --
192 Group 4 --Block
Excavation
90
Excavation Block
Figure 5-28. Three-Dimensional Surface Rendering of Natural Topography at the

Ramp 3 Site Prior to Historic Period Filling, Showing the Locations of Phase I and II
Archaeological Excavations (vertical exaggeration approx. 2.5x).
Below lay the 2Ab stratum, part of the Late Woodland surface on which the historical
alley had developed. The Late Woodland deposit was limited in extent, identified only in the
deeper profile over the bench area on the west slope of the terrace. The 2Ab deposit included
a minor admixture of Middle Woodland ceramics, along with the predominant Late
Woodland artifacts. The combination of temporal data in the deposit implied that a degree of
intermixing had taken place and that a relatively gradual transition occurred between
occupations, with the later occupations incorporating material from the earlier depositional
surfaces.
The underlying 2AB deposit comprised a scattered, probably discontinuous early

Middle Woodland occupation level that had become mixed with later material. To the east,
on the upper part of the terrace, the few diagnostics present in the layer consisted of Late
Woodland sherds, indicating the sporadic nature of the earlier Middle Woodland occupation
and the compressed nature of the sediments in that area. In the excavation on the bench,
chronological data from the 2AB stratum implied that initial occupation had occurred in the
early part of the Middle Woodland. The deposit also contained Mockley ceramics from later
in the Middle Woodland period, as well as a substantial amount of Late Woodland diagnostic
material. Townsend sherds occurred in the northern portion of the block excavation in
frequencies sufficient to argue that the deposit in that area may have been primarily Late
Woodland in age. Ultimately, analysis suggested that the 2Ab and 2AB deposits were
closely related and that the analytical division of the deposits, particularly to the north, was
not precise in terms of original cultural stratification. Low artifact frequencies occurred in
the 2AB near the center of the excavation block, as noted in Figure 5-27 by vertical lines
connecting the two lowest plots. This gap in the artifact distribution reflected the location of
the pit associated with Feature 283. The feature, described below, appeared have been
excavated through the 2AB stratum while the stratum was still a single component, early
Middle Woodland deposit—that is, except for sherds that were arguably intrusive from the
overlying stratum (2Ab), datable ceramic sherds recovered from the pit fill were mostly
142
2Ad
Late Woodland
(historical artifacts
not inclluded)
2Ab
Late and Middle Woodland
absence of artifacts
indicating late Middle Woodland
pit feature
2AB
early Middle Woodland
F-283
feature limits late Middle Woodland
Figure 5-29. Superimposed Artifact Distribution Maps by Stratigraphic Deposit, Block

Excavation, Ramp 3 (artifact contour interval = 10).
143
identified as early Middle Woodland Popes Creek. Later material, including Mockley and
Townsend sherds, was present in the upper reaches of the 2AB deposit, evidence that later
occupations were intensive and sediment accretion had occurred slowly, allowing the
downward movement of late artifacts into the sandy AB.
Feature 283 had been excavated through the earlier Middle Woodland deposits and
into the 3Bt subsoil stratum. The subsoil pre-dated cultural use of the terrace. Artifacts were
recovered from the upper levels of this deposit, but all were intrusive from overlying cultural
deposits. As noted earlier, a second prehistoric feature was discovered in the subsoil in the
area of 50N 11E, north of the excavation block containing Feature 283. The feature, Feature
285, appeared to have been older than Feature 283, since soil formation processes had
removed evidence of the excavation—only artifact frequencies and sediment analyses
suggested the presence of the pit.
144
Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Studies / Whitehurst West
6.0 WHITEHURST WEST PREHISTORIC SITE (51NW117W):

Phase I Survey
Two Phase I trenches were placed 30 meters apart in the area between Rock Creek
and Rock Creek Parkway, in the mapped locations of proposed support columns for the new
elevated ramp north of the existing ramp (Figure 6-1). The first trench (Trench 1), measuring
8.5 meters in length, was situated 7.5 meters east of the current bank of Rock Creek and 15
meters south of K Street. Deposition in the trench consisted of various layers of fill to a
depth of over seven meters below grade. The initial 2.5 meters was described as a massive
layer of construction and demolition debris, including gravel, cobbles, and cut sandstone,
along with miscellaneous late-nineteenth through late twentieth-century artifacts. Below lay
several additional layers of mixed fill. At a depth of five meters below current grade, a dark
gray deposit of compact silt was encountered. This material was identified as dredging spoil,
probably related to the construction or maintenance of the C&O Canal turning basin.
Excavation continued within this deposit to a depth of seven meters, at which point
investigation was discontinued due to safety concerns. Artifacts recovered at the base of the
trench consisted of whiteware and machine-made bottle glass, suggesting a relatively late
date for this part of the fill sequence.
Figure 6-1. Location of Phase I Trenches at Whitehurst West between Rock Creek
Parkway and Rock Creek, North of Existing Ramp.
145
A second trench (Trench 2) was placed 36 meters to the east, at a point

approximately three meters west of the east-bound ramp leading from K Street to the
southbound lane of Rock Creek Parkway. This location approximated the street front along
28th Street in the late nineteenth century, and was thought to have earlier been the site of
wharves along the Rock Creek waterfront. The archaeological trench measured
approximately nine meters in length. Mixed fill deposits containing artifacts diagnostic of
the mid-to-late twentieth century were revealed in the trench profile to a depth of three
meters. Partway into the excavation, approximately two meters below grade, an unmarked
12-inch gas line was encountered running north-to-south, along the west edge of the trench
parallel with the street grid requiring the excavation to be shifted several meters to the east.
At a depth of three meters, a series of thin sediment lenses was encountered. The sediments
were characterized by dark gray ash and gritty silt, and contained brick rubble and a compact
lime deposit, and thus may have been associated with the nineteenth-century lime kilns in the
area, and in particular, the Cammack and Decker Lime Kilns south of the site at 28th and I
Streets. A layer of red sandstone was also encountered at this level in the northern portion of
the trench. The stone may have been related to the stonecutting yard that was documented
near the project area at the turn of the twentieth century. A wooden drain running east-to-
west was also encountered at this level at the northern end of the trench. A test pit measuring
the width of the backhoe bucket (60 centimeters) was excavated into the underlying deposits,
revealing early nineteenth-century and prehistoric deposits directly below the red sandstone
layer.
Phase II Testing
Based on the discovery of potentially sealed, early nineteenth-century deposits
overlying prehistoric strata, Phase II testing was recommended in the area of Trench 2. Due
to the depth of the deposits below grade and to the constraints imposed by the limits of the
proposed construction impacts, increased area exposure of the archaeological deposits was
impractical. The collection of an artifact sample from controlled hand excavations within
Trench 2 and the detailed examination of stratigraphic contexts therein were thus proposed in
order to evaluate the significance of the archaeological remains.
The wooden drain located at the north end of the trench was designated Feature 500,
and a 5-foot-square excavation unit was placed over it to examine its construction features.
A full description and analysis of the feature are included in the detailed report of historical
findings at the Whitehurst sites (Crane et al. 2006).
Prior to investigating deposits below the level of the wooden drain feature, a site grid
was established at the base of the Phase I trench excavation. To provide the best coverage
within the confined area, the grid followed the general orientation of the trench, on an angle
17 degrees east of magnetic north. Two 1-m2 test units were excavated within the grid. Four
distinct archaeological strata were identified in each unit. The first two strata consisted of
historical deposits containing nineteenth-century domestic and architectural debris, including
a collection of Civil War-era brass military buttons, and part of an intact wooden drain.
Below lay a dark, charcoal-stained silty loam deposit with a high frequency of prehistoric
146
artifacts, including ceramics, flaking debris, and fire-cracked rock. At the base of the layer
was a dense cluster of fire-cracked rock and unmodified stream cobbles. The rock
concentration was designated Feature 502.
The Phase II investigation verified the presence of sealed, nineteenth-century deposits

at the site and as well as apparently intact prehistoric strata, the latter including at least one
intact feature. The site was therefore recommended eligible for listing in the NRHP, and data
recovery programs were designed for both the historical and prehistoric components to
mitigate the adverse effects of the planned development of the property.
Phase I and II investigations identified intact historical and prehistoric deposits at the
base of a deep layer of overburden that was related to historic period filling of the area. The
prehistoric deposits lay 2.5 meters above mean high tide line, while the modern ground
surface elevation was almost seven meters. The intervening fill had been deposited in
several episodes during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to reclaim and level the land
along the 28th Street waterfront and create a foundation for Rock Creek Parkway. The
research design developed for the Phase III prehistoric data recovery excavations at
Whitehurst West called for removal of the mixed fill deposits to expose the prehistoric
deposits that lay below, followed by systematic excavation of a sample of the prehistoric
material.
The size of the data recovery sample was determined by development impact. The
boundary of the excavation followed the immediate extent of proposed construction
disturbance, and so, was confined to the footprint of the pit required to house a column
supporting a new overpass. The removal of overburden was accomplished with a backhoe
and an operator experienced in archaeological procedures (Figure 6-2). The depth of the
excavation below surface grade required measures to ensure a safe working environment for
hand excavation. Stepping the trench excavation to maintain a secure slope was impractical
due to the presence of a buried, 12-inch gas line to the west, and the need to maintain the
integrity of a bike path and the fill below Rock Creek Parkway to the east. Therefore, heavy
shoring was used to support the sidewalls of the excavation to the depth at which hand
excavation was initiated (Figure 6-3). Well points were placed around the trench to keep the
excavation dry given its proximity, both horizontally and vertically, to Rock Creek, and due
to continual drainage from artificial, perched aquifers throughout the fill layers (Figure 6-4).
A temporary shelter was constructed over the area to protect it from rain and other inclement
weather (Figure 6-5).
Data recovery consisted of the excavation of a total of 14 contiguous 1-m2 units,

including portions of the two units excavated during Phase II investigations (Figure 6-6).
Geoarchaeological observations and sediment sampling were conducted several times during
the course of the mitigation project. Excavation and documentation procedures at the
Whitehurst West site conformed to descriptions presented in the general field methods
section of this report, with no special procedures adopted for the site.
147
Figure 6-2. Backhoe Excavation at the

Whitehurst West Site.
Figure 6-3. Excavation Crew in Trench

with Heavy Shoring in Background.
Figure 6-4. Installing Well

Points.
Figure 6-5. Installing Well

Points and a Shelter.
148
34N
33N
32N
31N
30N
29N
28E 29E 30E 31E 32E 33E
Figure 6-6. Phase III Excavation Block at Whitehurst West.
At the time of the investigation, the site consisted of a relatively flat area situated
between Rock Creek Parkway and an asphalt-covered bike path that parallels the road. To
the west, ground surface sloped gently over a distance of 30 meters to a drop-off leading to
the modern channel of Rock Creek. The asphalt parking lot of Thompson’s Boat House lay
approximately 30 meters to the southwest. In areas not surfaced with asphalt, ground cover
consisted of patchy grass. The work zone around the excavation encroached on the bike
path, which was diverted to the west, allowing it to remain open throughout the course of the
project, and bringing numerous visitors to the site (Figure 6-7).
As previously described, the intact historical and prehistoric components of the

Whitehurst West site were located beneath at least three meters of nineteenth- and twentieth-
century fill (Figure 6-8). Prior to historic period modifications, the landform appears to have
consisted of an eroded bench terrace located between Rock Creek and the toe of the east
valley slope. The fill overlying the terrace consisted of a massive layer of mixed sandy
clays, clays, gravel, cobbles, and cultural debris, including concrete, coal, asphalt, and
miscellaneous late-nineteenth through late twentieth-century artifacts. Several intact
nineteenth-century deposits occurred at the base of the massive fill, as described above,
including a wooden drain and a layer containing Civil War period artifacts. Below lay a
149
Figure 6-7. The Bike Path along Rock Creek Parkway Was Diverted around the
Excavation and Remained Open throughout the Investigations, Attracting a
Variety of Visitors Each Day.
Figure 6-8. North Profile Section , Trench 2, Whitehurst West.
150
mixed surface horizon containing both prehistoric and historical artifacts (primarily early
nineteenth century). The layer occurred approximately four meters below modern surface
grade and 2.5 meters above the mean high tide line, sloping gently to the south-southwest
toward the creek. Underlying this surface stratum was 30-40 centimeters of fine-grained
sediment containing cultural materials accumulated during the late prehistoric period.
Artifacts and radiocarbon assays in this deposit were primarily Late Woodland in age. The
base of the sequence was marked by an eroded, gravel-rich contact with an underlying suite
of sediments related to the original terrace landform. Artifacts found at or immediately
below this gravely contact may represent Archaic-age occupation of the older, subsequently
eroded, landform.
Stratigraphy of the pre-fill component of the site was organized into six Universal
Stratigraphic Units (USTRs), using the convention described in Section 3.0 (Methods).
Artifact and radiocarbon data have been summarized as needed to clarify stratigraphic
relationships in the descriptions that follow. More complete descriptions and analyses of
artifact, radiocarbon, and ethnobotanical data are included in the sections immediately
following the stratigraphic summary. Detailed geoarchaeological descriptions are provided
in Appendix D.
The oldest component in the sequence consisted of pre-Holocene age sediments

described as 3Bw, 3Bt, and 3Cox strata, representing the upper extent of the eroded bench
terrace that was likely deposited prior to human occupation of the valley (Figure 6-9, 6-10).
Continuous across the excavation block, each stratum averaged 10-15 centimeters in
29 E 30 E 31 E 32 E 33 E
34 N (m)
Af
Af
Abo
Aw
2Ab1
2AB
2Ab2
2AB 3Bw
3Bw
3Bt
3Cox
KEY
Af - mixed 19th C
N34
Aw - mixed 189h C / prehistoric
Abo - late Woodland
2Ab1
early-to-late Woodland
2Ab2
2AB - transitional gravel lag
3Bw
3Bt pre-Holocene subsoil
3Cox
SECTION LOCATION
Figure 6-9. North Profile Section Detail at 34N Grid Line, Whitehurst West.
151
2Af
2Aw 2Abo
2Ab1
2Ab2
2AB
3Bw, 3Bt, 3Cox
Figure 6-10. North Profile Section, 34N Grid Line, Whitehurst West.
thickness. Collectively, they were marked by lower sand and higher clay content than the
overlying strata, were redder in color (dominated by 7.5YR hues), and in the upper levels
exhibited soil structure, all characteristics suggesting greater age than the sediments in the
overlying soil sequence. Charcoal was present in the form of rare and relatively large
fragments in the 3Bw and 3Bt strata. Artifacts from the strata comprised less than 1 percent
of the total prehistoric inventory for the site, accompanied by a small amount of calcined
bone and intrusive historical debris. A single radiocarbon age estimate of 4600±80 BP was
derived from charcoal in the 3Bt stratum.
The pre-Holocene strata were overlain by late-Holocene age sediments which

comprised a midden-like deposit. The sediments represented incremental additions of fine-
grained sediment and coarse-grained artifacts. Variable rates of deposition were indicated by
the degree of sediment weathering and relative integrity of distinct artifact associations. The
pre-Holocene/late Holocene transition consisted of an abrupt and eroded boundary
containing discontinuous gravel lags. The first late Holocene deposit, the 2AB stratum,
averaged 10 centimeters in thickness and exhibited a loamy texture, with friable consistency
and color varying from dark gray to dark brown, with slightly gleyed (2.5Y) hues indicating
wet soil conditions. Temporally diagnostic artifacts recovered from the stratum consisted
primarily of Late Woodland ceramics and lithics, although a small number of Early and
Middle Woodland artifacts were present. A single radiocarbon age estimate of 950±50 BP
was derived from dispersed charcoal in the deposit.
Overlying the 2AB horizon was the 2Ab2 stratum, with which it shared a clear
boundary. The 2Ab2 stratum ranged from 10-15 centimeters in thickness and exhibited a
loamy texture, friable consistency, and a very dark gray color. Soil structure characteristics
were weak. Stream-rolled cobbles were frequent and charcoal was common, the latter
152
generally occurring as fine-grained inclusions. Diagnostic artifacts were dominated by

Woodland period types, with Late Woodland ceramics the most frequent among those. Fire-
cracked rock formed a substantial portion of the artifact assemblage. The feature
designation, Feature 502, was extended to these artifacts along with a mass of associated
cobbles. Radiocarbon age estimates from the stratum of 960±50 BP, 1070±50 BP, and
1110±90 BP were derived from two ceramic residue samples and a fragment of dispersed
charcoal, respectively.
The sediment sequence continued upward with Stratum 2Ab1, occurring as a

relatively thin deposit (10-15 centimeters) over the 2Ab2 stratum. The 2Ab1 shared a similar
texture, consistency, and color with the 2Ab2 deposit, and contained fine charcoal inclusions.
The most distinguishing characteristic in comparison with the underlying stratum was a
lower incidence of fire-cracked rock. Late Woodland artifact types were again the most
frequent among the chronologically diagnostic artifacts in the deposit, although Early and
Middle Woodland types were also represented. Assays of 740±70 BP and 1180±50 BP were
returned on samples of dispersed charcoal and ceramic residue (respectively), and the dates
were roughly consistent with the temporal range of artifacts from the deposit.
Stratum 2Abo represented the upper extent of intact prehistoric deposition in the
sequence, consisting of a discontinuous deposit located in the northeastern corner of the
excavation block. The deposit was thin, measuring 5-10 centimeters in thickness, and its
lower boundary formed an abrupt contact with the 2Ab1 stratum. The upper boundary with
the historic period Aw stratum was abrupt and erosional, suggesting that the 2Abo was
formerly more extensive but had been truncated, vertically and horizontally, by the Aw. The
primary distinguishing characteristic of the 2Abo stratum was its charcoal content, described
as greasy, fibrous, charred organic material. Most of the temporally diagnostic artifacts
recovered from this stratum were Late Woodland in date. A few, small historical artifacts in
the deposit were presumed to be intrusive from the overlying historic period Aw stratum.
Assays of 310±50 BP and 690±50 BP were returned from samples of dispersed charcoal and
an aggregate of organic residue, respectively. Both age estimates were consistent with the
temporal associations of artifacts from the stratum.
Overlying the late Holocene prehistoric strata was fine-grained alluvial and colluvial
sediment designated the Aw stratum. Probably derived from a combination of eroded
historical and prehistoric sediments, the Aw stratum appeared to have truncated the upper
portions of the 2Abo and 2Ab1 deposits, exhibiting a contact with them that was abrupt,
erosional, and occasionally included small fragments of uncharred organic material, such as
twigs (<10 millimeters diameter). The Aw stratum was relatively thin (5-15 centimeters) and
exhibited a slightly higher sand content than the underlying soils from which much of it was
derived. Artifacts associated with this stratum included redeposited prehistoric and historical
items.
Capping this sequence were several layers of early- and mid-nineteenth-century

deposition, and finally the massive late-nineteenth- and twentieth-century fill that continued
upward to modern grade.
153
6.5 Data Analyses
Features
One feature was documented at the Whitehurst West site: Feature 502.
Feature 502. Feature 502 was a large fire-cracked rock feature. The artifact concentration
dominated the site, comprising a large portion of the 2Ab1 stratum and most of the
underlying 2Ab2 stratum (Figures 6-11, 6-12). Separation of the two layers was made on the
basis of minor sedimentological attributes and the relative frequencies of fire-cracked rock:
Figure 6-11. Central Portion of Feature 502

in the 2Ab2 Stratum, Whitehurst West (view north).
154
Figure 6-12. Plan View of Feature 502, Whitehurst West (dotted line indicates extent of
photograph in Figure 6-11).
in the 2Ab1, fire-cracked rock comprised approximately 15 percent of the sediment matrix;
in the 2Ab2, more than 30 percent. While Early and Middle Woodland period artifacts were
present in the feature, the majority of the temporally diagnostic artifacts were Late Woodland
in age, consisting mainly of Townsend ceramics. Radiocarbon assays on two ceramic
residue samples and a fragment of dispersed charcoal from the 2Ab2 portion of the feature
returned dates of 960±50 BP, 1070±50 BP, and 1110±90 BP, respectively. Dates from the
2Ab1 layer were consistent: 740±70 BP and 1180±50 BP, from dispersed charcoal and
ceramic residue, respectively. The fire-cracked rock concentration rested on a prominent
cobble and gravel lag on the Rock Creek terrace, represented by the 2AB stratum, and it
appeared to have collected on this surface.
155
Radiocarbon Data
Ten dated samples from the Whitehurst West excavations were analyzed, including
six assays from dispersed charcoal, three dates returned on ceramic residues, and one from
organic sediment (Table 6-1). Figure 6-13 provides a comparative plot of the calibrated
results for Woodland period dates, displayed with a 95 percent confidence interval (2-sigma).
Provenience Sample Analysis Radiocarbon Age Calibrated Results Sample Number

Material (2 sigma)
N33/E30 Af dispersed AMS 90±50 BP AD 1675-1775 Beta-104474

charcoal AD 1800-1945
N33/E33 2Abo dispersed AMS 310±50 BP AD 1460-1670 Beta-113874

charcoal
N34/E32 2Abo organic AMS 690±50 BP AD 1260-1400 Beta-104471

sediment
N33/E33 2Ab1 dispersed AMS 740±70 BP AD 1180-1395 Beta-104472

charcoal
N34/E33 2AB dispersed AMS 950±50 BP AD 1000-1215 Beta-113875

charcoal
N33/E30 2Ab2 ceramic AMS 960±50 BP AD 995-1205 Beta 113867

residue
N34/E31 2Ab2 ceramic AMS 1070±50 BP AD 885-1035 Beta-113865

residue
N31/E31 2Ab2 dispersed radiometric- 1110±90 BP AD 705-1055 Beta-104470

charcoal standard AD 1090-1150
extended
N34/E30 2Ab1 ceramic AMS 1180±50 BP AD 720-735 Beta-113866

residue AD 760-985
N32/E30 3Bw dispersed AMS 4600±80 BP 3070-3530 BC Beta-104473

charcoal 3580-3615 BC
Table 6-1. Radiocarbon Dates, Whitehurst West Block Excavation (arranged in

chronological order).
The earliest date from the analysis, 4600±80 BP, was a standard radiometric assay
conducted on dispersed charcoal from the 3Bw stratum, below the gravel bar. Both
sedimentological data and artifact frequency distributions suggested that the 3Bw deposit
pre-dated human occupation of the site. Thus, the sampled carbon may have been from
naturally burned wood. The resulting assay may not necessarily have been a direct
indication of Archaic period use of the terrace, although it serves as a likely bracketing date
for the early end of demonstrated occupation.
Five dates were derived from the main depositional strata that comprised the midden
at the site: the 2Ab1 and 2Ab2. A sixth dated sample was from the underlying 2AB deposit.
The dates from these proveniences displayed a relatively tight range, from 1180±50 BP to
950±50 BP, spanning the end of the Middle Woodland and the onset of the Late Woodland
period. Pairwise significance tests for contemporaneity (Thomas 1976:249-50) suggested a
significant degree of potential overlap in the dates based on their probability distributions
156
1800
1600
1400
a.
1200 b.
c.
1000
d. e.
800 f.
AD h.
g.
600
400
200
a.) 2Abo e.) 2Ab2 ceramic residue

b.) 2Abo f.) 2Ab2 ceramic residue
c.) 2Ab1 g.) 2Ab2
d.) 2BE
2AB h.) 2Ab1 ceramic residue
Figure 6-13. Plot of Radiocarbon Data from the

Whitehurst West Block Excavation (using 2-sigma
calibrated ranges and conventional age–calibration curve
intercept).
(Table 6-2). The statistic calculated for the tests was the t-ratio, and the calculations were
conducted on uncalibrated dates. With the rejection region at $ = .01 and infinite degrees of
freedom, the table value of t is 2.58. As indicated by the analyses, all of the dates from the
2Ab2 were potentially contemporary. One of the dates from the 2Ab1 deposit, 1180±50 BP,
was earlier than those from the 2Ab2, while the date from the underlying 2AB, 950±50 BP,
was later. Both of these dates implied that the stratigraphic separation between the strata was
not clear-cut, that temporal superposition had not been fully maintained, and that a degree of
mixing of the deposits was evident. Nonetheless, the date range implied extensive use of the
site during the early portion of the Late Woodland period.
The second date from the 2Ab1 deposit, 740±70 BP, was potentially contemporary
with the 690±50 BP result from the overlying 2Abo deposit. This result implied that either
the strata were related chronologically or that, as had been the case with the 2Ab2, the
157
deposits were mixed and incompletely separated. However, use of the site into the latter half
of the Late Woodland period was implied by the dates. A second date from the 2Abo
deposit, 310±50 BP, showed no potential overlap. While the date suggested the possibility
of terminal Late Woodland use of the area, it was problematical for several reasons. No
corroborating diagnostic artifactual material was present in the 2Abo, for example.
Moreover, the 2Abo stratum was thin and lay in contact with overlying historical deposits,
suggesting the potential for the intermixing of later carbon in the sample.
2Abo 310%50 0.00

2Abo 690%50 5.37 0.00
2Ab1 740%70 5.00 0.58 0.00
2AB 950%50 9.05 3.68 2.44 0.00
2Ab2 960%50 9.19 3.82 2.56 0.14 0.00
2Ab2 1070%50 10.75 5.37 3.84 1.70 1.56 0.00
2Ab2 1110%90 7.77 4.08 3.25 1.55 1.46 0.39 0.00
2Ab1 1180%50 12.30 6.93 5.11 3.25 3.11 1.56 0.68 0.00
310%50 690%50 740%70 950%50 960%50 1070%50 1110%90 1180%50
Table 6-2. Pairwise Tests for Contemporaneity of Radiocarbon Dates, Whitehurst West
Block Excavation (highlighted calculations indicate implied contemporaneity).
Seeds. Charred and uncharred seed and nutshell remains were recovered from flotation
samples taken from several proveniences within the Whitehurst West excavation block.
Only charred materials were assumed to have been prehistoric in origin. Table 6-3
summarizes the findings. Brief descriptions of ethnographically documented uses of the
plants follow.
identification unit stratum

seeds
Asteraceae 34N 33E 2AB
Hypericum 34N 33E 2AB
Phytolacca americana 31N 30E 2Ab2
34N 31E 2Ab1
34N 33E 2AB
Rubus 34N 32E 2Abo
34N 33E 2AB
nutshell
Carya 33N 33E 2Ab2
34N 33E 2AB
Juglandaceae 34N 32E 2Abo
31N 30E 2Ab2
34N 33E 2Ab2
34N 31E 2Ab1
34N 33E 2AB
Table 6-3. Charred Seeds and Nutshell Identified in

Whitehurst West Flotation Samples.
158
Of the materials not occurring in other sites in the project area, Hypericum includes
St. John’s Wort, and was used to treat a variety of dermatological and gastro-intestinal
complaints (Moermann 1986). The fruit of the genus Rubus, including blackberry, raspberry,
and dewberry, had obvious food value. In addition, infusions and poultices were made from
roots, leaves, and inner bark to treat a number of digestive disorders, eye complaints, and
venereal diseases (Densmore 1928; Moermann 1986). Nuts from the Juglandaceae family
may have included hickory, walnut, or butternut.
Charcoal. Fragments of charcoal from Whitehurst West were submitted for wood species
identification, and the results are presented in Table 6-4. The material included charcoal that
was recovered in flotation samples, as well as larger individual fragments from features that
were submitted for radiometric analysis. The characteristics and environmental ranges of the
wood types identified at the site have been discussed in previous sections of the report.
Ash (Fraxinus), pine (Pinus), and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) were the most
heavily represented woods among the large charcoal fragments identified from the feature.
The remaining wood types were recovered as small fragments in flotation samples.
wood charcoal identification unit stratum

Carya 34N 33E 2Ab2
33N 32E 2Ab1
34N 31E 2Ab1
34N 33E 2AB
Cornus 34N 32E 2Abo
32N 30E 2AB
Fraxinus 33N 33E 2Ab2
Juglans 33N 33E 2Abo
34N 32E 2Abo
34N 33E 2AB
32N 30E 2AB
Juniperus virginiana 33N 33E 2Abo
34N 32E 2Abo
34N 33E 2Ab1
Morus 34N 31E 2Ab1
34N 33E 2AB
Pinus 33N 33E 2Ab2
34N 33E 2Ab2
34N 31E 2Ab1
Quercus 33N 33E 2Abo
34N 32E 2Abo
33N 33E 2Ab2
31N 30E 2Ab2
34N 33E 2Ab2
34N 33E 2AB
32N 30E 2AB
Table 6-4. Wood Charcoal Identified from the

Whitehurst West Excavations, Listed in Alphabetical
Order.
159
Patterns in the incidence of wood types among the charcoal fragments provided
evidence as to the availability and use of wood species. Presence analysis (Popper 1988) was
employed to determine the percentage of proveniences throughout the site in which each
wood type occurred. By disregarding absolute counts, problems which might arise with
frequency data biased by differential rates of preservation may be minimized. Significant
patterns can be masked in cases where frequencies of occurrence are relatively stable but
abundances are variable, yet the procedure is useful for intrasite comparison and may
indicate the potential for broad-based patterns in the relative occurrence of certain woody
materials. The highest percentages were recorded for Quercus, which occurred in 70 percent
of the sampled proveniences. Carya, Juglans, and Juniperus virginiana occurred in 40
percent; Pinus 30 percent; Cornus and Morus 20 percent; Fraxinus 10 percent. Oak thus
appeared to have been a common tree in the area: its wood was easily obtained and widely
used for fuel throughout the periods of site use. Hickory, walnut, and juniper would also
have been widespread, and they too appeared to have been easily procured and frequently
used for fuel.
Little evidence of patterning was observed in the occurrence of wood types by

stratum provenience (Table 6-5). Common types, such as Quercus and Carya were present
throughout the profile. Other types, such as Juglans or Cornus, were found at both the top
and bottom of profile. Juniper occurred only in the upper two strata, representing the only
chronologically patterned trend seen in the data.
2Abo Cornus 2Ab1 Carya

Juglans Juniperus virginiana
Juniperus virginiana Morus
Quercus Pinus
2Ab2 Carya 2AB Carya

Fraxinus Cornus
Pinus Juglans
Quercus Morus
Quercus
Table 6-5. Wood Type Occurrence by Stratum Provenience,

Whitehurst West.
Phytoliths. Phytolith analysis was limited at the Whitehurst West site, due in part to the
amount of stratigraphic mixing that was apparent in the midden deposits. Analysis was
conducted on organic residues removed from the interior of six ceramic sherds: one classified
as Popes Creek, four as Townsend, and one as Potomac Creek. Results were varied.
Residue from one of the Townsend sherds contained a starch granule typical of the
genus Solanum, which includes tuberous plants such as the potato. The finding suggested
that a form of tuber may have been processed in the vessel. Grass phytoliths and starch
granules were also identified in the residues from each of the sherds. Although the
frequencies varied, making interpretation difficult, the material suggested in some cases that
grass seed may have been processed in the vessels. Diatoms and sponge spicules were also
noted in several samples, suggesting the use of water in cooking. Arboreal phytoliths,
160
typical of conifers, also occurred in most of the samples. Their frequency, combined with
the ubiquity of grassy starch granules in the samples suggested that some of the material had
been incidentally included in the residues, and so did not directly reflect substances
processed in the ceramic containers.
Artifacts
In total, 37,965 artifacts were recovered from the Whitehurst West excavations. Of
these, 23,058 were prehistoric and 14,907 historical. In addition, 4,198 fragments of non-
artifactual bone, shell, or woody material were present. The detailed analyses presented here
focus on non-fill proveniences, beginning with the Aw horizon. From these levels, 26,516
artifacts were recovered, of which more than 85 percent (n=22,731) were prehistoric.
Detailed descriptive analyses of artifacts from the excavation are grouped by main
stratigraphic component and presented in order beginning with uppermost deposit, the Aw
stratum. Summary descriptions of lithics are provided, including data on points (for
chronological implications) and other lithic objects, followed by summary descriptions of
ceramic artifacts. A sample of diagnostic points is illustrated for each main provenience.
cordage twist, are included in Appendixes B, H, and I.
Stratigraphic Components
Aw Stratum. The Aw stratum was a colluvial deposit that appeared to have eroded from a
surface east of the excavation block. The Aw stratum contained a total of 4,010 artifacts, of
which more than 80 percent were historical (early-to-late nineteenth century), indicating that
the erosion was a historical event. The temporally diagnostic historical items included hand-
wrought and cut nails, stoneware shreds that included several fragments of white salt-glazed
stoneware, and refined earthenwares, with creamware and pearlware sherds comprising
nearly 40 percent of the total sherd count. Non-artifactual bone, shell, or woody material
accounted for an additional 780 items. Of the more than 700 fragments of bone and shell,
only 16 bone fragments were calcined, or burned. While the burned bone may have been
either historical or prehistoric in origin, the unburned fragments were presumed to have been
part of the historical artifact assemblage.
While most of the material in the deposit was historical, the prehistoric artifacts are
detailed together here for comparison with the uppermost intact prehistoric levels at the site.
Seventy-three percent of the artifacts consisted of chipped stone, 22 percent fire-cracked
rock, five percent ceramic sherds, and less than one percent ground or pecked stone (Table 6-
6). Quartz was the dominant lithic raw material among the chipped stone artifacts, with
quartzite a major component, and small amounts of cryptocrystalline (chert and jasper),
rhyolite, and siltstone also present (Table 6-7).
161

flake 486 68% quartz 261 50%
point 4 1% siltstone 6 1%
steatite fragments 3 <1%
Material Distribution, Distribution
ochre 1 <1% Whitehurst West Excavations, Aw
total 716 Stratum.

Distribution Whitehurst West
Excavations, Aw Stratum.
Points. Four projectile points were recovered from the Aw stratum: a Late Woodland
triangular made from quartzite (Figure 6-14); and three small distal fragments—two of
quartzite and one of chert.
Other Chipped Stone. Six bifaces were recovered from

the Aw stratum, including two early stage (one quartz
and one quartzite), and four late stage forms (all
quartz). Three cores recovered from the deposit
consisted of two small, quartz bipolar cores and a
multi-directional freehand core of quartzite. Table 6-8
displays the frequency distributions of raw material
types among flaking debris (including flakes and
chips), bifacial tools forms, and cores from the Aw
stratum, as a general assessment of the character of the
Figure 6-14. Point from the Aw
lithic material in the deposit. Results of additional
Stratum, Whitehurst West
attribute analyses, including flake size and cortical (Levanna [6155-85]).
frequency distributions, are reported for particular
groups of artifacts in the spatial analyses described below. One quartz flake from the deposit
exhibited unifacial retouch along one edge.
Ground or Pecked Stone. Three steatite fragments were present in the deposit, including two
chips and a vessel sherd. The vessel fragment exhibited striations on the interior that may
have been manufacturing remnants.
Ceramics. In total, 34 ceramic sherds were recovered from the Aw stratum. Of these, 13
were sufficiently distinct in attributes to be catalogued according to accepted ware
descriptions (Table 6-9). Chronologically, Middle and Late Woodland period wares were
equally represented, while only one securely typed Early Woodland sherd was present.
Cordage twist was identified on two sherds from the Aw stratum, final s-twist on a Middle
Woodland Mockley sherd, and final z-twist on an untyped sherd with schist-temper.
162

quartz 50% 83% -- 67%
quartzite 43% 17% 75% 33%
n= 510 6 4 3
Table 6-8. Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking Debris
and Bifacial Tools in Aw Stratum, Whitehurst West.

s-twist z-twist
Selden Island 1 3% -- --
Mockley 2 6% 1 --
Townsend 6 17% -- --
untyped 21 62% -- 1
total 34 1 1
Table 6-9. Ceramic Ware Distribution in Aw Stratum, Whitehurst West.
Ochre. A fragment of ochre was recovered from the Aw deposit. It measured 1.6
centimeters in maximum diameter, weighed 1.0 gram, and was of a soft, silty texture that
streaked red (10YR5/6).
Fire-Cracked Rock. The Aw stratum contained 155 fragments of fire-cracked rock, weighing
a total of 7.1 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 46 grams). Quartzite accounted for more
than 60 percent of the fragments, and quartz, an additional 30 percent.
2Abo Stratum. The 2Abo deposit was a thin, charcoal-rich sediment layer at the top of the
soil profile in the Whitehurst West excavation block. The deposit was recorded in only three
units in the northeast corner of the block, and appeared to have been truncated by the
overlying Aw stratum. The 2Abo stratum contained 1,287 artifacts, of which 46 were
historical and 1,241 prehistoric. In addition, 74 fragments of unworked bone, shell, or
woody material were present. Historical artifacts were consistent with the artifacts from the
overlying Aw stratum, and thus were interpreted as intrusive from that deposit. They
included brick and window glass fragments, a cut and a wrought nail, and a small number of
refined earthenware sherds dominated by creamware and pearlware. Among the bone
fragments in the deposit, two-thirds were calcined and thus were considered potentially
prehistoric in origin.
Seventy-two percent of the prehistoric artifacts in the 2Abo stratum were chipped
stone, 14 percent were ceramic sherds, 14 percent fire-cracked rock, and less than one
percent ground or pecked stone (Table 6-10). Quartz was the dominant lithic raw material
among the chipped stone artifacts (Table 6-11), with quartzite a major component, and small
163
amounts of cryptocrystalline (chert, jasper, and chalcedony), siltstone, and rhyolite also
represented.

flake 879 71% quartz 487 55%
chip 4 <1% quartzite 346 38%
biface 3 <1% siltstone 11 1%
point 7 1% rhyolite 10 1%
total 1,241 Whitehurst West Excavations,
2Abo Stratum.
Excavations, 2Abo Stratum.
Points. Seven projectile points were recovered

from the 2Abo stratum (Figure 6-15): two
stemmed points characteristic of the Archaic
period (both quartzite); two Late Woodland
triangular points (one quartzite and one
quartz); and three small distal fragments
(quartzite, jasper, and rhyolite).
Other Chipped Stone. Three bifaces were

recovered from the 2Abo stratum, all
consisting of late stage quartz forms. Judging
from technological attributes and breakage
patterns, all three appeared to have been
manufacturing rejects, with multiple fractures
along internal flaw planes and stacks that
would have made further thinning impractical. Figure 6-15. Sample of Points from the
One core was recovered from the deposit: a 2Abo Stratum, Whitehurst West (Holmes
small, bipolar quartz core. [6156-76]; Levanna [6156-77).
Table 6-12 shows the frequency distributions of raw material types among flaking
debris (flakes and chips), bifacial tools forms, and cores for the 2Abo stratum, as a general
assessment of the character of the lithic material in the deposit. The wide variation of
materials among points in comparison with other artifacts may reflect the importation of
finished artifacts made from non-local materials.
164
Three flakes from the 2Abo deposit exhibited use wear: two quartzite flakes, one
with bifacial retouch and one with a rounded edge; and one quartz flake with unifacial
retouch.

quartzite 55% -- 43% --
quartz 39% 100% 29% 100%
rhyolite 1% -- 14% --
n= 883 3 7 1
Table 6-12. Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking Debris

and Bifacial Tools in 2Abo Stratum, Whitehurst West.
Ground or Pecked Stone. Three steatite chips were present in the deposit. Weighing one
gram or less, all appeared to be artifacts rather than naturally occurring fragments, but none
bore vessel attributes.
Ceramics. In total, 174 ceramic sherds were recovered from the 2Abo stratum. Most were
too small to allow confident assignment of type. Of the total, 23 percent were catalogued
according to accepted ware descriptions (Table 6-13). Chronologically, over 90 percent of
these typed sherds were Late Woodland period wares, with the remainder Middle Woodland.
Cordage twist was identified on two sherds from the 2Abo stratum, final s-twist on a Middle
Woodland Mockley sherd, and final z-twist on a Late Woodland Townsend sherd.

s-twist z-twist
Mockley 1 <1% 1 --
Townsend 31 18% -- 1
untyped 134 77% -- --
total 174 1 1
Table 6-13. Ceramic Ware Distribution in 2Abo Stratum, Whitehurst West.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The 2Abo stratum contained 170 fragments of fire-cracked rock,
weighing a total of 2.9 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 17 grams). Quartzite and quartz
comprised almost 80 percent of the fragments.
2Ab1 Stratum. The 2Ab1 stratum extended across the entire excavation block. The deposit
was intermingled with the extensive cobble and fire-cracked rock deposit, labeled Feature
502, which lay directly below. The 2Ab1 contained 11,815 artifacts, including 322 historical
artifacts and 11,493 prehistoric artifacts. As was the case with the 2Abo stratum, the
historical artifacts in the 2Ab1 stratum were consistent with artifacts from the directly
165
overlying Aw stratum, and thus they were interpreted as intrusive from that deposit. The
artifacts included brick and window glass fragments, nails, and refined earthenware sherds
again dominated by creamware and pearlware. In addition, 490 fragments of unworked
bone, shell, or woody material were present. More than 75 percent of the bone fragments
present in the deposit were calcined, and thus were potentially prehistoric in origin.
Among the prehistoric artifacts, 75 percent consisted of chipped stone, 11 percent

ceramic sherds, 14 percent fire-cracked rock, and less than one percent ground or pecked
stone (Table 6-14). Quartz was the dominant lithic raw material among the chipped stone
artifacts (Table 6-15), with quartzite a major sub-component, and small amounts of
cryptocrystalline (chert, jasper, chalcedony), siltstone, rhyolite, argillite, and greenstone also
present.

flake 8,470 74% quartz 5,080 59%
chip 75 1% quartzite 2,812 33%
point 23 <1% rhyolite 122 1%
hammerstone 3 <1% argillite 8 <1%
fire-cracked rock 1,632 14% greenstone 2 <1%
ceramic vessel 1,227 11% total 8,600
ochre 1 <1% Material Distribution, Distribution
total 11,493 Whitehurst West Excavations,
2Ab1 Stratum.
Excavations, 2Ab1 Stratum.
Points. Twenty-three projectile points were recovered from the 2Ab1 stratum (Figure 6-16),
including one that was diagnostic of the Archaic period (a stemmed point of quartzite), and
four diagnostic of the Woodland period (three large quartzite triangles conforming to
descriptions of the Levanna type, and one a smaller triangle of quartz). An additional 18
points were too fragmentary to be typed but exhibited characteristics such as finely flaked
edges indicating that they were derived from finished bifaces. Most of the blade edges
showed evidence of reworking, and simple oblique or transverse snap breaks were the most
frequent form of breakage observed.
Other Chipped Stone. Twenty-four bifaces were recovered from the 2Ab1 stratum, including
10 early stage forms (mostly quartzite) and 14 late stage forms (mostly quartz). The early
stage bifaces generally appeared to have been manufacturing rejects. Most of the quartzite
specimens were plano-convex in cross section, with cortex remaining on the convex face,
suggesting reduction from a cobble or pebble split using bipolar percussion. The quartz
examples bore perverse fractures along flaw planes. Breakage among the late stage
166
Figure 6-16. Sample of Points from the 2Ab1 Stratum, Whitehurst West (top
row: Late Archaic stemmed [6027-9]; bottom row: Levanna [6185-48, 6072-47, 6074-1).
examples was typically in the form of multiple perverse fractures, which generally implied
manufacturing failures. Eight cores from the deposit included six bipolar quartz cores and
two multi-directional freehand quartz cores.
The frequency distributions of raw material types among flaking debris (flakes and
chips), bifacial tools forms, and cores for the 2Ab1 stratum, are displayed in Table 6-16, as a
general assessment of the character of the lithic material in the deposit.

quartzite 59% 50% 65% 13%
quartz 33% 46% 18% 75%
cryptocrystalline 5% 4% 13% 12%
rhyolite 1% -- 4% --
greenstone <1% -- -- --
n= 8,545 24 23 8
Table 6-16. Lithic Raw Material Distributions for Flaking Debris and
Bifacial Tools in 2Ab1 Stratum, Whitehurst West.
The raw material distribution among flaking debris was generally consistent with that
of bifacial tool forms, with quartzite predominant, implying that the materials were
167
technologically related. The debitage may thus have resulted from primary reduction activity
areas associated with the manufacture of some or all these tools, as opposed to being
secondary deposits generated at a series of unrelated workshops. Cores varied from the flake
distribution.
Six flakes from the 2Ab1 deposit exhibited use wear: three quartzite flakes, two with
unifacial retouch and one with bifacial retouch and a rounded edge; two quartz flakes, one
with unifacial edge wear and one with bifacial retouch; and one chert flake with unifacial
edge wear.
Ground or Pecked Stone. Two hammerstones were recovered from the 2Ab1 stratum. One
was a small, quartzite cobble with shallow pits on two faces suggesting additional use as an
anvil. Minor heat spalling that was present may have been evidence of incidental burning.
The second hammerstone was a small, oblong cobble of diorite. One end was narrow, and
evidence of battering and flake removals occurred at that end. A small, dense, pitted cobble
of diorite was also present. The artifact was radially symmetrical, with a rounded base,
conical upper section and a distinct pit at the apex. While the artifact is listed in Table 6-14
as a hammerstone, its precise function is unclear.
Also present in the deposit were 30 steatite chips. Although all appeared to be
artifacts rather than naturally occurring fragments, none bore vessel attributes. Most
weighed less than 0.5 grams; the largest weighed 3.0 grams.
Ceramics. In total, 1,227 ceramic sherds were recovered from the 2Ab1 stratum. Most were
too small to allow confident assignment of types. Of the total, 27 percent were catalogued
according to accepted ware descriptions (Table 6-17). Chronologically, 86 percent of the
typed sherds were identified as Late Woodland period wares, 12 percent as Middle
Woodland wares, and two percent Early Woodland wares. Cordage twist was identified on
22 sherds from the 2Ab1 stratum. Final s-twists occurred mostly on Early and Middle
Woodland sherds, final z-twists mostly on Late Woodland sherds. The untyped sherds
consisted of one steatite-tempered and four schist-tempered sheds, all with final s-twist.

s-twist z-twist
Selden Island 6 <1% 1 --
Accokeek 1 <1% 1 --
Mockley 28 2% 2 3
Townsend 250 20% -- 8
Potomac Creek 29 2% 1 1
untyped 902 74% 5 --
total 1,227 10 12
Table 6-17. Ceramic Ware Distribution in 2Ab1 Stratum, Whitehurst West.
168
Ochre. A fragment of ochre was recovered from the 2Ab1 deposit. It measured 1.8
centimeters in maximum diameter, weighed 2.0 grams, and was of a soft, silty texture that
streaked red (2.5YR5/8).
Fire-Cracked Rock. The 2Ab1 stratum contained 1,632 fragments of fire-cracked rock,
weighing a total of 89 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 55 grams). Quartzite and quartz
2Ab2 Stratum. Like the overlying 2Ab1 stratum, the 2Ab2 stratum extended across the entire
excavation block. The deposit comprised the bulk of the fire-cracked rock and cobble
feature designated Feature 502. It contained 7,650 artifacts: 96 historical and 7,554
prehistoric. The historical artifacts included small bits of construction material and domestic
items (e.g., brick, window glass, ceramics, pipe stem). In addition, the deposit contained 165
fragments of unworked bone, shell, or woody material. Almost 95 percent of the bone was
calcined, suggesting that the faunal material was prehistoric in origin.
Over 63 percent of the prehistoric artifacts were chipped stone, four percent were
ceramic sherds, 32 percent fire-cracked rock, and less than one percent ground or pecked
stone (Table 6-18). Quartzite was the dominant lithic raw material among the chipped stone
artifacts (Table 6-19), with quartz a major sub-component, and small amounts of
cryptocrystalline (chert, jasper, chalcedony), siltstone, rhyolite, and argillite also represented.

flake 4,670 62% quartzite 3,404 71%
uniface 2 <1% argillite 11 <1%
hammerstone 2 <1% total 4,782
fire-cracked rock 2,419 32%
steatite fragments 24 <1% Whitehurst West Excavations,
ochre 1 <1% 2Ab2 Stratum.
total 7,554

Excavations, 2Ab2 Stratum.
Points. Nineteen projectile points were recovered from the 2Ab2 stratum (Figure 6-17).
Four were diagnostic of the Archaic period, eight were diagnostic of the Woodland period,
and seven were too fragmentary to be typed. The Archaic forms consisted of two Holmes
(quartzite), one Savannah River (quartzite), and a broad-bladed, contracting stemmed point
(rhyolite). The Woodland points included one quartz and one quartzite Piscataway, and six
triangles, including two Madison and two Levanna. Several fragments showed evidence of
reworking in the form slightly asymmetrical alignment of blade edges, while simple oblique
or transverse snap breaks were the most frequent form of breakage observed.
169
Figure 6-17. Sample of Points from the 2Ab2 Stratum, Whitehurst West
(top row: Savannah River [6036-1]; Holmes [6203-32]; Late Archaic stemmed [6176-14];
bottom row: Piscataway [6160-5, 6105-36]; Levanna [6175-6, 6160-6, 6203-31]).
Other Chipped Stone. Twenty-one bifaces were recovered from the 2Ab2 stratum including
12 early stage and 9 late stage forms. All of the early stage bifaces were made of quartzite,
and most were plano-convex in cross section, with cortex or stacks on the convex face
suggesting reduction from a cobble or pebble split using bipolar percussion. Seven of the
nine late stage bifaces were quartzite, and each bore a transverse or oblique distal snap break
typical of end shock resulting from excessive percussion flaking. The two unifaces in the
deposit consisted of chert and jasper flakes whose proximal ends had been shaped into
convex bits bearing scalar flake scars. Eight cores were recovered from the deposit,
including five small, bipolar cores (three quartz and one chert), and three multidirectional
cores (two quartz and one quartzite).
The frequency distributions of raw material types among flaking debris (including
flakes and chips), bifacial tools forms, and cores for the 2Ab2 stratum are displayed in Table
6-20, as a general assessment of the character of the lithic material in the deposit. Additional
attribute analyses, including size distributions and cortical frequencies, were conducted for
particular artifact clusters in the section of the report below detailing the results of spatial
analyses.
170
The general variation in raw material distributions across the categories was
indicative the complexity of the lithic assemblages in the stratum. Variation among points
may have been an indication of the importation of finished artifacts made from non-local
lithic material.
quartzite 71% 91% 47% 25%
quartz 21% 9% 32% 75%
rhyolite 1% -- 5% --
n= 4,732 21 19 8
Bifacial Tools in 2Ab2 Stratum, Whitehurst West.
One flake from the 2Ab2 deposit exhibited use wear, a jasper flake with unifacial
retouch and edge wear.
Ground or Pecked Stone. Two hammerstones were recovered from the 2Ab2 stratum. Both
were quartzite cobbles that exhibited battering on the ends or along lateral surfaces.
In addition, 24 steatite chips were present in the deposit. None bore vessel attributes.
The largest fragment weighted 1.9 grams, while most weighed less than 0.5 grams.
Ceramics. In total, 326 ceramic sherds were recovered from the 2Ab2 stratum. Of those, 33
percent were catalogued according to accepted ware descriptions (Table 6-21). One unusual
sherd consisted of a quartz-tempered, dentate-stamped specimen reminiscent of types related
to Point Peninsula, diagnostic of the Middle Woodland in New York (Ritchie 1994).
Chronologically, 57 percent of the typed sherds were identified as Late Woodland period
wares, 24 percent as Middle Woodland wares, and 19 percent Early Woodland wares.
Cordage twist was identified on 14 sherds from the 2Ab2 stratum, final s-twist mostly on
Early or Middle Woodland sherds, final z-twist mostly on Late Woodland sherds The
untyped sherds consisted of three schist-tempered sheds with a final s-twist and one
sandstone-tempered sherds with a final z-twist.

s-twist z-twist
Selden Island 5 2% 1 --
Accokeek 11 3% 5 1
Mockley 8 2% -- --
Townsend 47 14% -- 3
untyped 243 75% 3 1
total 326 9 5
Table 6-21. Ceramic Ware Distribution in 2Ab2 Stratum, Whitehurst West.
171
Ochre. A fragment of ochre was recovered from the 2Ab2 deposit. It measured 4-by-2.5-by-
2 centimeters, weighed 23.0 grams, and was of a dense, sandy texture that streaked red
(10YR5/6).
Fire-Cracked Rock. The 2Ab2 stratum contained 2,419 fragments of fire-cracked rock,
weighing a total of 222.7 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 92 grams). As in the 2A1
stratum, quartzite and quartz comprised more than 70 percent of the fragments in the 2Ab2.
2AB Stratum. The 2AB stratum was part of a transitional zone at the base of the rock feature,
Feature 502. The bottom of the feature was uneven, and thus most of the artifacts
provenienced in the 2AB were likely associated with the overlying feature, rather than with
an earlier occupational event. The deposit contained 1,079 artifacts, including 10 historical
artifacts and 1,069 prehistoric artifacts. The historical artifacts included small bits of
construction material and domestic debris. In addition, 12 fragments of unworked bone,
shell, or woody material were present. The few fragments of bone in the deposit were
calcined, suggesting that they were prehistoric in origin.
The prehistoric artifacts comprised 82 percent chipped stone, two percent ceramic
sherds, 15 percent fire-cracked rock, and one percent ground or pecked stone (Table 6-22).
Quartzite was the dominant lithic raw material among the chipped stone artifacts (Table 6-
23), with quartz a major sub-component, and small amounts of cryptocrystalline (chert,
jasper, and chalcedony), siltstone, rhyolite, and argillite also present.

hammerstone/abrader 2 <1% argillite 1 <1%
steatite fragments 10 1%
total 1,069 Whitehurst West Excavations, 2AB
Stratum.
Excavations, 2AB Stratum.
Points. Four projectile points were recovered from the 2AB stratum (Figure 6-18): three
Late Woodland triangular points, and an untyped medial fragment. The triangles conformed
to descriptions of the Levanna type, and included quartzite, quartz, and chert examples.
Other Chipped Stone. Three late stage quartzite bifaces were recovered from the 2AB
stratum, including two fragments bearing multiple perverse fractures, possibly related to
production failure. One bipolar quartz core was recovered from the 2AB stratum.
172
Figure 6-18. Sample of Points from the 2AB Stratum,

Whitehurst West (Levanna [6135-1, 6135-2, 6206-6]).
The frequency distributions of raw material types among flaking debris (including
flakes and chips), bifacial tools forms, and cores from the 2AB stratum are displayed in
Table 6-24.

quartzite 78% 100% 50% 100%
quartz 17% -- 25% --
n= 865 3 4 1
Bifacial Tools in 2AB Stratum, Whitehurst West.
Two flakes from the 2AB deposit exhibited use wear: one chalcedony flake with
unifacial retouch and edge wear; and one with bifacial retouch; and one quartz flake with
unifacial edge wear.
Ground or Pecked Stone. A small quartzite hammerstone was recovered from the 2AB
stratum, exhibiting battering on one end. In addition, a small quartzite abrader was also
recovered from the deposit. The abrader exhibited evidence of usewear on two adjoining
faces.
173
Ten steatite chips were also present in the deposit. None bore vessel attributes. All
of the fragments weighed less than 0.5 grams.
Ceramics. Twenty-six ceramic sherds were recovered from the 2AB stratum, 10 of which
were catalogued according to accepted ware descriptions (Table 6-25). The majority of the
typed sherds were identified as Late Woodland period wares, while one sherd was typed as
Middle Woodland. No Early Woodland wares were present. Cordage twist was not
identified on sherds from this stratum.
ware count frequency

Mockley 1 4%
Townsend 8 31%
Potomac Creek 1 4%
untyped 16 61%
total 26
Table 6-25. Ceramic Ware Distribution in

2AB Stratum, Whitehurst West.
Fire-Cracked Rock. The 2AB stratum contained 158 fragments of fire-cracked rock,
weighing a total of 5.2 kilograms (mean fragment weight, 33 grams). Quartzite and quartz
3BW, 3BT, 3Cox Strata. Each of these deposits was identified as pre-cultural. All of the
cultural material in them was, by definition, intrusive. Artifact totals have been combined
for summary description. Of a total of 189 artifacts, eight were historical and 181
prehistoric. In addition, 10 fragments of non-artifactual bone, shell, or woody material were
present.
The prehistoric material consisted of 151 flakes, two chips, one quartzite core, and 27
fragments of fire-cracked rock (Table 6-26). Quartzite was the majority raw material among
the flaking debris (Table 6-27). Quartz, cryptocrystalline (chert, jasper), and siltstone were
also present.
fire-cracked rock 27 15% siltstone 2 1%
total 181 total 154
Table 6-26. Prehistoric Artifact Type Table 6-27. Chipped Stone Raw
Distribution Whitehurst West Excavations, Material Distribution, Distribution
3Bw, 3Bt, and 3Cox Strata. Whitehurst West Excavations, 3B,
3Bt, and 3Cox Strata.
174
Chronological Components. Small sample sizes and differences in the sediment volumes
represented by the main depositional strata contributed to difficulties in interpreting the
implications of the frequency distributions of temporal data from the site. Nevertheless, the
main span of deposition appeared to have occurred during the Middle and Late Woodland
sub-periods (Table 6-28), while evidence was also noted of earlier site use. Ceramic and
lithic diagnostic evidence supported by radiometric data were the basis for these conclusions.
Some mixing of the deposits was evidenced by diagnostic artifacts that were out of
chronological sequence in each of the main strata. Most of the deposition occurred in the
midden-like deposit, represented by the 2Ab1 (and 2Ab2), as seen in the highlighted
frequencies in the table. These complicating factors notwithstanding, a trend was evident in
deposits in which Early and Middle Woodland ceramic types—in particular, Accokeek and
Popes Creek sherds—exhibited frequency peaks in the lower, 2Ab2 stratum, while later
types—including Mockley, Townsend, and Potomac Creek—peaked in the overlying 2Ab1.
This finding suggested that the remnants of occupations from the early part of the Woodland
period occurred low in some parts of the profile and were overlaid by later occupation debris.
Selden Popes Potomac

Accokeek Mockley Townsend
Is. Creek Creek
Aw 7% 0% 14% 5% 2% 0%
2Abo 0% 0% 7% 3% 9% 17%
2Ab1 60% 8% 38% 70% 73% 81%
2Ab2 33% 92% 41% 20% 14% 0%
2AB 0% 0% 0% 3% 2% 3%
n=15 n=12 n=29 n=40 n=342 n=36
Table 6-28. Frequency Distribution of Diagnostic Ceramics by Universal

Stratum, Whitehurst West (highest incidences are highlighted).

The Whitehurst West site lay on a low terrace bordering Rock Creek near its
confluence with the Potomac River. The majority of the deposits were part of an extensive
midden formed over centuries of terrace occupation. No obvious artifact concentrations were
documented within the main rock feature, but as a result of post-excavation analysis of
artifact distributions, internal structure was noted that may have represented specific
episodes of artifact disposal or even primary activity areas. The deposits were relatively
shallow, totaling 30-40 centimeters in thickness, and little clear stratification was observed
either in field recording or as a result of sedimentological analysis. Yet, chronologically
based trends were noted during studies of the vertical distribution of artifacts suggesting that
earlier material tended to occur lower in the deposits (Table 6-28).
The results of spatial analyses based on artifact type distributions recorded in field
data from the site are summarized in the following section. Additional details, particularly
those related to the characteristics of flaking debris and the implications for lithic reduction
strategies, are presented in Appendix C.
175
Four main artifact-bearing strata were documented in the excavation block. The
variations between the strata were minor, based largely on differences in charcoal content
and the frequency of fire-cracked rock. The uppermost stratum, 2Abo, was limited in extent,
truncated both vertically and horizontally by historical surface erosion. Of the strata exposed
in the excavations, the 2Abo contained the latest chronological data, including Late
Woodland ceramics and late radiocarbon dates. But given the small area investigated,
inferences as to the cultural formation of the deposit were difficult to support. Lacking
internal structure, the 2Abo was thus assumed to be secondary in derivation, consisting of
debris collected from an occupation site higher on the terrace.
The 2Ab1 stratum comprised the upper part of the large fire-cracked rock feature,
Feature 502, which represented the most extensive archaeological deposit at the site. While
artifacts from all subperiods of the Woodland and from the latter part of the Archaic period
were present in the 2Ab1, most of the diagnostic artifacts were Late Woodland in date. The
underlying 2Ab2 stratum constituted the main part of Feature 502. Like the 2Ab1 deposit,
the majority of the temporally diagnostic artifacts in the 2Ab2 were Late Woodland in age.
While the proportion of Early and Middle Woodland ceramics was greater in the lower
deposit, their overall frequencies were low compared with Late Woodland diagnostics, the
latter accounting for approximately 60 percent of the typed ceramics in the 2Ab2. Other
artifact characteristics, such as the distribution of flake sizes among the main lithic types,
quartzite and quartz, were also nearly identical in the two strata. Thus, separation of the two
layers was made on the basis of minor sedimentological attributes and an increase in the
frequency of fire-cracked rock fragments in the 2Ab2 stratum.
The main areas of artifact concentration were similar in both strata (Figure 6-19).
Nonetheless, a degree of variation was recognized among certain artifact types. In summary,
greater variability was noted in the northern half of the excavation block, both within and
between the strata, while artifact distributions in the southern half of the block were more
uniform. Ceramic sherds were smaller in size in the northern units than in the southern units,
and more points and finished bifaces were present. To the south, sherds were larger on
average and were accompanied by more early stage bifaces and more cores.
Late Woodland sherds were concentrated in roughly the same units in both strata in
the north and south portions of the block (Figure 6-20). The distributions of
cryptocrystalline flaking debris and shell fragments were similar to those of Late Woodland
sherds. The remaining faunal material in the deposit, calcined bone fragments, exhibited a
distinct distribution, occurring mainly in units with relatively few Late Woodland ceramics
and little shell, particularly in the 2Ab2 levels.
Middle Woodland ceramics also exhibited similar distributions in the two strata,
particularly along the northern tier of units (Figure 6-21). Rhyolite flaking debris and bone
fragments tended to mirror the ceramic distribution, while shell occurred in units with few
Middle Woodland sherds or bone fragments.
A wide range of activities and time periods was implied by the findings in the north
part of the block, with more variation apparent than was seen to the south. Based on the
176
2Ab1
artifact density
contour interval = 50
2Ab2
artifact density
contour interval = 50
Figure 6-19. Comparison of Prehistoric Artifact Distributions in 2Ab1 and 2Ab2

Strata , Whitehurst West (demonstrating the similarity between the deposits, with more
variability to the north).
spatial associations documented in the distribution analyses, the artifacts in the northern units
probably included debris from the preparation and consumption of shellfish, likely occurring
during the Late Woodland period, and animal butchering occurring in the Middle Woodland.
Use of the southern part of the area appeared to have occurred more uniformly during the
Late Woodland, and probably included more knapping related activity. Specifically,
evidence related to early stage biface and flake tool production was documented, comprising
activities that were probably associated with cobble deposits exposed along the terrace.
177
2Ab1 2Ab2
LATE WOODLAND LATE WOODLAND

CERAMICS CERAMICS
contour interval = 2 contour interval = 0.7
CRYPTO- CRYPTO-
CRYSTALLINE CRYSTALLINE
contour interval = 2 contour interval = 2
SHELL SHELL
BONE BONE
Figure 6-20. Comparative Analysis of Late Woodland Ceramics and Associated Artifact Distributions in 2Ab1
and 2Ab2 Strata, Whitehurst West.
178
2Ab1 2Ab2
MIDDLE WOODLAND MIDDLE WOODLAND

CERAMICS CERAMICS
contour interval = 0.5 contour interval = 0.7
RHYOLITE RHYOLITE
BONE BONE
SHELL SHELL
Figure 6-21. Comparative Analysis of Middle Woodland Ceramics and Associated Artifact Distributions in
2Ab1 and 2Ab2 Strata, Whitehurst West.
179
180
7.0 Synthesis and Conclusions
Significant prehistoric remains were encountered in several locations at the east end
of the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement corridor. Three prehistoric occupation sites were
documented in a highly urbanized part of Washington, D.C., that is now known as Foggy
Bottom. The sites were situated on a series of terraces above Rock Creek at its confluence
with the Potomac River. The setting comprises the convergence of a perennial, freshwater
stream with the tidal Potomac, at the upper end of the estuary. The area is at the edge of the
fall line, where the level Coastal Plain meets the hilly Piedmont. The range of environmental
zones in relative proximity provided a rich variety of resources for prehistoric populations,
including forest environments, tidal marshes, shellfish beds, and anadromous fish runs.
The research design prepared for the project set out general questions to guide the
investigations. The topics were developed on the basis of information previously gathered in
the identification and evaluation phases of work at the sites, and were couched in the
language of the District of Columbia’s Historic Contexts and Themes (DCHPD1991). They
included issues of site chronology and the implications for our understanding of regional
culture history sequences; examination of lithic and ceramic technologies; investigation of
site formation and landscape reconstruction through geoarchaeological studies; and analysis
of settlement-subsistence patterns. Additional discoveries made during the mitigation stage
of the investigation, in particular the mortuary feature encountered at the Ramp 3 site, added
an analysis of mortuary practices and implications for population movement and cultural
dissemination to the topics addressed by data from the sites.
7.1 Timeframe: Chronology and Culture History
Chronological data from the Whitehurst sites occurred in both relative and absolute
forms. Relative chronology was provided by stratigraphic associations and the seriation of
diagnostic ceramic and lithic artifacts within the stratigraphic sequences. An absolute index
for the sequences was provided by an extensive series of conventional radiocarbon and AMS
dates derived from feature contexts, general depositional contexts, and ceramic residues.
Overall, the data from the sites supported, and in several cases suggested modifications to,
regional artifact chronologies.
The major occupational episodes recognized at the Whitehurst sites were Woodland
in age, and material from all three subperiods was present at each location. Archaic period
projectile points were also recovered from proveniences throughout the sites. While several
of these early artifacts did occur in the lowest depositional levels—a bifurcate and a Halifax
point in the Cg1 stratum at the Peter House, for example—the artifacts were generally
infrequent and did not appear to represent extensive occupation during those periods. Other
Archaic points were intermixed with Woodland period assemblages higher in the profiles.
Those artifacts were consequently assumed to have been either remnants of earlier
occupations incorporated incidentally into the Woodland period archaeological record, or
material that had been scavenged during the Woodland occupations from earlier sites
elsewhere.
181
Absolute dates with pre-Woodland ranges were returned from samples at two sites
(Table 7-1). The first was a standard radiometric assay of 4600±80 BP (3070-3530 BC,
3580-3615 BC) on dispersed charcoal from the gravel bar below the 2Ab2 stratum at
Whitehurst West. Both sedimentological data and artifact frequency distributions suggested
that this deposit predated occupation of the site, and thus the assay was not necessarily a
direct indication of Archaic period use of the terrace. An AMS date of 7670±80 BP (6370-
Radiocarbon Calibrated
Site Material
Age (2 sigma)
pre-Woodland
Ramp 3 7670±80 BP 6370-6600 BC undetermined
3070-3530 BC
Whitehurst West 4600±80 BP charcoal
3580-3615 BC
early Middle Woodland
Peter House 2210±50 BP 115-385 BC ceramic residue
Peter House 1800±50 BP AD 110-380 charcoal
late Middle Woodland
Ramp 3 1710±50 BP AD 235-435 ceramic residue
Ramp 3 1330±50 BP AD 640-790 charcoal
Ramp 3 1290±70 BP AD 640-890 charcoal
Middle-Late Woodland
AD 720-735
Whitehurst West 1180±50 BP ceramic residue
AD 760-985
AD 705-1055
Whitehurst West 1110±90 BP charcoal
AD 1090-1150
Whitehurst West 1070±50 BP AD 885-1035 ceramic residue
Whitehurst West 960±50 BP AD 995-1205 ceramic residue
Whitehurst West 950±50 BP AD 1000-1215 charcoal
early Late Woodland
Peter House 980±60 BP AD 975-1205 ceramic residue
AD 1055-1090
Peter House 850±40 BP ceramic residue
AD 1150-1270
Whitehurst West 690±50 BP AD 1260-1400 organic sediment
late Late Woodland
Table 7-1. Radiocarbon Dates from Whitehurst Sites in Approximate

Chronological Order.
6600 BC) was returned on a sample of indeterminate material in the 2Ad stratum at Ramp 3,
a deposit containing a mixture of historical and prehistoric artifacts. Analysis of the
substance that was dated was inconclusive, although it is likely that the sample included dead
carbon in the form of coal, a material that was present in the overlying historical strata.
Particulate coal may in many instances be indistinguishable from Quaternary charcoal, even
using high-power scanning electron microscopy for purposes of identification (Tankersley et
182
al. 1987). In addition, contamination can occur in the form of humates, or soluble
hydrocarbons resulting from the chemical weathering of coal (Tankersley and Munson
1992). Estimates are that 40 to 60 percent dead carbon in a sample could produce a date that
is 5,000 years older than an uncontaminated sample (Stuckenrath 1977; Tankersley and
Munson 1992). Given these uncertainties, the early date at Ramp 3 was discounted as non-
representative.
Evidence of intensive, if episodic, occupation of each of the sites throughout the

Woodland period was present from both relative and absolute data sources. Early Woodland
diagnostic artifacts, such as steatite-or schist-tempered ceramics, Accokeek ware, Calvert
and, possibly, Piscataway points (the latter depending on the actual temporal placement of
the type), were present in sufficient numbers to indicate occupation during portions of that
subperiod. A series of AMS dates from the basal deposits at the Peter House, the Cg1
stratum, comprised the earliest extensive absolute chronological evidence from the sites. The
dates included two findings from dispersed charcoal and one from ceramic residue. Assay
results ranged from 2210±50 BP (115-385 BC) to 1770±50 BP (AD 135-405), indicating site
use in the first half of the Middle Woodland. Popes Creek sherds similar to the sherd from
which the dated residue was recovered were well represented in the deposits, indicating firm
correspondence between artifact and radiocarbon dates in this location.
Another series of Middle Woodland dates, spanning much of the middle portion of
the subperiod, was derived from the Ramp 3 site. The two latest dates were standard
radiometric dates from large pieces of charcoal contained in Feature 283, while three earlier
dates were AMS results from ceramic residues. Two of the residue dates, 1710±50 BP (AD
235-435) and 1440±40 BP (AD 560-665), were from untyped grit-tempered ceramics. Popes
Creek and Mockley sherds were present in the deposits as corroborating data. The third
residue date, 1430±50 BP (AD 555-680), was from a sherd typed as Townsend. While the
assay predated the accepted range for the ware, posing implications for the Townsend date
range that will be discussed below, the date did correspond with other temporal data from the
deposits. Overall, the dates supported sedimentological data suggesting that the pit
excavation associated with Feature 283 extended higher in the profile than was initially
visible in stratigraphic section. They furthermore confirmed the early Middle Woodland date
of the overlying layer, as determined from ceramic artifact seriation, and verified the timing
of the excavation and infilling of the pit in the late Middle Woodland.
A sequence of five dates from Whitehurst West fell at the end of the Middle
Woodland and the onset of the Late Woodland. Three of the dates were AMS determinations
from ceramic residue samples, while the remaining two were standard radiometric assays on
samples of dispersed charcoal. Two residue dates were from Townsend sherds—1070±50
BP (AD 885-1035) and 960±50 BP (AD 995-1205), both from the early end of the accepted
Townsend range—and one from a Potomac Creek sherd—1180±50 BP (AD 720-735, 760-
985), predating the accepted range for that ware. Ceramic wares in the deposits included
Selden Island, Accokeek, and Popes Creek, as well as the later Townsend forms and Potomac
Creek. The apparent lack of correspondence between artifacts and absolute dates was
probably due to a combination of factors, including the compressed nature of the
stratigraphic deposits, in which debris from several occupations may have been commingled;
183
variations in the types of activities over time, resulting in different rates of carbon
accumulation; and variable preservation, with earlier carbon that had been in the sediments
for a longer period of time being less well preserved.
Proveniences higher in the profiles at each of the sites also showed evidence of
temporal mixing. At the Peter House, the Ab stratum contained mainly Townsend and
Potomac Creek ceramics. Material from the Early and Middle Woodland subperiods was
also present, but Townsend wares from the early half of the Late Woodland predominated.
Three absolute dates from the midden-like deposit, ranging from 980±60 BP (AD 975-1205)
to 850±40 BP (AD 1055-1090, 1150-1270), were in accord with the ceramic data, indicating
early Late Woodland period occupations. Two of the dates were from residues on sherds
typed as Potomac Creek: while within the Late Woodland range, the dates were early for
Potomac Creek ware. At Whitehurst West, the uppermost levels produced dates of 740±70
BP (AD 1180-1395) and 690±50 BP (AD 1260-1400), representative of the middle of the
Late Woodland and according with the predominant Late Woodland ceramics in the deposits.
The latest date from the site, 310±50 BP (AD 1460-1670), suggested very late Woodland or
Protohistoric site use. This assay result was seen as problematical due to the presence of an
earlier date from the same level, an absence of corroborating diagnostic artifactual material
present in the deposit, and the proximity of overlying historical deposits suggesting the
potential for the intrusion of later carbon. Finally, at Ramp 3 prehistoric material in the
uppermost levels was intermixed with historical artifacts, although seriation suggested the
presence of a Late Woodland surface on which an early-to-mid nineteenth-century alley
surface developed. The only absolute data from the deposit consisted of the 7670±80 BP
determination, the inconsistencies of which were discussed above.
Figure 7-1 illustrates the overall sequence of dates from the three sites, including all
of the Woodland period determinations (the two questionable Archaic period dates and three
historic period dates are not included). The graphic emphasizes the separate but related
nature of the occupational sequences at the sites implied by the radiocarbon data. An
interpretation based solely on the probabilities of the dates would suggest that the Peter
House site was occupied during the Middle Woodland, specifically the early half, and again
in the middle portion of the Late Woodland. At Ramp 3, radiocarbon data implied
occupation in late Middle Woodland, while at Whitehurst West, occupation appeared to span
the entire Late Woodland period. Yet, artifact seriation analysis indicated that the
occupation range at each site was less restricted than was thus implied. There was
substantial evidence of Early Woodland occupation at the Peter House and at Whitehurst
West, for example, while Late Woodland material was frequent in the upper levels at Ramp
3. As noted earlier, the lack of correlation between relative and absolute chronological data
at the sites may have been a factor of the type of activity responsible for deposition or of
variations in organic preservation. Sampling bias was also a factor at Ramp 3, since no
assays were attempted on carbon from the upper strata at the site due to concerns about
contamination from historical deposition.
184
1800
1600
1400
1200 Whitehurst
Peter House
West
1000
800
600
Ramp 3
400
200
AD
0 Peter House
calibrated age ranges
BC (2-sigma)
200 conventional age /

calibration curve
intercept indicated
400
600
Figure 7-1. Sequence of Radiocarbon Determinations from the Whitehurst Sites.
Diagnostic artifact seriation thus suggested the full range of the temporal sequences at
the sites. The volume of ceramic sherds and type variation within the ceramic assemblages
implied the serial, repetitive nature of site use, with no single, extensive or long-term
185
occupation represented. Radiocarbon data gave a somewhat finer level of resolution,

indicating more specific periods within the Middle and Late Woodland when site use was
likely. The assays provided mixed results, and with few exceptions were not assignable to
individual contexts. Thus, they represented complementary evidence for the occupation
spans. Experts have noted that radiometric data are most wisely used in support of other
archaeological data, such as stratigraphic context and material culture seriation (Shott 1992;
Darden Hood, Beta Analytic, Inc., personal communication 1998). Calibrating material
culture remains and sediment stratigraphy at a site is critical, since once established, this
relative chronology can often be more reliable in terms of the local temporal sequence than
probabilistic radiocarbon dates. But, ignoring the potential influence of sampling bias and
varying preservation, the absolute dates from the Whitehurst sites suggested differentiation in
activity during certain episodes of site use—specifically, periods of increased fire-related
activity during which carbon deposition was more extensive.
Lithic Artifacts as Temporal Indices

Stylistic and technological evaluation of projectile points was conducted to support
relative dating and intersite comparison at the Whitehurst sites. Models of culture change in
the Middle Atlantic have characteristically been difficult to develop due to the fact that in
many ways the region is still in the culture-history stage in terms of analytical development.
Area chronologies are often not well-developed, and without them, diachronic studies of
cultural process are seriously hindered. Evans and Custer (1990) argued well over a decade
ago the conspicuous need for standardized tool typologies, ideally based on contexts that
represent limited time spans. Little has changed in this regard, since up-to-date, closely
documented typological studies are still lacking.
With this in mind, type evaluations of projectile points from the Whitehurst sites were
made using now classic projectile point typology studies from the Middle Atlantic and
Northeast (e.g., Ritchie 1971; Broyles 1971; Kinsey 1972), along with relatively recent
research focused on the Virginia region (Reinhart and Hodges 1991, 1992). Formal
definitions and dimensional statistics for the types identified in the Whitehurst assemblages
are presented in Appendix B. Published metrical data from large type collections is limited:
much of the comparative data used in the following analysis was derived from material
presented in original reports from the type sites for each point type. Importantly, strict
adherence to established type descriptions has not necessarily been followed. This is not to
say that the assignment of points to particular types was casual, but rather that the prevailing
attitude was towards inclusiveness. The rationale behind this approach was the goal of
determining general dates for site use, as opposed to developing finely tuned data on the
presence of specific styles.
The frequency of occurrence of projectile points at the sites was generally typical of
occupation sites in the region. The degree of correspondence between the chronologically
diagnostic types and other available temporal data varied from site to site, indicating
potential difficulties in reliance on lithic artifacts as temporal indices. At the Peter House,
for example, 52 points were recovered from prehistoric proveniences: of these, 33 were
diagnostic. While the overall frequency of occurrence of points did not match that of
186
ceramic sherds, the temporal data that the lithic artifacts supplied tended to correspond with
ceramic and radiocarbon data, indicating primary occupation episodes during the Late
Woodland, and less extensive site use earlier in the Woodland, the latter particularly apparent
in lower stratigraphic levels. In contrast, relatively few points were recovered at Ramp 3: a
total of 18. While a large proportion of these were diagnostic, their low frequency of
occurrence overall made chronological interpretations difficult. Taken alone, the data
represented by the points at Ramp 3 would have led to different conclusions about site
chronology than those based on ceramic and radiocarbon data, suggesting a wider range of
occupation, beginning much earlier than an initial occupation in the Middle Woodland
period. At Whitehurst West, point frequencies were similar to those at the Peter House: a
total of 54, of which 27 were diagnostic. Type frequency data suggested extensive site use
during the Late Woodland, corresponding with ceramic and radiocarbon data. In addition,
occupation during the Late Archaic was implied. The evidence for Archaic period site use
was difficult to interpret, since diagnostic ceramics would not be expected from the period,
and radiocarbon data are subject to questions of preservation. Nonetheless, the scattered
distribution of the Archaic period lithics, both vertically and horizontally, along with the
greater quantity of later, Woodland period diagnostic material, suggested that any early
occupation episodes at the Whitehurst West site were sporadic at best.
The incomplete correspondence between the lithic diagnostics and other temporal
data at these sites points to the general inadequacy of the typical prehistoric lithic assemblage
in terms of providing accurate and detailed temporal as well as behavioral information. As
Clarke (1968) has pointed out, less than 15 percent of the total material culture related to
human occupation is preserved at an archaeological site in the best of circumstances.
Ethnoarchaeological studies suggest that lithics comprise only a small part of that material
culture (Binford 1978; Geier 1990), while chronologically diagnostic artifact forms
constitute a small portion of that subset. The relative importance of lithic tools becomes
evident at sites with good preservation of organic material. For example, fewer than 10 stone
artifacts were reported per cubic meter of “plant parts and normally perishable kinds of
artifacts” from dry caves in the Lower Pecos region of southwest Texas (Collins 1993:88).
Yet at many, if not most sites in the Middle Atlantic region, lithic artifacts represent the bulk
of the archaeological data and the only diagnostic information that remains available. And
so, while data from diagnostic lithics should not be dismissed out of hand, the current
findings reinforce the conclusion that a measure of caution should be employed in their
interpretation.
7.2 Material Culture: Lithic Tool Manufacture and Use
Locally available lithic materials, quartzite and quartz in particular, dominated the
chipped stone assemblages at each of the three Whitehurst prehistoric sites. The following
summary of lithic analyses from the sites notes the heavy emphasis on locally available raw
materials, at the same time observing variations in the amount of bifacial versus flake tool
manufacture that was undertaken.
187
Peter House
Ab Stratum. Quartzite occurred in a ratio of 3-to-1 among flaking debris in the Ab stratum
in the eastern part of the excavation block, and in roughly equivalent proportions elsewhere.
Non-local lithic materials, specifically rhyolite and siliceous cryptocrystalline material such
as chert or jasper, were poorly represented in most proveniences, and thus did not appear to
have been utilized extensively. Quartzite was typically employed for the production of flake
tools, an inference based on flake size distributions and the general absence of formal tools in
the deposit. In contrast, quartz appeared to have been the preferred stone for the production
of bifacial edges, based again on flake sizes that were more often typical of complete biface
reduction sequences, and on the number of late stage bifaces of quartz. Nevertheless, the
manufacture of finished bifaces, such as projectile points, was not a primary focus of any of
the activity represented in the deposit.
AC Stratum. Quartzite was the predominant lithic raw material across the AC stratum.
Points and other bifaces generally appeared as exhausted tool forms rather than unfinished
manufacturing rejects, implying that biface production and finishing were not important
activities during any of the occupations represented. Quartz debris was almost as frequent as
was quartzite, and its reduction was largely geared toward the bipolar reduction of pebbles,
probably for expedient flake tool manufacture. Non-local materials were uncommon.
Cg1 Stratum. Quartzite was the predominant lithic raw material represented in tools and
flaking debris, occurring in relation to quartz in a ratio greater than 2-to-1. Few bifaces or
cores of either material were present, while a large proportion of the flaking debris was
cortical, suggesting the importance of early stage biface reduction or, as likely, flake tool
manufacture. As in the overlying stratum, non-local stone was uncommon.
Ramp 3
Lithic samples were small at the Ramp 3 site, but exhibited similar characteristics
within each stratum. Thus they are summarized together. The ratio of quartzite to quartz
was either roughly equivalent in each stratum at the site, or quartz was slightly predominant.
Non-local raw materials were uncommon throughout the deposits. Sample sizes were small,
overall, but flake size distributions and cortical frequencies suggested little evidence of the
full range of biface reduction, implying only early stage reduction or, more likely, knapping
that was geared toward expedient flake tool production. Low frequencies of bifacial tools in
the deposits supported this interpretation.
Whitehurst West
2Abo Stratum. Quartzite and quartz flakes comprised the majority of the artifacts from this
deposit. Flakes of both materials were small, the majority falling in the smallest complete
size grade interval. Cortical frequencies were low, which in combination with flake size
distributions implied that most of the flaking debris represented late stage reduction or biface
maintenance and resharpening activities.
188
2Ab1 Stratum. Quartzite was dominant in a ratio of approximately 2-to-1 across the
excavation block. The majority of the flakes—between 60 and 70 percent—occurred in the
smallest systematically collected grade interval, and both material types exhibited relatively
low cortical frequencies. Based on comparative evidence from regional sites, the chipping
debris from both materials suggested that late stage biface thinning debris was represented,
with slightly higher frequencies of small, non-cortical quartzite flakes implying more late
stage reduction represented in the quartzite debris. As in all other areas, non-local materials
were not well represented.
2Ab2 Stratum. The character of the lithic materials in the 2A2 stratum was similar to that in
the 2Ab1 stratum. Although quartzite was even more frequent in relation to quartz, in a ratio
of at least 4-to-1. Again, between 65 and 75 percent of the flakes fell within the smallest size
grade. Data related to biface versus core trajectories were mixed, but it appeared that a large
proportion of the flaking debris was associated with the later stages of biface reduction,
while early stage and flake production were also represented, the latter more extensively
among quartz artifacts.
Summary
At the Peter House site, quartzite was dominant and was used more often for flake
tool manufacture, while quartz was more often used for production of bifacial edges. At
Ramp 3, samples were small, temporally mixed, and inconclusive. More quartz was present
in the deposits than at the other two sites, and little evidence was documented of late stage
reduction of either quartz or quartzite. At Whitehurst West, quartzite was again dominant,
often more so than in the Peter House deposits. Also in contrast to the Peter House findings,
more evidence was noted at Whitehurst West of late stage biface reduction, particularly of
quartzite.
Rhyolite, Cryptocrystalline Materials, and Point Manufacture

Very little exotic lithic material occurred among the flaking debris at any of the three
sites. Yet, a considerably higher proportion of stone other than quartzite and quartz appeared
among finished artifacts, especially points (Table 7-2). At the Peter House, for example,
cryptocrystalline materials (chiefly chert and jasper) and rhyolite accounted for
approximately one percent of the flaking debris respectively in each stratum. In contrast,
rhyolite comprised relatively high proportions of points (e.g., Selby Bay), particularly in the
AC and Cg1 strata. Low sample sizes contributed somewhat to the magnitudes of the
proportions, yet the general pattern seemed to comprise the only observable variation in lithic
raw material use over time at the three sites: i.e., the lower strata at the Peter House site were
generally Early and Middle Woodland in affiliation, periods during which rhyolite was
frequently sought and used for biface manufacture. The absence of rhyolite in the flaking
debris assemblages reflected the fact that it entered the site primarily in the form of ready-
made artifacts rather than cores or partially reduced bifaces designed for further reduction.
At Whitehurst West, cryptocrystalline stone comprised approximately 5 percent of the
flaking debris and 15 percent of the points in each stratum, while rhyolite was less well
represented. This finding appeared to reflect the Late Woodland character of most of the
cultural deposition there, since that period saw slightly increased use of cryptocrystalline
189
provenience material flaking debris points

Peter House – 2Ab
cryptocrystalline 1% 6%
rhyolite 2% 12%
2AC
rhyolite 1% 31%
Cg1
cryptocrystalline -- --
rhyolite 1% 20%
Ramp 3 – 2Ad
rhyolite 1% --
2Ab
rhyolite 1% 50%
2AB
cryptocrystalline <1% 50%
rhyolite -- --
Whitehurst West – 2Abo
rhyolite 1% 14%
2Ab1
rhyolite 1% 4%
2Ab2
rhyolite 1% 5%
Table 7-2. Frequencies of Selected Non-Local Lithic Materials at

the Whitehurst Sites.
stone and decreased use of rhyolite in comparison with the Middle Woodland (Dent 1995).
And finally, the Ramp 3 findings were less clear cut, due largely to small sample sizes.
While in the end, relatively little material variability was noted with time at the
Whitehurst sites, the patterns of raw material use that were documented were consistent with
models reported from regional studies. Locally available raw materials were the basis of the
lithic economies at the sites, particularly in the Late Woodland, even as cryptocrystalline use
appeared to increase somewhat (note that while rhyolite was of obvious external origin,
cherts and jaspers were occasionally present in local gravels). The source of at least some of
the cryptocrystallines was probably local gravel beds. Comparative regional studies have
indicated the “predominant use of quartz in lithic technology” at Piedmont sites during the
Late Woodland (Hantman and Klein 1992:149). Potter (1993) noted that over 75 percent of
Levanna points in the Tidewater Viginia Chicacoan locality were manufactured from local
cobble quartz. Dent (1995) further noted that while cryptocrystalline use generally increased
throughout the Cheseapeake Bay region during the Late Woodland period, the rise was
typically a reflection of material that could be collected locally. Thus, an increase from 4 to
12 percent was reported in the incidence of chert use in the manufacture of triangular points
190
in the Virginia Piedmont (Parker 1989 in Hantman and Klein 1992). In Potter’s (1993)
Tidewater study area, triangular points not manufactured from quartz were from
cryptocrystalline and quartzite materials selected from local cobbles. Similarly, it appeared
that resident groups at each of the Whitehurst sites made use of the lithic resources available
nearby, probably collecting stone from gravel lags at the base of the Peter House gully or the
edge of the Whitehurst West terrace. And thus, while not primarily quarry sites,
quarry/workshop-like components were present at both the Peter House and Whitehurst West
sites, the focus of each being the exploitation of quartzite cobbles and quartz pebbles.
Quartz, for example, was used to produce both bifaces and flake tools (the latter through
bipolar reduction of pebbles) in different areas within the Ab stratum at the Peter House site,
while some of the triangular points in the Late Woodland deposits at Whitehurst West were
probably manufactured on site from the local cobbles. Spatial analyses suggested that lithic
production was not the primary activity at any of the sites, but was coincident with or in
support of other resource processing activities.
Late Woodland point frequency data from the sites conformed with the raw material
patterning noted above. Frequency data were also comparable both in type frequency and
raw material use with data recorded at the Winslow site, a large Montgomery focus village
site in the middle Potomac Valley approximately 20 miles (32 kilometers) upstream from the
Whitehurst Freeway locale. The relative proportions of Levanna and Madison points were
similar: 77 percent of triangles at Winslow were typed as Levanna, 88 percent at the Peter
House, and 82 percent at Whitehurst West. Sample sizes made confident interpretation
problematical, particularly for Madison points at the Whitehurst sites, yet a trend noted in
terms of similar raw material proportions at the sites, with locally procured gravel materials
apparently preferred (Table 7-3). Levanna, the most prevalent triangle at each site,
Peter Whitehurst
Winslow
House West
Levanna quartz 48% 44% 50%
cryptocrystalline 33% 33% 14%
rhyolite 13% 11% --
quartzite 5% 11% 36%
Madison quartz 47% 50% 50%
cryptocrystalline 9% 50% --
rhyolite 2% -- --
quartzite 41% -- 50%
triangle quartz -- 67% --
quartzite -- 33% --
Table 7-3. Frequency of Lithic Raw Materials among Late

Woodland Triangular Points.
consistently occurred with quartz as the predominant material. Cryptocrystalline was an

important secondary material. Quartz also was the most important material among Madison
points, with quartzite an important subdominant. Small and large variants of Levanna were
recognized in morphological typing at the Whitehurst sites, but the implications of the
191
distinction were difficult to interpret since no evidence of spatial or temporal differentiation

was identified among them.
Stone Tool Use and Breakage Patterns

Observations about the archaeological condition of chipped stone tools, and points in
particular, may often be used to construct inferences about use-life, including function,
recycling, and discard patterns. Most of the points or fragments from the three Whitehurst
sites were reworked, often to such a degree that extensive reuse was implied. The artifacts
had then been discarded as broken or exhausted tools. Various experimental studies have
been conducted suggesting that damage resulting from use as a projectile tip may often be
extensive, removing the distal end of the artifact and all or portions of the hafting element
(Flenniken and Raymond 1986; Towner and Warburton 1990). The damage can be great
enough that modifications necessary for resharpening and rehafting may produce a point with
very different morphological characteristics than the original artifact, leading to ambiguities
in artifact typing. This hypothetical phenomenon has been referred to as the Frison Effect
(Flenniken and Wilke 1989; Dibble 1995). Studies have further noted correlations between
certain breakage patterns and particular functions. Transverse distal snap fractures, whether
perpendicular or slightly oblique, generally have been found to result from use in cutting or
prying motions. In contrast, perverse distal fractures, especially when invasive or
asymmetrical (laterally or facially), tend to result from impact (Ahler 1979; Cox and Smith
1991).
The breaks observed on many of the points from the Whitehurst sites were transverse,
oblique, or bending snaps, typically associated with cutting or prying actions (Figure 7-2),
while little evidence was observed of impact fractures in any of the point assemblages.
Many of the fragments were small distal ends, or point tips, with oblique or transverse snaps.
Point tips were not likely to have been retained if the artifact had been broken during use as a
projectile, while proximal fragments would more likely be recycled if large enough. The
ratio of distal to proximal fragments was generally high: at the Peter House, 11:7 in the Ab
and 1:1 in the AC; at Whitehurst West, 3:1 in the 2Ab1 and 6:5 in the 2Ab2. Taken
together, the data suggested that most of the points from the Whitehurst sites had been used
as cutting implements. Only occasionally were unfinished points noted or perverse fractures
observed along flaw planes (usually on quartz pieces) suggesting incomplete manufacture.
The findings implied that during most of the episodes of occupation, the sites had been used
primarily for the procurement and preparation of plant and animal resources. Lithic
technologies were tailored to support these activities, rather than toward the full range of
bifacial tool manufacture. Few formal hammerstones were present, suggesting that available
cobbles (probably quartzite due to its consistent hardness) were used on an expedient basis.
7.3 Material Culture: Ceramic Vessel Manufacture and Use
Woodland Period Occupation Summary

The frequency of occurrence of ceramic sherds at the three Whitehurst Freeway sites was
remarkable, both in terms of absolute sherd counts, as well as in the number of different
192
Figure 7-2. Triangular Points from Whitehurst Sites Showing Patterns of Transverse,
Oblique, and Bending Snap Breaks (top row: 1247-2 [PH]; 6026-29, 6185-48 [WW]; 1396-2 [PH];
middle row: 6072-47, 6185-46, 6160-6, 6058-28 [WW]; bottom row: 6054-42 [WW]; 1216-5 [PH]).
vessels and different wares and variations that were represented. More than 3,300 individual
sherds were recovered, and while minimum vessel counts were not attempted at any of the
sites, mends and ceramic lot analyses suggested that the artifact assemblages contained a
great variety of wares. The highest frequency of sherds was related to the various Late
Woodland occupations, but proportionately large numbers were present from all three
Woodland subperiods (Table 7-4). In most cases, Townsend dominated the ceramic
assemblages, while Potomac Creek was an important minor constituent. Assuming that the
frequency of occurrence of diagnostic artifacts is related to intensity of occupation, the
findings at the Whitehurst sites suggested that the most extensive occupations occurred in the
early-to-middle portions of the Late Woodland period. At Whitehurst West, for example,
Townsend comprised 72 percent of the typed ceramics and occurred in a ratio of 9.5:1 with
Potomac Creek. At Ramp 3, Townsend sherds comprised 64 percent of the typed ceramics
and occurred in a ratio of 10:1 with Potomac Creek. The figures were somewhat lower at the
Peter House site, where Townsend represented 53 percent of the typed sherds, outnumbering
Potomac Creek by a margin of 3:1.
193
Site Frequency by Period/Type Sample (typed)

Early Middle Late Woodland
Woodland Woodland Townsend Potomac Creek
Peter House 10% 20% 53% 17% n=595
Ramp 3 -- 29% 64% 7% n=185
Whitehurst West 6% 14% 72% 8% n=474
Table 7-4. Frequency of Occurrence of Typed Ceramics at the Whitehurst Sites.
New Dates for Middle and Late Woodland Ceramics

Among the radiocarbon dates from the Whitehurst sites were six returned on samples
of organic residue adhering the interiors of ceramic sherds. Several of the dates were
unusually early for the wares on which they occurred. They included three dates for
Potomac Creek: AD 1215, AD 1030, and AD 880; and one date for Townsend AD 640
(intercept dates are reported here to conform with published data listed in Table 7-5).
Additional dates have been published recently in the Middle Atlantic for wares including
Potomac Creek and Mockley (Table 7-5). If correct, these new dates suggest that current
interpretations of ceramic chronologies may need re-evaluation. In each instance, the new
data appear to challenge the accepted start dates for the wares, implying extension of the
ranges by several hundred to more than 1,000 years.
It should be noted that while intriguing, the new dates have not been accepted without
reservation by all researchers in the region. Many of the newly reported dates are AMS
estimates returned on samples of organic residue adhering to the inner surfaces of the
ceramic sherds. At first glance, the residue dates would appear to be highly dependable since
questions of context that must be addressed when dating charcoal and associated artifacts do
not arise. Yet, doubts have been raised about the ultimate accuracy of the residue dates
Date Intercept Lab # Site

Potomac Creek
730±30 BP AD 1285 Beta-104593 Potomac Creek, Virginia (44ST2)
750±55 BP AD 1200 UGa-1761 Robbins Farm, Delaware (7K-F-12)
790±50 BP AD 1160 Beta-46955 Taft, Virginia (44FX544)
850±40 BP AD 1215 Beta-113868 Peter House, D.C. (51NW103)
900±50 BP AD 1160 Beta-141239 Accokeek Creek, Maryland (18PR8)
980±60 BP AD 1030 Beta-113869 Peter House, D.C. (51NW103)
1180±50 BP AD 880 Beta-113866 Whitehurst West, D.C. (51NW117W)
Townsend
1430±50 BP AD 640 Beta-113872 Ramp 3, D.C. (51NW117)
Mockley
2050±40 BP 100 BC Beta-152941 Fletcher’s Boathouse, D.C. (51NW3)
2130±40 BP 180 BC Beta-152940 Fletcher’s Boathouse, D.C. (51NW3)
Table 7-5. Recently Reported Radiocarbon Dates for Ceramic Wares in the
Middle Atlantic.
194
themselves. Because a large proportion of the dates seem to be earlier than the accepted
ranges for the ceramic wares on which they occur, the issue of systematic error related to
contamination with old or dead carbon has been suggested (Louis Berger Group 2003).
One possible source of contamination might be minute clay particles inadvertently

collected as the residues were removed from the sherds. In the present case, efforts were
made to carefully remove the residues, and the materials were closely examined by the
analysts who prepared the samples for the AMS procedure. Problems have been reported
previously when working with sherds that were so small that it was difficult to differentiate
between exterior and interior surfaces, so that residues might actually consist of soot buildup
on an exterior face (Ron Hatfield, Beta Analytic, personal communication 1998). Yet, clay
can usually be recognized visually in the samples, since the particles are typically of different
textures and colors in comparison with the residues, resulting a mottled appearance (Darden
Hood, Beta Analytic, personal communication 1998). The samples from the Whitehurst
ceramics were from large sherds with easily distinguished interiors, and the residues were
described as homogeneous in appearance, black to dark brown in color. The samples reacted
normally in all measures during the dating procedures, producing statistically consistent
probability distributions with no outliers. These statistical results implied that the material
was uniform and not mixed with inorganics.
The residue samples were examined for material identification, but the results were
disappointingly imprecise. Phytoliths were common in all of the residues, but being largely
from grasses or conifers, both of which were common in the surrounding plant communities,
the phytoliths were presumed to have been associated with contamination from the soil
matrix. Tracheary elements—tubular conductive vessels in the xylem, or supporting parts of
vascular plants—and fibers were identified in the residue samples as well, suggesting that the
source of the material was largely vegetal. While starches were uncommon, in one case a
starch particle from potato-like tuber was identified. Finally, fragments of round diatoms and
sponge spicules were present in all samples, but these materials are common in water and so
were probably only an indication that the residues were from materials cooked in water.
Another potential source of contamination that has been cited may lie in the organic
material itself. Fiedel (Louis Berger Group 2003:17-18) has noted the potential for “a
freshwater or marine carbon reservoir problem” leading to contamination of food residues
with old carbon. In support of his assertion, Fiedel cites a similar situation reported on
human bone samples from Mesolithic sites along the Danube River (Cook et al. 2002).
According to this argument, the source of old carbon is sea water. Living organisms in
terrestrial environments acquire carbon from the atmosphere through various forms of
respiration. When the organisms die, they cease carbon uptake, and the radiocarbon clock
driven by the decay of unstable isotopes begins to tick. It has been shown that, in contrast to
terrestrial contexts, marine food chains acquire carbon indirectly from the atmosphere,
mainly via ocean water. Several processes affect the rate of carbon absorption in water. For
example, in sea water the exchange of carbon occurs with ocean bicarbonates, and the
process tends to be less complete than does atmospheric carbon exchange. In addition, a
delay may be present in the marine exchange. Both processes result in lower levels of
contemporary, isotope-containing carbon in marine environments. Complicating matters, the
195
upwelling of deep, pelagic water through the effects of oceanic currents brings very old
carbon toward the surface (Mangerud 1972). The overall effect is that marine organisms
tend to contain more old, isotope-depleted carbon than their terrestrial counterparts, and thus
their apparent ages in radiocarbon years may be inaccurate. A discrepancy of about 400
years has been cited as an average figure (Stuiver and Braziunas 1993). More recently, a
range of 200 to 600 years was calculated in the radiocarbon ages of human bone and bone
from terrestrial ungulates in the same archaeological contexts, the degree of variation
depending on the amount of aquatic resources present in the human diet as determined from
carbon isotope ratios (!13C) and nitrogen isotope ratios (!15N) (Cook et al. 2002:82).
Several factors should be considered when discussing the idea of a carbon reservoir
effect in ceramic residues in the Middle Atlantic. First, citing a reservoir effect for a
particular residue sample assumes that aquatic materials were responsible for the substance
that is dated. While aquatic residues are possible or even likely at sites that occur along
stream banks, unless the material can be positively identified, uncertainty will remain as to
its ultimate source. Secondly, reservoir effects have documented in freshwater
environments, but they appear to be more complex than in marine environments. In a study
of data from a variety of northern European sites, dates potentially ranging from 30 to 4,000
years older than their archaeological contexts were reported (Fischer and Heinemeier 2003).
The likely sources of dead carbon cited as responsible for these results varied from
atmospheric carbon dioxide to fossil carbonates from limestone bedrock dissolved in
groundwater and eventually absorbed into organic tissues (referred to as the hardwater
effect). Measuring the influence of atmospheric carbon dioxide on local samples is not
feasible at present, but effects from limestone bedrock would seem to be negligible. Finally,
the phenomenon has been investigated in marine and freshwater animals, including pike,
bream, perch roach, and freshwater mussels. Yet, data on plants, which would have formed a
significant portion of the Woodland period diet and so would be likely sources of
archaeologically documented residues, are less available, resulting in additional uncertainty.
The possibility of encountering some form of reservoir effect related to marine environments
at sites such as Fletcher’s Boathouse or the Whitehurst Freeway would in fact appear to be
increased by the presence of anadromous fish, which spend most of their lives in marine
environments. Yet, identifying the source of the dated residues, which until now has been
problematical, seems to be an important key to the argument.
In the end, there are many uncertainties involved in the question of a potential
reservoir effect in ceramic residue dates. The issue is a valid one and should be addressed
through a rigorously designed program of calibration, using residues on ceramic sherds from
independently and precisely dated deposits. For the moment, the residue dates from the
current study are accepted, but until calibration tests can be run, the question of accuracy is
liable to remain unresolved.
196
7.4 The Sites in an Integrated Landscape: Geoarchaeology, Landscape

Reconstruction, and Site Formation
Central to the discussion of the three prehistoric sites investigated during this project
was identification of the timeframe associated with each site, as represented by the
archaeological record supported with radiocarbon dating. The following section focuses on
the valley landscape surrounding the sites, and attempts to recognize processes and events
common to each locale.
Geomorphological Context
A cross section constructed on the basis of sedimentological data from the
archaeological excavations details the relative positions of the three sites and their major
stratigraphic components, and how these articulate into a representative reconstruction of the
project landscape (Figure 7-3). Stratigraphic Unit III was the basal unit underlying the entire
sequence. It consisted of ancient marine sediments and reworked alluvial sediments of
Pleistocene age. Stratigraphic Unit II overlay the basal deposit in varying thicknesses and
Figure 7-3. Representative Cross Section through Rock Creek Valley near Its Confluence
with the Potomac River (developed from sedimentological data collected at the Whitehurst Freeway
archaeological sites – not to scale).
consisted of prehistoric, Holocene-age alluvial, colluvial, and cultural sediments deposited

during the timeframe of human occupation of this area. Stratigraphic Unit I capped the
sequence and consisted of urban fill sediments.
197
The three sites—the Peter House, Ramp 3, and Whitehurst West—occupied different
positions within the valley. The Peter House site occupied the high marine terrace
approximately 9 meters above sea level. It was incised by a shallow gully that was infilled
during the late Holocene with eroded terrace sediments and archaeological debris. The
sequence was blanketed with historical fill. The Ramp 3 site occupied a toeslope position
approximately 100 meters west of the Peter House, 4-5 meters above sea level. It was
underlain by a suite of stream sediments that resulted from the original formation, incision
and lateral migration of an ancient, likely Pleistocene-age channel of Rock Creek. The base
of this sequence was marked by a regression of channel gravels noted in deep trenching and
coring. The site was overlain by a thin accumulation of Holocene-age sediments and
archaeological debris: a culturally significant deep pit feature (Feature 283) extended into the
Pleistocene sediments. Urban fill capped the sequence. The Whitehurst West site occupied a
low, eroded bench terrace about 2.5 meters above sea level, adjacent to Rock Creek. The
basal unit included more of the ancestral Rock Creek sediments, although here the upper
boundary was marked by an erosional lag of old fluvial gravels. Human occupation debris
and Holocene alluvium blanketed the gravels and formed an artifact-rich, midden-like
deposit. Approximately 4 meters of massive urban fill capped the site.
Given the degree of urban modifications to this landscape, it was difficult to

accurately recreate the prehistoric topography based upon modern surface configurations and
the phone-booth views of subsurface stratigraphy provided by the three excavation areas.
Based upon current information, however, the Whitehurst West site apparently occupied a
near-level bench adjacent to Rock Creek. From this location, a continuous, but probably
gently undulating slope extended east to the Peter House. This slope was likely incised by
several small gullies, or intermittent tributaries, such as the feature documented at the Peter
House site, extending upslope from Rock Creek.
Several distinct yet related processes of formation and change were indicated by the
stratigraphic records of these three sites (Figure 7-4). Common to all the sites was a
relatively old, Pleistocene basal unit which exhibited some degree of erosion and possible
truncation. The later processes were indicated by lag deposits of cobbles, gravels and/or
artifacts (including Archaic artifacts) that marked the upper contact of the basal unit with
late-Holocene sediments. Artifact types and a limited number of bracketing radiocarbon
dates placed this event or series of events between roughly 4600 and 2200 BP. Valley-wide
erosion at this time apparently resulted in gully formation at the Peter House locale, erosion
of surface sediments at Ramp 3, and erosion of the bench terrace at Whitehurst West. The
landscape may have been scarred by erosional features, while gullying on the valley slope
may have resulted from headward expansion of small tributaries of Rock Creek.
Sometime between 2000 and 1000 BP, sustained net accumulation of fine mineral
sediments and archaeological materials occurred across each site. The valley apparently
became less susceptible to erosion and gully formation. The increased sediment
accumulation resulted in burial of older site components, variable degrees of site/cultural
stratification, and the eventual development of midden-like surface horizons. Maximum
stability of these midden-like surfaces appears to have occurred between 800-1000 BP, while
198
occupation likely continued into the historic period, during which time they came under
increasing if selective impact from cut and fills events of natural and cultural origin.
Whitehurst Corridor Depositional Model
Historic Deposits
~300 BP Erosion
ErosionSurface
Surface
(Little Ice Age?)
M-L Woodland
Midden Formation
~1200 BP (Medieval Warm?)
Sustained
“Sediment” E-M Woodland
Accumulation Deposition
~2200 BP
Erosion
ErosionSurface
Surface
~4600 BP (Xerothermic?)
Cultural and Natural Sediments

Figure 7-4. Depositional Model for the Whitehurst Freeway Sites, Showing the
Accumulation of Both Cultural and Natural Sediments.
These factors of net sediment deposition at Peter House and Ramp 3 indicate some
measure of enhanced stability on the side- and toe-slopes of the valley. Flooding of the
Potomac River and Rock Creek probably did not affect deposition within the Peter House
gully or the Ramp 3 surface, given their elevations above mean sea level. However, the
Whitehurst West terrace likely became more susceptible to flood deposition as sea levels
continued to rise throughout the late Holocene. Storm events and snowmelt—coupled with
high tides—probably prompted the river and creek to flood this lower terrace on a regular
basis. Accumulation of fine sediment across this terrace roughly postdated 1200 BP and
extended into the historic period.
In sum, each site exhibited some degree of internal stratification. Sediment

deposition was coincident with late Holocene, Woodland-era occupation of the sites.
Conditions of sediment deposition were probably dependent upon changing environmental
conditions, and cultural modifications to the landscape. While preservation of such a record
may not seem unusual upon a low terrace landform such as that hosting the Whitehurst West
site, the same was not expected for hill slope locations such as the Ramp 3 and Peter House
sites, locations for which erosional processes are the expected norm. Given the degree of
historical modification to these landforms, selective preservation of these stratified sites is
especially impressive. These phenomena point out the importance, and potential, for
199
preservation of stratified prehistoric archaeological sediments in unconventional settings that

may include both valley slopes and urban landscapes.
Midden Formation
Middens are differentiated from general stratigraphic deposits in that they are not
extensive horizons, but are bounded, representing concentrations of material that have
accumulated of material over relatively short periods of time. The material that collects in a
midden typically consists of organic-rich sediments and cultural refuse, the latter having
been specifically disposed of as opposed to accumulating incidentally as a result of ongoing
activity (Butzer 1982). A sheet midden represents broadly scattered debris, usually in a thin
deposit that may contain the remains of a wide range of activity types discarded over an
extended span of time. An episodic or occupation midden, by contrast, is a more
concentrated deposit representing debris resulting from intensive activity, from relatively few
types of activity, and occurring over a relatively short period of time. Shell middens,
common in estuary and coastal settings, are the most obvious examples of episodic middens,
resulting from the intensive processing of a single type of food resource. Shell middens can,
in fact, be particularly extensive: the Middle Woodland shell midden at Popes Creek, for
example, was estimated to have been at least six hectares in area with shell occurring in a
layer up to eight meters thick (Holmes 1907; Dent 1995).
Midden-like deposits may develop if one or more of several criteria are met: 1)
intensive activity resulting in the disposal of a large volume of cultural material; 2) a long
mean residence time for a surface—that is, the surface is open and stable for a long period,
allowing extended accumulation of organic-rich sediment and cultural material; or 3)
sufficient iterations of a cycle of cultural deposition, sedimentation, and erosion, to allow a
series of compressed A-horizons to develop. The analytical separation of individual cultural
components within a midden representing multiple occupations may be difficult, due to the
span of time implied and the potentially irregular extent of specific episodes of cultural
deposition. Sanger (1981), for example, has noted that middens typically occur in
discontinuous lenses that may then become intermixed by erosion or other postdepositional
transformation processes.
Sedimentation as a mechanism of midden development can occur through

colluviation, alluviation, or through a variety of other means. Rates of archaeological
accumulation and sediment accretion can vary considerably, as may the disaggregating
effects of erosion. The longer the surface is open without significant sedimentation, the more
cultural material is likely to accumulate and the more soil development may take place in the
substrata. Erosion may truncate the soil formation process and eradicate evidence of it by
sorting out fine-grained sediments. A sufficient increase in sedimentation rates can
eventually curtail soil development as well by removing the buried sediment from the near-
surface agents or mechanisms, such as mineral and clay translocation, which are responsible
for soil formation. Overall, the process approaches a circular, feedback system. It is
complex, and while resistant to comprehensive modeling, the entire procedure can be
simplified in a schematic representation. Figure 7-5 is a diagram of midden formation that
suggests the cyclical, iterative nature of some of the activity involved in the development of
200
midden deposits. The process is not as linear as depicted, nor is it as sequential. It is, in fact,
not a true feedback system, since there is no regulating factor, but the system can be entered
and re-entered at any point. In that sense, the process is iterative. It is also an open system,
in which material is constantly exchanged with the environment. The significance of
openness lies in the ability of the system to approach a time-independent or steady state, here
approached as the midden thickens. In the archaeological contexts at the Whitehurst sites,
the systems were eventually interrupted by cut-and-fill activity associated with eighteenth-
and nineteenth-century urban development at the Peter House, and the introduction of large
amounts of fill in the nineteenth century at Whitehurst West, and thus, they did not reach a
steady state.
The midden-like deposits documented at the Whitehurst sites appeared to have

developed through similar sets of events. Both consisted of intensive, sequential, but fairly
long-term accumulations of occupation debris, an interpretation based on the presence of
open surface
cultural formation
process involving
concentrated activity
cultural activity
natural reworking sediment natural burial of

erosion
of sediments deposition cultural deposit
archaeological compressed buried archaeological

midden A horizons A horizon midden
KEY
A horizon archaeololgical or sediment state
erosion
erosion cultural or natural formation process
Figure 7-5. Schematic Model of Midden Formation.
diagnostic material from several Woodland subperiods. Generally though, the majority of
201
the datable artifacts in both midden deposits suggested the early part of the Late Woodland
period as the time of greatest accumulation.
Whitehurst West Midden. The midden-like deposit at Whitehurst West developed on a

gravel bar. The lithic raw material represented by the gravels may in part have presented an
initial attraction to the landform. A sufficient amount of early stage and core/flake debris
was present in the deposit to indicate that quarrying of the gravels had occurred. But, given
the relatively small amount of debris present, the site did not appear to have been an
extensive or specialized quarry site. Instead, the artifacts may have represented in situ
workshops for the manufacturing bifaces and flake tools that were used in resource
processing activities, such as cleaning fish or butchering meat, either at this location or in the
immediate area. The volume and distribution of fire-cracked rock and the amount of
charcoal present was typical of secondary refuse, with few clearly definable clusters of
artifacts to suggest primary activity areas. While the distributions could have been an
indication of intensive and repeated use of the surface resulting in the blurring of individual
occupations, more likely a large part of the fire-related debris was secondary refuse,
discarded in the midden from primary areas elsewhere. Yet, flake size distributions that
included substantial amounts of small debris, and a range of bifaces including triangular
points that may have been manufactured from the available quartzite cobbles, implied the
presence of primary refuse, as well. Bone and shell debris in the deposits appeared to have
been remnants of the materials processed.
In terms of natural formation processes, some compression of the deposit from

episodic flooding may have occurred. Comparative analyses using experimental data from
Old World studies (Schick 1986) implied that the Whitehurst West deposits had not been
subject to extensive flood scouring. Yet, identifying erosion through analysis of artifact size
distributions is not without its methodological and interpretive problems, and the artifact size
distribution data were not absolutely clear. The interpretation hinges on the frequency of
occurrence of small debris, as this material would be most subject to winnowing by flowing
water. The sample used for the analysis at Whitehurst West did not include what could be
the most appropriate portion of the dataset for analysis, the smallest flakes. That is, use of
quarter-inch screening in the field determined that a full sample was not collected from size-
grade 4, small flakes that would be most affected by hydraulic forces. Acknowledging the
problem, Schick’s data were adjusted (see Section 3.2), and her original patterns still held,
implying that there had been little overall effect from erosion. A second difficulty involved
the potential for secondary refuse to be present in the artifact assemblages. Material
redeposited from an occupation or workshop site located elsewhere typically does not
include the smallest artifacts (Fladmark 1982; O’Connell 1987), and thus the sample of
smallest lithic debris may have been biased prehistorically.
As is the case in many archaeological situations, a combination of process was

probably involved in the development of the midden-like deposit comprising the 2Ab1 and
2Ab2 levels at Whitehurst West. It is likely, for example, that several iterations of the
cultural deposition–erosion cycle occurred, along with minor sedimentation resulting from
alluvial and colluvial deposition. Multiple incidents of erosion and winnowing of smaller
debris may have taken place, with later deposition replacing a portion of the small
202
components of the assemblages. This interpretation is largely based on circumstantial data,

such as the location of the midden on the bank of Rock Creek where it would be subject to
erosion from floods followed by sediment accretion in the slackwater phase of an overbank
flood event. While the archaeological excavation was limited horizontally, there appeared to
have been a slight slope in the original terrace leading upward to the west, providing a minor
levee effect along the terrace edge enhancing the pooling of flood waters. A certain amount
of colluvial activity may have added to the deposition as well. Overall the midden-like
deposit was thin enough, and its surface appeared to have been irregular enough that
microstratigraphic layering would not have been discernible, and newly deposited flaking
debris would possibly have filtered throughout the deposit. Another alternative to consider is
the intensity of the fluvial activity. A series of catastrophic floods would indeed be expected
to remove much of the smaller-sized sediment, including the smallest flaking debris, thus
resulting in an apparent concentration of large artifacts. By contrast, lower energy flooding
might have had a less than complete winnowing effect. Furthermore, micro-topographic
phenomena, such as stream shadows created by larger artifacts or naturally occurring
cobbles, within which small debris might become trapped and sheltered, may have been
present. As noted by Schick (1986), not all small material was removed from the flooded
experimental sites, even in the highly modified sites.
In the end, the intensity of the cultural accumulation at Whitehurst West, the time
span represented by the deposit, the probably irregular extent of any given episode of
deposition, and postdepositional reworking of the deposits rendered the recognition and
description of specific activities difficult if not impractical.
Peter House Midden. In contrast to Whitehurst West, the midden-like deposit at the Peter
House site was probably less subject to erosion and more to sediment accretion resulting
from colluviation. Certainly, erosion was a major site formation agent lower in the profile, in
the Cg2 and Cg1 deposits. These strata were considered to have been lag deposits lying in a
gully that was open during the Archaic period and had filled in throughout the course of the
Woodland period. Presumably, specific but unidentified resources attracted these early and
later populations to the Peter House location. Gravels may have been quarried when they
were exposed early in the sequence, but the deposits were soon covered over as the gully
filled with sediment. A relatively thick and dark midden-like layer eventually accumulated
in the gully remnant. Judging from radiometric data and ceramic seriation evidence, this
deposition occurred mainly during the early part of the Late Woodland. That much of the
cultural debris was secondary was implied by the relative uniformity of artifact types and
attributes observed outside of the areas delineated by several fire-cracked rock
concentrations. Yet, these concentrations, the most exemplary being Feature 363, gave direct
evidence of primary activity. Additional features similar to Feature 363 may have been
present, but if so, they were less easily discriminated, having been blended into the general
artifact distribution. The presence of one or more extensive surface-generated disturbances,
possibly resulting from excavation by Late Woodland site occupants, was indicated by
refitted and cross-mended artifacts occurring across distances of several meters at the west
end of the excavation block.
203
In terms of the midden formation model, cultural and colluvial accumulation were
probably the main mechanisms responsible for the development of the Peter House deposit.
Some surface erosion would be expected within the remnant gully, leading to ongoing
sorting and compression of the deposits near the top of the profile. The effects of this type of
action were clearly visible in the wash layers overlying the midden-like deposit. These
layers appeared to have been historical in age, resulting from early land clearing or the
erection of the first historical architecture on the site. The clearly defined erosion channels
that were observed were packed with small artifacts washed out of deposits upslope. This
type of effect would be expected throughout the development of the midden. Thus the
iterations, or cycles of deposition, sedimentation, and erosion illustrated in the model would
have been complex, and the effects would have varied each time. Ultimately, the result was
the same as at Whitehurst West, with the development of a series of intermixed and
compressed A-horizons within which it was difficult and in the end impractical to identify
individual activity locations.
7.5 Whitehurst as a Crossroads: Settlement-Subsistence, Mortuary Practices, and

Implications for Regional Population Growth
The extent of the archaeological remains at the Whitehurst sites, both in terms of
volume of material and the variety of artifacts, indicated substantial occupation of the
terraces at the mouth of Rock Creek. Many groups were drawn to the same location
repeatedly over the course of several thousand years. Diagnostic artifacts and radiocarbon
data in fact implied site use across a span of as much as 5,000 years. The most intensive
occupations occurred at the latter end of that time range, beginning in the Early Woodland
and extending through the middle of the Late Woodland. Information was recovered from
the archaeological record at the sites concerning several important cultural developments in
the Middle Atlantic region during the Woodland period, including the advent of ancestral
Algonquian populations, presaged by the burial feature at the Ramp 3 site, and the
development of the Potomac Creek archaeological culture that was widespread in the
Potomac Valley in the latter part of the Late Woodland.
The Middle Woodland Burial Feature at Ramp 3

Feature 283 was a Middle Woodland period burial encountered on a terrace bench at
the Ramp 3 site. While described in detail earlier in the report, a summary is repeated here
for comparative purposes. The feature consisted of a wide pit, excavated into subsoil
through an existing early Middle Woodland occupation surface. The upper portion of the pit
contained Middle Woodland ceramics (mostly Popes Creek), that appeared to be part of the
backfill, along with Late Woodland Townsend sherds that were intrusive from overlying
204
Figure 7-6. Artifact Assemblage at the Base of Feature 283 (clockwise from left: comb [3216-1]; bead [5007-1]; slate pendant [3250-1]; schist
pendant [3234-1]; point [3250-2]; antler disks [3216-2; 3249-3,4; 3265-4; 5009-4; 5013-1]; shark teeth [223-1; 3216-5,12; 3249-1,2; 3265-1,3; 5009-1,3];
hammerstone [3216-15]; phallus effigy [5007-2]) .
205
occupation layers. Near the base of the pit was an irregular layer of large tabular stones and
cobbles, intermixed with concentrations of burned clay, charcoal-smeared areas, and several
large pieces of carbonized wood. Beneath the stones, scattered charcoal lay on a thin layer of
coarse sand. A series of distinctive artifacts was recovered below the sand. Typically
considered mortuary offerings or grave goods, the items included an incised antler comb,
several antler disks, perforated shark teeth, two groundstone pendants, a stone phallic effigy,
a large triangular chert biface, a wooden bead, and charred textile fragments (Figure 7-6).
Additionally, groups of calcined bone fragments were recovered. One set of bone fragments
represented part of the wing and tail of a falconiform bird. The second group consisted of
human bone—a small fragment of cranium; a small fragment of scapula or pelvic bone; a
fragment of clavicle; and portions of a tibia and fibula. All appeared to be from a single
individual: a small adult, possibly female, aged around 40 years. The arrangement of
charcoal at the base of the pit and varying evidence of burning associated with the artifacts
suggested that the burial was secondary. It appeared that the body and at least some of the
artifacts had been cremated elsewhere. A second fire ritual had been conducted in
association with the re-interment in this location. That is, the remains were placed in the pit,
a layer of clean sand placed over them, and a fire kindled over the sand, with no apparent
intent of further incinerating the material below. Before the fire had completely burned out,
large stones were used to cap the interment and the pit was summarily filled in. Pollen was
common in proveniences above and below the funerary material at the base of the pit, but not
within the interment itself, suggesting fire damage to pollen remains there. Phytolith
evidence implied extensive use of grasses in association with the burial, either as lining in the
base of the excavation or possibly as fuel for the original cremation or the reburial fire.
Phytolith analysis also suggested the possibility that magnolia or pawpaw was part of the
interment ritual.
Kipp Island Phase Sites

The artifact assemblage from the Feature 283 shared many characteristics in common with
burial assemblages reported from sites in Virginia, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, and
Ontario, in southern Canada. These sites have components that are considered part of the
Middle Woodland Kipp Island phase of Point Peninsula (AD 500-800), the latter being a
term used by Ritchie (1944, 1994) to describe a series of post-Hopewellian occupations in
New York and southern Ontario. Figure 7-7 illustrates the locations of the sites referenced in
the following analysis, while Table 7-6 summarizes the sites and the contents of their late
Middle Woodland burial components. Most of the Kipp Island phase sites in New York were
investigated in the 1930s and 1940s under the sponsorship of the Rochester Museum of Arts
and Sciences. However, some of the excavations were conducted by vocational and amateur
archaeologists whose findings were later reported by Ritchie (1944). Sites containing burials
associated with the Kipp Island phase include components at the Kipp Island, Jack’s Reef,
Durkee, and Plum Orchard sites, in New York State (Ritchie 1944, 1994); the Bay of Quinté,
Port Maitland, Brock Street, and Williams sites, in Ontario (Ritchie 1944; Spence et al.
1990); and an isolated burial on Minisink Island, in New Jersey (Carpenter 1950; Ritchie
1994). Typical grave goods reported from Kipp Island phase sites include antler combs,
stone pendants, triangular knives, perforated shark teeth, cache blades, platform pipes, and
ochre. Other artifacts less consistently present include Jack’s Reef points, barbed harpoon
points, and perforated beaver incisors.
206
Bay of Quinté
Brock Street
Jack's Reef
Durkee
Kipp Island
Port Maitland Plum Orchard
Williams
Minisink Island
Island Field
Whitehurst
Ramp 3
Bowman
Mound
0 50 100 200
Hand
Kilometers
Miles
0 25 50 100
Figure 7-7. Archaeological Sites Mentioned in the Text Containing Kipp Island
Mortuary Components.
207
Table 7-6. Comparison of Late Middle Woodland Burial Assemblages and Attributes.
Site/Feature Burial Type Absolute Date Period/Phase Typical Artifacts Atypical Artifacts References
Whitehurst Ramp 3 (DC)
secondary AD 640-890 antler comb, shark teeth, bird bone, phallus,

Feature 283 Middle Woodland this report
cremation AD 640-790 pendants, triangular point, bead textile, antler disk
Bowman Mound (VA)
antler combs, gorget,

primary late Fowke 1894; Ritchie
Burial S3 -- columnella, disk beads, ochre, --
(submound) Middle Woodland 1944; Dunham 1994
bone needle
primary late several “animal Fowke 1894; Ritchie
Burial S10 -- antler comb
(submound) Middle Woodland ribs” 1944; Dunham 1994
Hand Site (VA)
primary w/ fire late antler combs, gorget, triangular Smith 1971, 1984 ;
Burial 48 -- ceramic pipe
ceremony Middle Woodland points, antler flaker Mudar et al. 1998
Smith 1971, 1984;
primary w/ fire late
Burial 55 AD 690-970 antler combs, shark teeth -- Mudar et al. 1998;
ceremony Middle Woodland
this report
Kipp Island Site (NY)
primary Middle Woodland,

Grave 2 -- antler comb, deer bone tools chert flakes Carpenter 1950
(multiple) Kipp Island phase
Middle Woodland, antler comb, slate pendants, rolled copper

Grave 6 primary -- Carpenter 1950
Kipp Island phase shell disc beads, beads
dog canines, wrist
Middle Woodland, antler comb, bone beads, chert
Burial 2 primary -- bands, adze, Ritchie 1944
Kipp Island phase cache blades
triangular scraper
antler comb, beaver and deer
primary Middle Woodland, quartzite knife,
Burial 5 -- bone tools, chert knives / broken Ritchie 1944
(disturbed) Kipp Island phase broken points
points
208
Middle Woodland, anter comb, columnella beads,

Burial 8 primary -- -- Ritchie 1944
Kipp Island phase chert points (tri. & side notch)
Jacks Reef Site (NY)
antler combs, platform pipes,

Middle Woodland,
(no provenience) cremation -- shark teeth, harpoons, antler antler disk Ritchie 1944
Kipp Island phase
points/tools
Durkee Site (NY)
antler comb, bone

Middle Woodland,
(no provenience) primary(sitting) -- points/harpoons, beaver tooth, adze Ritchie 1944
Kipp Island phase
antler flaking tools/scrapers
Minisink Island (NJ)
Middle Woodland, antler comb, shark teeth, Carpenter 1950;

(no provenience) cremation -- --
Kipp Island phase platform pipe Ritchie 1994
Port Maitland (Ont)
antler combs, ochre, columnella

Middle Woodland, Ritchie 1944;
"Chief's Burial" primary -- beads, platform pipe, slate ceramic pipe
Kipp Island phase Spence et al. 1990
pendant, chert knife
Bay of Quinté (Ont)
antler comb, harpoon, bone

primary Middle Woodland,
(no provenience) -- awls, ochre, beaver teeth, eagle sternum Ritchie 1944
(multiple,sitting) Kipp Island phase
columnellas
209
Island Field Site (DE)
primary
Burial 32 AD 640-1190 Middle Woodland -- textiles Custer et al. 1990
cremation
shark teeth, bone tools,
hammerstones,
Burial 76 primary AD 889-983 Middle Woodland pendants, point/biface cache, Custer et al. 1990
cores, flakes
platform pipe
Gala Site (VA)
late Middle-Late
Feature 98D primary AD 900-1170 -- ground pebbles Bowden 2003
Woodland
secondary- late Middle-Late

Feature 98E AD 900-1170 -- ground pebble Bowden 2003
bundle Woodland
secondary- late Middle-Late

Feature 131 -- projectile points, ochre -- Bowden 2003
bundle Woodland
210
The Kipp Island site, type site for Ritchie’s Middle Woodland phase of that name,
was located in Seneca County, New York, near the confluence of the Seneca and Clyde
Rivers. Among the temporal components reported at the site were Archaic, Middle
Woodland Hopewellian and Point Peninsula (Kipp Island phase), and Late Woodland. The
Kipp Island phase component consisted of more than 20 burials, excavated during three
separate field investigations in the 1930s (Ritchie 1944; Carpenter 1950). Also located along
the Seneca River, in Onondaga County, was the Jack’s Reef site, which reportedly included
Middle Woodland Point Peninsula through Late Woodland Owasco components
(Ritchie1994). The Kipp Island phase at Jack’s Reef was represented by a single cremation
burial discovered in the late 1930s.
The Durkee and Plum Orchard sites each consisted of an isolated Kipp Island phase
burial. The Durkee burial was discovered in 1935 near the Genesee River, in Livingston
County, New York. The individual was interred in the sitting position and was accompanied
by typical Kipp Island grave goods, including an antler comb. The Plum Orchard burial was
investigated by the Rochester Museum, also in the late 1930s, near the Bay of Irondequoit, in
Monroe County, New York. The burial was considered to be representative of the Kipp
Island phase based on the presence of fossil shark teeth and red ochre (Ritchie 1994).
Discovered in 1860 by Thomas Wallbridge on the shores of Lake Ontario, the Bay of
Quinté site contained a primary burial with three individuals in the sitting position (Ritchie
1944). Grave goods typical of the Kipp Island phase included an antler comb and bone tools.
An eagle sternum fragment also was recovered from the burial. The Port Maitland site
consisted of two burials located on the shores of Lake Erie near the mouth of the Green
River. The first burial, discovered by a dredge crew in 1907, was dubbed at the time the
“Chief’s Grave,” since it contained a wide variety of grave goods including two antler
combs, a slate pendant, and a steatite platform pipe (Ritchie 1944). Additional investigations
conducted at the site in 1938 discovered a second burial that contained the remains of a child
accompanied by various bone tools, projectile points (large triangles and small triangles with
shallow side-notches), and two sand hill crane humerii (Spence et al. 1990). The Brock
Street site, in Peterborough County, Ontario (Ritchie 1994), contained a single adult male
interment, along with polished slate pendants, a hafted beaver incisor, barbed antler points,
and two bone disks. The Williams site, in Kent County, Ontario (Ritchie 1994), contained
two burials, an adult and a child, that were associated with Kipp Island on the basis of barbed
antler harpoon points, a copper awl, shell beads, and red ochre.
The easternmost extent of the reported Kipp Island phase sites was a single burial
feature discovered on Minisink Island, in the Delaware River, Sussex County, New Jersey
(Carpenter 1950; Ritchie 1994). The burial contained calcined human bone along with
calcined fragments of an antler comb, perforated shark teeth, and a steatite platform pipe.
Closer to Washington, D.C., similar assemblages have been reported from the Island
Field site, in Delaware, and the Bowman Mound and Hand sites, in Virginia. Investigations
at the Island Field site, on the Murderkill River, in Kent County, Delaware, documented at
least 135 burials spanning the Middle through Late Woodland periods (Thomas and Warren
1970; Custer et al. 1990). Dates on bone samples ranged from AD 410 to 1410, with two
211
separate components recognized on the basis of statistical analysis: AD 400-1150 and AD

1200-1400. The early component was considered to be typical of the Delmarva Webb
complex (it is in fact the type site for the complex), that was contemporary with, but separate
from Delmarva Adena. The most intensive excavations at the site took place in the late
1960s under the auspices of the Delaware Section of Archaeology (Thomas and Warren
1970). More recently, Custer et al. (1990) presented data suggesting many similarities
between Island Field and Kipp Island phase mortuary sites, including grave goods such as
barbed harpoons, pentagonal points, shark teeth, pendants, platform pipes. The Bowman
Mound (44RM281) was located within the Shenandoah River watershed, on Linville Creek,
near the town of Linville, Virginia. Gerard Fowke, of the Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of
Ethnology, first investigated the Bowman Mound in the late nineteenth century (Fowke
1894; Ritchie 1944). Evidence documented at the Bowman Mound consisted of mortuary
remains from the Middle and Late Woodland, including primary, secondary, and ossuary
inhumations, and cremations interred below and within an accretional mound. In a review
and synthesis of available information on central Virginia burial mounds dated to the Late
Woodland, Dunham (1994) reconstructed a burial sequence at the Bowman Mound that
spanned the late Middle Woodland through Late Woodland periods. Two primary burials
with antler combs, a gorget, disk beads, and ochre occurred in sub-mound contexts. While
not directly dated, the artifact assemblages and locations of the burials in deposits occurring
prior to the development of Late Woodland accretional mounds indicated the association
with Kipp Island components elsewhere.
The Hand Site. The Hand site (44SN22) was located on the Nottoway River in
Southampton County, Virginia. Due to a reinterpretation of the site occupations occasioned
by additional data presented in this report, the Hand site is described here in more detail than
were the preceding sites. Gerald Smith (1971; 1984), who excavated and reported the site,
originally interpreted it as a cemetery from the latter end of the Late Woodland period. He
recognized two occupations: a minor late Middle Woodland occupation characterized by
Hercules phase ceramics (AD 800-1300), and, following a hiatus of several hundred years, a
large mortuary site associated with the Late Woodland Southampton phase (Chickahominy
series). The principal Hand site occupation date was given as AD 1580-1640, the precision
of the date range based on the presence of iron (European) artifacts in several burials.
Evidence of Middle Woodland occupations at the Hand site appeared limited,

consisting of crushed-gneiss-tempered ceramics attributed to the Hercules phase. Two trash
pit features were assigned to this phase. A small portion of a stockade or palisade line
coincided with the limits of the horizontal distribution of Hercules sherds, and Smith
attributed the feature to the Hercules phase as well. The palisade segment was comprised of
closely spaced, 10-20-centimeter diameter post holes in a line extending from the western
edge of the burial area for a distance of about 12 meters. Although the surviving segment
was small, the palisade did not appear to match the concentric circle pattern of a series of
outlying palisade lines attributed to the Late Woodland Period. Smith noted a “striking
similarity” between several antler combs from the site and combs from the Middle Woodland
Kipp Island site described by Ritchie. He further mentioned evidence of an unusual fire-
related ritual associated with some of the burials, although he did not go so far as to refer to
any of the burial features as other than Late Woodland.
212
In 1998, 117 of the 133 burials from the site were reassessed in association with a
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act request by the Nansemond tribe
directed to the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution (Mudar et al.
1998). Based on the burial treatments recorded at the site as well as on the form and number
of grave goods, the researchers concluded that the cemetery was related to an Iroquoian
population. That is, most of the burials were individual interments or bundle burials placed
in individual grave pits, rather than collective burials in ossuaries, as is the pattern recorded
for Algonquian populations throughout most of the Middle Atlantic (Turner 1992; Curry
1999). In addition, grave goods were present in almost 30 percent of the burials, whereas for
a variety of reasons, grave goods are typically not found in Algonquian mortuary sites of the
same period.
A series of nine burials did not fit the interpretation neatly in that they contained
unique burial goods, including perforated shark teeth and, in two cases, antler combs, as
noted above (Smith 1984). The nine burials were also distinguished by the fire ceremony
mentioned by Smith, in which the burial pit had been covered with a layer of clean sand over
which a fire was kindled. Little evidence suggested that the fire was intended to burn the
underlying interment, and in some cases, it appeared to have been extinguished before fully
burned. Although evidence from the nine burials did not match recorded patterns of
Iroquoian burial practices, Mudar et al. (1998:149) interpreted them only as unexplained
departures from late Algonquian mortuary patterns, since they appeared to represent the
interments of high status individuals who would typically have been separated from other
burials (Blick 1987).
Similarities between the nine burials and the mortuary feature at the Ramp 3 site at
Whitehurst prompted closer examination of the Hand site data as part of the current analysis.
Other burial goods contained in one or more of the interments at the Hand site included shell
and slate pendants; calcined bone disks; triangular projectile points; clay or steatite pipes;
charred textile or matting; the remains of split cane mats over or under several burials; textile
possibly from a robe-like garment; and a perforated beaver tooth. Some of these items
recalled the Ramp 3 burial, while others were characteristic of the artifacts associated with
Ritchie’s original descriptions of classic Kipp Island assemblages.
Due to the many similarities between the burials at the two sites, the Late Woodland
date originally assumed for the nine Hand site features was questioned. A charcoal sample
from one of the Hand site features was acquired from Virginia Department of Historic
Resources [VDHR] for radiocarbon dating. The sample was from Burial 55, which
contained the remains of a 12-year-old child and a pair of antler combs. A fragment of
carbon weighing 45 grams was taken from a large sample of charcoal that had been stored in
aluminum foil at VDHR curation facilities since approximately 1972. The sample was
submitted to Beta Analytic, Inc., in February 1998. A conventional radiocarbon date of
1210±50 BP was returned on the sample. The calibrated results (2 sigma) of AD 690-970
placed the sample within the latter portion of the Middle Woodland period and resulted in a
statistical overlap with the two dates obtained from Feature 283 at Ramp 3 (Table 7-7),
implying the strong possibility that the deposits were roughly contemporary.
213
Hand, Burial 55 1210%50 0.00

Whitehurst, F-283 1290%70 0.93 0.00
Whitehurst, F-283 1330%50 1.70 0.46 0.00
1210%50 1290%70 1330%50
Table 7-7. Pairwise Tests for Contemporaneity of Radiocarbon

Dates: Burial 55, Hand Site; and Feature 283, Ramp 3 (highlighted
calculations indicate implied contemporaneity).
With introduction of this new chronological information, the problem posed by the
unusual features for the Iroquoian interpretation at the Hand site disappeared at the same time
that the complexity of the site occupations increased. It is now understood that the site was
originally inhabited by Middle Woodland groups related to those who passed through the
Whitehurst site, and who may have arrived at the Hand site sometime following the
Whitehurst occupation, given geography and the time differential implied by the probability
distributions of the radiocarbon dates. Research by Phelps (1983) has further suggested the
presence of a second occupation at the Hand site by later Algonquian groups who left the
remains of Colington fabric impressed ceramics (related to Townsend). Eventually, the most
intensive occupation occurred, involving Iroquoian Nottoways using Branchville or Cachie
wares (Branchville as defined by Binford [1964]; Cachie being a late, quartz-tempered ware
from northeastern North Carolina and extreme southeastern Virginia, as described by Egloff
and Potter [1982]). This final occupation, which was responsible for the majority of the
burials at the cemetery site, was relatively short, lasting from Contact until 1640.
Artifact Comparisons
Combs. The most distinctive artifact from the Feature 283 burial assemblage was the incised
antler comb. The Ramp 3 example was incomplete and highly fragmented. However, once
reassembled, the resemblance to other combs from Kipp Island phase burials and other
burials of the Middle Woodland period was apparent (Figure 7-8). As noted in Table 7-6,
similar combs have been recovered from burial contexts at the Bowman Mound, Hand, Kipp
Island, Jack’s Reef, Durkee, Minisink Island, Port Maitland, and Bay of Quinté sites. These
combs were typically made from elk or caribou antler and ranged between 20-40 centimeters
in length. The documented specimens had four to eight teeth and some were intricately
incised. Two general morphological styles based on the shape of the proximal end are
evident from the available examples: Y-shaped or concave (e.g., Figure 7-8, numbers 2, 6,
and 8); and T-shaped or straight (e.g., Figure 7-8, numbers 1, 4, and 5).
The Ramp 3 example was T-shaped, with a zoned pattern of incised lines covering
the body. The pattern was nearly identical to that on one of the combs from the Bowman
Mound, Burial S-3 (Fowke 1894; Dunham 1994). Part of a second comb also was recovered
from Burial S-3 at Bowman, with the remainder recovered from Burial S-10 just a few feet
away at the same submound level. The second comb was Y-shaped, longer than the first, and
bore only four tines, in contrast to the five tines present on the whole specimen. Ritchie
(1944) noted stylistic similarities between the Bowman Mound combs and the New York and
Canadian combs, and described Bowman Mound as the southernmost extent of the
distribution of these artifacts.
214
Figure 7-8. Examples of Antler Combs Recovered from Middle Woodland Mortuary Contexts. (1) Port Maitland Site, Ontario, Canada;
(2) and (3) Kipp Island Site, New York; (4) Ramp 3 Site, Washington, D.C.; (5) and (6) Bowman Mound, Linville, Virginia; (7) and (8) Hand Site,
Southhampton County, Virginia. Collection photographs from: Royal Ontario Museum (1); Rochester Museum and Science Center (2, 3);
Smithsonian (5, 6); and the Virginia Department of Historic Resources (7, 8).
215
Three pairs of the antler comb were documented by Smith (1971, 1984) at the Hand site.
Two pairs were recovered from burial contexts (Burials 48 and 55), while a third pair was
recovered from a non-burial pit feature (Feature 97). Non-mortuary features were not
systematically described in either of Smith’s reports, and thus it is difficult to assess the
context of the combs from Feature 97. Based on the plan maps provided in the reports,
Feature 97 was a small, sub-round pit measuring 75-by-90 centimeters at its opening. In
each burial, Smith described the combs as located near the skull, and in the case of Burial 55,
occurring in a mass that appeared to consist of charred hair. The combs from Burial 55 were
reported to be charred, however no photographs or drawings were provided in the reports,
suggesting that the artifacts may have been too poorly preserved to recover intact or to
describe in detail. The combs from Burial 48 and Feature 97 were similar in size to the Ramp
3 specimen, described as 25-30 centimeters long, 10-15 centimeters wide, each having six
teeth. One comb of each pair was incised with a transverse line one-third to one-half the
distance from the base of the teeth, with a series of parallel lines running perpendicular from
the transverse line to the teeth (Smith 1984).
At the Kipp Island site, five primary burials excavated during three separate field
investigations each contained one antler comb in association with deer bone tools,
groundstone pendants, columnella beads, rolled copper beads, and chert triangular and side-
notched points and cache blades (Ritchie 1944; Carpenter 1950). Three of the Kipp Island
combs were whole. The specimen from Burial 8 was Y-shaped, had four teeth, and was
incised with zig-zag triangular patterns (Figure 7-9; Ritchie 1944, Plate 87, figure 7). Two
combs recovered from Graves 2 and 6 at Kipp Island did not conform to the T- or Y-shaped
morphology typical of the other Kipp Island phase combs (Carpenter 1950, Figure 93, B, M,
and O). The specimen from Grave 6 was rectangular with six long teeth and a long barb
extending from the proximal end, perpendicular to the teeth. No incised decorations were
described or are evident in the available photograph. The comb from Burial 2 was oval in
form with five wide teeth beginning at the middle of the comb tapering to a point.
Five partial antler combs and three comb tooth fragments were recovered from a
cremation burial at the Jack’s Reef site (Ritchie 1944, Plate 69, figure 19, 20, 22, 23, 27, and
28). The combs were found in association with perforated shark teeth, platform pipes, bone
tools, and large fragments of charcoal (Figure 7-10). The five comb fragments consisted of
portions of the proximal (upper) ends. All were incised with trapezoidal checker board
patterns similar to those found on the Ramp 3, Port Maitland, and Bowman Mound combs.
One whole comb was recovered from the primary burial at the Durkee site. This example
was rectangular, had six teeth, and was incised with two rows of downward pointing
triangular motifs (Ritchie 1944, Plate 87, figure 2). The Ontario combs, recovered from the
Port Maitland and Bay of Quinté sites, were both T-shaped and extensively incised (Ritchie
1944, Plate 87, figures 5 and 9). The Port Maitland comb was the smallest of those reported,
yet it contained the most teeth—eight. The incised pattern on the comb was similar in style
to the Ramp 3, Jack’s Reef, and Bowman Mound combs. The comb from the Bay of Quinté
site was recovered from a multiple primary burial consisting of three individuals interred in
the sitting position within a limestone-slab-lined pit (Ritchie 1944). Only the proximal
(upper) half of the comb was recovered: based on a published drawing, it exhibited at least
216
Figure 7-9. Kipp Island Burial Assemblage.
Figure 7-10. Jack’s Reef Burial Assemblage.
217
five teeth. The comb was incised with a tooth-like motif emanating from a rectangular band
containing several concentric circles.
The comb recovered from the Minisink Island burial was too fragmented for morphological
comparison. A photograph of the comb fragments in Carpenter (1950) shows an incised
pattern of closely spaced parallel lines running along the long axis of the comb. The pattern
was generally similar to that of combs attributed to the Kipp Island phase.
Ground Stone – Pendants. Two perforated groundstone pendants were recovered as part of
the Feature 283 assemblage. Petrological studies identified the raw material of the larger
pendant as Martinsburg slate of the Great Valley sequence of western Virginia. The material
of the smaller specimen was identified as local schist. The larger of the two specimens was
of a form that Ritchie (1944) described as a long, narrow isosceles trapezoid. Ritchie noted
that the shape was common in the assemblages of Kipp Island phase sites, with examples
recovered from burial contexts at Kipp Island and Port Maitland. Two perforated pendants
of similar form were recovered from Grave 6 at Kipp Island, as reported by Carpenter
(1950). The artifacts there were made from red slate and gray “Ohio grindstone.” The Port
Maitland example was nearly identical in size to the Ramp 3 specimen and was of banded
slate. In each case, the pendants described were recovered in association with antler combs
in burial contexts.
The schist pendant was less than a quarter the size of the slate pendant. It was less
finely shaped, although it still retained a generally trapezoidal appearance. Smaller pendants
were not reported from any of the northern Kipp Island phase sites. The only groundstone
pendant reported from the Hand site was similar in size and shape to the smaller Ramp 3
specimen, although more narrowly tapered on the perforated end (Smith 1984, Figure 43,
#2). This pendant was recovered in association with fossil shark teeth and red ochre from
Burial 4. Burial 4 contained the flexed remains of a young adult female. Other perforated
groundstone artifacts recovered from the Hand site consisted of two broken slate bar gorgets,
from Burials 48 and 86 (Smith 1984). Fowke (1894) described a “gorget of fine finish”
found in association with antler combs in Burial S-3 of the Bowman Mound.
Ground Stone – Phallus. Phallic effigies are rare on sites in the Northeast. The stone
phallus fragment from Feature 283 was fashioned from an elongated sandstone cobble that
with a natural quartz vein near one end providing a realistic effigy. A similar sandstone
effigy was found in a late Middle Woodland midden layer at the Vinette site, in New York,
although no other artifacts related to Kipp Island were reported in association (Ritchie
1994:162, Figure 75). The artifact from the Vinette site was marked at the upper end with a
short incision similar to the crease on the Ramp 3 example. Ritchie (1944:83) also reported
that two stone phallic effigies were recovered from the Jack’s Reef site in deposits from his
Canadaigua focus, which at the time was considered slightly later than Kipp Island (Ritchie
1944:29). No description or illustrations of the artifacts were included in the report. An
additional effigy, this of ceramic, was reported at the somewhat later Carpenter Brook site, in
Onondoga County, in deposits assigned by Ritchie to the earliest Owasco manifestation, the
Carpenter Brook phase (Ritchie 1994:298).
218
Chipped Stone Bifaces. The Ramp 3 burial feature contained one large black chert
triangular biface or point that measured approximately 6 centimeters in length. It was
isosceles in form, with slightly asymmetrical blade edges. No small triangles, such as those
noted at the Hand site or the Bowman Mound, were found in the feature. Microscopic
examination of the artifact revealed isolated patches of striation on raised areas, possible
evidence that the biface had been hafted. Jack’s Reef Corner Notched and Pentagonal points
are considered the primary Kipp Island phase point types, while triangular Levanna points
are known but are rarer for this phase (Ritchie 1944). Triangles, however, are the associated
points in assemblages that included antler combs, as described earlier. A large triangular
chert knife was recovered from the Port Maitland site burial that also contained an antler
comb and slate pendant (Spence et al. 1990).
Shark Teeth. Other perforated artifacts from Feature 283 consisted of shark teeth, recovered
in 41 fragments and representing at minimum, 14 individual teeth. Thirteen of the shark
teeth were fossilized and were likely collected from late Miocene and early Pleistocene
marine sediments that occur along the eastern seaboard. Shark teeth were common
inclusions in Kipp Island burials. Four perforated and three imperforate fossil shark teeth
were recovered from a cremated burial at the Jack’s Reef Site, while two side-notched fossil
shark teeth, presumed to have been arrowheads, were recovered from the isolated Plum
Orchard burial (Ritchie 1944, 1994). Two perforated shark teeth were recovered in
association with calcined human bone fragments in the isolated burial on Minisink Island
(Carpenter 1950). Three shark teeth were recovered from Burial 76 at the Island Field site: a
sample of human bone from the same feature yielded a Middle Woodland date of AD 889-
983 (Custer et al. 1990). At the Hand site, Smith (1971) found fossil shark teeth exclusively
in burials with evidence of a fire ritual. He noted a pattern of shark teeth included in female
burials, and triangular chert points similarly included in a male burial. Twenty of 32 shark
teeth recovered from Burial 55 at the Hand site were perforated.
Other Artifacts. A single round, softwood bead was recovered from the Whitehurst burial.
The shape of the bead and its isolated occurrence suggested it was probably not a necklace
bead, but perhaps had been threaded on the end of a clothing tassel or a thong that had been
attached to another artifact. Beads were common on Kipp Island phase sites, but were
typically made from shell or copper: perforated marginella; tubular columnella; rolled
copper; or shell discs. No wooden beads were reported in the northern Kipp Island phase
literature, nor were any reported at the Hand site, Bowman Mound, or Island Field site.
Six small ellipses or disks made of antler were also recovered from Feature 283.
Similar disks occurred at the Kipp Island and Jack’s Reef sites, where they were described as
gaming pieces (Ritchie 1994). The ellipses may represent objects involved in what Lewis
Henry Morgan referred to as “the deer button game,” wherein “eight buttons, about an inch
in diameter, were made of elk-horn, and having been rounded and polished, were slightly
burned upon one side to blacken them” (Morgan 1962). The pieces were employed in a
gambling game not unlike craps. The Cherokee, Creek, and Choctaw played a similar game
involving charred beans or corn kernels (Hudson 1976).
219
Finally, a number of very small fabric pieces were found in the southern half of
Feature 283. All of the fragments were charred. Due to the generally poor preservation of
organic fibers in the archaeological record, there is very little comparative data from similar
time periods in the regional literature. However, a few textile remains have been reported in
burial contexts in the Northeast and Middle Atlantic. Smith (1984) reported charred textile
or matting in association with shark teeth and the cremated remains of the child in Burial 51
at the Hand site. Remains of split cane mats were noted over or under several other burials at
the site, in addition to textile possibly from a robe-like garment. In a slightly earlier context,
Carpenter (1950) reported an “intervening twined fabric” in Burial 4 of the Rosenkrans site
in northern New Jersey. The Rosenkrans site was dated to the late Early Woodland to early
Middle Woodland Middlesex phase. Ritchie (1994) reported charred textile in association
with a cremation burial at the White site, in New York, which was attributed to the late
Middle Woodland-to-early Late Woodland Hunter’s Home phase that immediately followed
Kipp Island. Charred textile also was recovered in association with cremated remains in
Burial 32 of the Island Field site. Bone recovered from Burial 32 returned a rather broad date
range of AD 640-1190 spanning the latter half of the Middle Woodland into the early Late
Woodland subperiod (Custer et al. 1990).
Kipp Island Artifacts and Mortuary Characteristics Not Found in the Ramp 3
Assemblage. As the preceding summary indicates, a range of artifact types was typically
associated with Kipp Island burials. But given the wide geographic and temporal
distributions of sites evidencing Kipp Island mortuary practices, variation in assemblage
composition may be expected and has indeed been noted.
Typical Kipp Island artifacts not present in Feature 283 included bone and antler
tools, such as awls, harpoons, and fish hooks; smoking pipes; and red ochre. Non-lithic tools
that were present in many of the burial assemblages were typically made from deer bone,
bear bone, rodent or marsupial incisors, or deer and elk antler. Steatite platform pipes were
also a common artifact in Kipp Island phase burial assemblages, while a clay platform pipe
was recovered from Burial 48 at the Hand site in association with antler combs—Smith
(1984) suggested that the clay pipe was a local copy of imported stone counterparts. Red
ochre, presumably introduced during the burial ceremony, was also a common occurrence
among Kipp Island-related burials. Ochre was reported in association with antler combs in
burials at the Bowman Mound, Port Maitland, and Bay of Quinté sites. Ochre was also
present in Burial 4 of the Hand site, which contained fossil shark teeth and a slate pendant
(Smith 1984). Red ochre was not recovered from Feature 283 at Ramp 3, possibly a result of
the secondary nature of the burial, although small fragments were recorded in Middle and
Late Woodland deposits at the nearby Whitehurst West site.
Atypical artifacts, those occurring less consistently at Kipp Island sites, that appeared
in the Ramp 3 assemblage, included large bird bones, antler disks, textiles, and the stone
phallus and wooden bead. Although shell beads were a common constituent of the many of
the Kipp Island burials, the single wood bead recovered from Feature 283 was unique among
the reported sites. While the absence of wood beads at other sites may have been a factor of
poor preservation at those locations, it is more likely that the bead at the Ramp 3 site was a
220
product of local manufacture on a wider regional pattern in which shell was more often
utilized to produce beads.
Custer et al. (1990:204-207) have presented a statistical analysis of common and

uncommon artifacts from Kipp Island contexts. The analysis was more inclusive in terms of
the sites chosen for study than the current investigation, citing a total of 20 sites, including
some with components that were slightly earlier or later than Kipp Island. The analysis did
not include either the Hand site or Ramp 3, neither of which were recognized at the time as
containing Kipp Island components. As a result of the study, the researchers reported a
predictable tendency for early sites in the core area of western New York and southern
Ontario to have a more concentrated range of artifact types, while sites outside the core area
were later in date and showed more variation in terms of artifact types. The latter conclusion,
if correct, suggests that cognate artifacts and other local influences on the classic assemblage
were common in outlying areas.
Finally the type of interment varied among the sites. Nearly all of the reported Kipp
Island burials were primary interments, including one primary cremation and two burials
containing multiple individuals. The Jack’s Reef and Minisink Island burials were reported
to be cremations, but it was unclear from the documentation whether the remains were
cremated in place or whether the cremations had been conducted elsewhere and the
interments at the sites were secondary. Where reported, most of the burials in New York and
Ontario were flexed and placed in a sitting position. The burials in Virginia and at Island
Field were extended. The Ramp 3 burial appeared unique among the group of Kipp Island-
related sites in being the only well-documented secondary burial.
The Transition to Late Woodland Accretional Mounds. In comparison with the wide
variety of offerings included in the Middle Woodland mortuary contexts discussed above,
recent investigations of a cluster of Middle and Late Woodland interments at the Gala site
(44BO48) documented a low frequency of non-ornamental grave goods (Bowden 2003).
They are described here as a regional contrast to the unique burials at Ramp 3, Bowman
Mound, and Hand. Located on the upper James River, in Botetourt County, Virginia, the
Gala site lay 80 miles southwest of the Bowman Mound. Burial forms present with in the
mortuary complex included one primary burial and several secondary burials, including
bundled and cremated remains representing a minimum of 27 individuals. Radiocarbon
samples from the mortuary contexts returned dates ranging from the late Middle to early Late
Woodland.
Only three of the Gala site burials were determined to contain intentionally placed
grave goods. Feature 98D was described as a primary inhumation containing three ground
pebbles interpreted as gaming pieces. Feature 98E, a bundle burial consisting of one
individual, contained one ground pebble. A radiocarbon sample associated with Features
98D and 98E returned a date range of AD 900-1170, significantly later than the Kipp Island
features at the Ramp 3 and Hand sites. Feature 131, also a bundle burial, contained four
projectile points and an ochre fragment. The points included two small chert triangles, a
small quartz stemmed specimen, and an unidentified specimen. No radiocarbon dating was
221
conducted on organic material from Feature 131 due to disturbance caused by a water utility
line.
The burial complex at the Gala site was interpreted as representing the initial stages
of accretional mound building associated with the Late Woodland Lewis Creek Mound
Culture, as described by MacCord (1986) and further examined by Dunham (1994), thus
marking the transition from Middle Woodland to Late Woodland mortuary practices in
western and central Virginia.
Regional Context and Implications

The exotic artifacts from the burial feature at the Ramp 3 site represent external
influences on the prehistoric populations inhabiting the fall line zone in the Washington,
D.C., area as well as across the Coastal Plain and Piedmont regions of the Middle Atlantic.
Determining the form of these influences—whether direct (population movement) or indirect
(cultural diffusion)—is not necessarily straightforward, since the process involves a certain
degree of conjecture as to ethnic identities across time and space. Establishing the ethnic
associations of archaeological cultures, particularly ones removed from the ethnographic
present by many centuries, is a difficult if not unrealistic effort. But a question
archaeologists often seem to find themselves asking is: “who were these people?” In the
case of the Whitehurst sites, there were general indications of the derivation of at least some
of the Middle and Late Woodland populations that occupied the sites.
Implications for Middle Woodland Cultures in the Coastal Plain of the Potomac Valley.
A seemingly unlikely approach to the question of who left the unusual mortuary remains at
the Ramp 3 site may be through the study of language, or more specifically, through an
investigation of the distribution of regional language families. Tracing languages, and by
implication ethnic groups, back over the course of 1,000 years or more can be a difficult,
exercise. And indeed, arguments have long been advanced for mistrusting the results of
historical linguistic analysis—glottochronology in particular (Kroeber 1955; Bergsland and
Vogt 1962)—and for attempting to directly equate language and ethnicity. Yet, there is some
merit to the approach, at least in terms of developing possible scenarios or hypotheses for
further archaeological research. In the present case, the investigation begins with the three
main language families recognized as having been present at European Contact in eastern
North America from southern Canada to the Carolinas: Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Siouan.
An important pattern has long been recognized in the distribution of these languages that has
implications for archaeological interpretation. That is, Algonquian occurred in two distinct
geographic areas: Central Algonquian, situated in southern Canada (Ontario); and Coastal or
Eastern Algonquian, along the Atlantic Seaboard. Between the two Algonquian-speaking
regions lay a large swath of Iroquoian speakers.
Once thought to represent an in situ cultural development in the central New York
region, Iroquoian is now considered to have been an intrusive component in the region.
Explanation for this intrusion involves population movement, or migration. It is interesting
to note here that as an explanatory theory for cultural change, migration fell out of favor
several decades ago (Clark 1966; Renfrew 1973; Adams et al. 1978). Yet, it has recently re-
emerged as a useful and accepted mechanism when properly applied with relevant supporting
222
data (Rouse 1986; Luckenbach et al. 1987; Dent 1995). Mounting evidence indeed seems to
suggest that in eastern North America, several substantial episodes of population movement
occurred during the Woodland period and that the later migrations in particular may have
involved distant ancestors of Contact period Iroquoian speakers.
Initial studies in the 1920s concluded that Iroquoian represented a very late intrusion
of Mississippian populations into eastern regions, occurring as recently as the sixteenth
century (Parker in Fiedel 1991:11). Later, Griffin (1944) and Ritchie and MacNeish (1949)
proposed that Iroquoian groups had developed gradually from existing Algonquian
populations. As support for a theory of in situ Iroquoian development, a number of
archaeological cultures were offered as proto-Iroquoian, including Lamoka, the Archaic
Laurentian tradition, and even the Broadspear tradition from the southeast.
More recent theory has returned to the idea of Iroquoian as an intrusive language.
Fiedel (1987, 1991) employed linguistic evidence to infer a date for the separation of Central
and Eastern Algonquian, providing a new focus for the interpretation of archaeological
patterns in the region. Building on work by Siebert (1975), Proulx (1980), and Luckenbach
et al. (1987), he used comparative vocabulary lists and lexicostatistical techniques
(glottochronology1) to estimate the date of divergence of the two branches from a proto-
Algonquian antecedent: AD 570, with a range of 100 BC to AD 700.
Claims for direct correlations between archaeological cultures and proto-language

groups should be viewed cautiously, since associating archaeological data with hypotheses
developed through historical linguistic analysis is a fairly circumstantial process.
Nonetheless, theories suggested by linguistic data may provide potentially significant
patterns that can be investigated through the archaeological record. Archaeological
correlates suggested for proto-Algonquian prior to the Central/Eastern split have included
cultures such as Meadowood and Adena (Fiedel 1991). The most likely candidate, though,
appears to have been Point Peninsula, part of a group of cultures known collectively as the
Lake Forest Middle Woodland (Fitting 1978). Distributed from Manitoba to the Canadian
Maritime Provinces and the Atlantic Coast of southern New England, Lake Forest Middle
Woodland cultures are generally dated AD 1-300 (the Saugeen complex, considered to have
occupied the Algonquian heartland at the mouth of the Saugeen River, on the eastern edge of
Lake Huron in western Ontario, appears to have continued for several additional centuries)
(Fitting 1978). The cultures of the Lake Forest Middle Woodland share artifact
characteristics such as ceramics with punctated, pseudo-scallop shell-stamped, rocker-
stamped, and dentate decoration, and a typical settlement pattern throughout their geographic
extent that consisted of community coalescence during the summer months at rich fishing
areas, and dispersal through the winter.
Within the Lake Forest Middle Woodland tradition, the Early and Late phases of
Point Peninsula are recognized. Early Point Peninsula was largely characterized by ceramics
including the pseudo-scallop shell-stamped, dentate, and rocker-stamped wares that appeared
throughout the Lake Forest Middle Woodland region. Other artifacts included side-notched
1
glottochronology is a technique for dating the separation of related languages by determining the proportion of
words still held in common by them
223
points, and a variety of bone and copper tools, including barbed harpoons and fish hooks
(Ritchie 1994:209-10). Ritchie (1994:214) described Early Point Peninsula mortuary
customs as “relatively undeveloped,” with few grave goods occurring in burials. Early Point
Peninsula ceramics and the proto-Algonquian populations assumed to have been associated
with them did not occur as far south as the Middle Atlantic. Mockley is the Chesapeake
region ceramic that was contemporary with Early Point Peninsula. It is widely believed to
have been an unrelated ware that spread through the Middle Atlantic from south to north
(Custer 1989; Dent 1995).
Late Point Peninsula (Kipp Island phase) is the archaeological culture mentioned as
the probable source of the funerary goods in the burial feature at the Whitehurst Ramp 3 site,
and it appears to have been the material culture that eventually became associated with
Eastern Algonquian. As indicated in the preceding section of this report, the list of sites
bearing similar artifacts stretches from the Great Lakes to Minisink Island in the Delaware
Valley and beyond (Ritchie 1994). The most highly developed material culture within Late
Point Peninsula was the Kipp Island phase, named after the Kipp Island site in central New
York State and first appearing around AD 500 (Ritchie 1994). The now familiar range of
dentate, pseudo-scallop shell-stamped, and rocker-stamped ceramic wares were present,
while the common diagnostic chipped stone artifact was the Jack’s Reef point, either the
corner-notched or pentagonal variety. Mortuary ritual was more highly developed than in
Early Point Peninsula, with the extensive grave offerings already noted that included various
combinations of barbed harpoons, shark teeth, antler combs, platform pipes, shell beads, slate
gorgets, and red ochre. Some researchers have proposed that the mortuary rituals of Late
Point Peninsula in general, and Kipp Island in particular, served as a means of resolving
claims on closely held fishing areas described as “rapids where spawning fish could be taken
in quantity” (Spence et al. 1990:168). Kipp Island is also considered by some to have been
related to the post-Hopwellian Intrusive Mound culture of central and southern Ohio, through
Halsey’s (1976:536) Mills phase, that was characterized by barbed harpoons, antler combs,
Jack’s Reef-like and Levanna-like points, and platform pipes (see also Seeman 1992:43).
As noted, the list of sites with proto-Algonquian Kipp Island components reportedly
extended from Ontario to Central New York and into the Delaware Valley. Additional site
components related to the Kipp Island phase have been identified further south, in Delaware
and Virginia. These additional sites occur well after Kipp Island was established in central
New York and southern Ontario, and at about the time that Fiedel and others infer the proto-
Iroquoian intrusion into that region (Figure 7-11). The timing suggests that eastward moving
Iroquoian groups scattered the indigenous Algonquian populations, driving some of them
southward into the Middle Atlantic. A degree of assimilation with existing populations
within the central New York core area may have occurred as well, leading Ritchie and others
to see the in situ development of Iroquoian influenced Owasco out of local Middle Woodland
cultures through Hunters Home.
A proposed archaeological correlate for the proto-Iroquoian linguistic intrusion is

Princess Point (AD 600-1000 [Fox 1990:174]), which is reported to have emerged
“’suddenly and dramatically…in a full-blown, and well-developed state’ with ‘no apparent
predecessors’” (Stother in Fox 1990:174). Princess Point ceramics were characterized by
224
collarless rimmed vessels with coarse paste and cord-marked exteriors. Small triangles
predominated among points, although groundstone objects and smoking pipes were present
but uncommon (Fox 1990:175). Less elaborate mortuary practices were observed in
comparison with Late Point Peninsula. Arguments have been presented against Princess
Point as Iroquoian, yet they have mainly been aimed at a lack of adequately published
documentation (Fox 1990:185-6; Murphy and Ferris 1990:271-7), while a convincing
alternative theory of in situ development has not been advanced. Current evidence thus
suggests that Princess Point did represent the movement of proto-Iroquoian populations into
the region, with the source area possibly being southwest Ohio, as ceramic attributes
associated with Princess Point imply certain Hopewellian influences. An in-depth analysis of
a relatively complex series of arguments for and against external influences in the region can
be found in Stothers et al. (1994).
Late Woodland
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000 Features 98D/E
Burial 76 Bowman AD 900-1170
900 AD 889-983 Burial 55 Mound
800 Burial 32
Feature 283 AD 690-970 Gala
700 AD 640-890 Site
Kipp Island Site AD 640-1190
AD 640-790
600 AD 530-730
Middle Woodland
Hand Site
500 proto-Iroquoian
Kipp Island
400 Intrusion Phase Sites Island Field
300 (proposed) Site
200
Whitehurst
100
AD Ramp 3
0
BC
100
200 Virginia
300
400 Point Peninsula
500 Culture
600 District of Columbia
Early Woodland
700 Delaware
800
900
1000 NY / NJ / Ontario
Figure 7-11. Chronology of Kipp Island and Kipp Island Related Sites in Ontario, New
York, and the Middle Atlantic (long vertical bars represent full occupation span at each site).
These theories correlating linguistic families with archaeological cultures and

positing regional migration during the later part of the Middle Woodland period bear clear
implications for the current study of the archaeological material at Whitehurst Freeway.
They suggest that the people who left the mortuary remains comprising Feature 283 at the
Whitehurst Ramp 3 site were proto-Algonquian, a southern arm or off-shoot of the
cultural/linguistic split in the latter part of the Middle Woodland that eventually developed
into Central and Eastern Algonquian (Figure 7-12). Supporting the idea of an influx of new
populations into the Middle Atlantic from the north are technological and settlement pattern
changes that have been noted in various parts of the region around AD 500 (Dent 1995),
225
Figure 7-12. Hypothetical Emigration Scenario with Algonquian Populations Moving

South to the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Following Iroquoian Intrusion.
suggesting the possible disruption of regional systems in the late Middle Woodland. In
northern Delmarva, for example, Custer’s (1989) Carey complex, characterized by Mockley
ceramics and contracting stemmed Rossville points, was rapidly replaced by the grit-
tempered Hell Island ceramics and Jack’s Reef points of the Webb complex. Apparently
abrupt changes in settlement have also been noted in the appearance of very large
occupations at the Boathouse Pond site (Potter 1993), in Tidewater Virginia, and of mortuary
centers at sites like Island Field and associated sites such as Hell Island, Oxford, and
Riverton (Custer 1989). At the upper end of the Potomac River estuary, at the Whitehurst
Freeway sites, evidence of external presence occurs at about this time as well, with the
appearance of the Ramp 3 mortuary feature. The same groups responsible for that
226
occurrence appeared at Bowman Mound near Linville (possibly later than at Whitehurst,
although dating at Linville is imprecise); and later still at the Hand site in southern Virginia
(later given the range of the recent radiocarbon date). These populations may have moved
along the Ridge and Valley province, southward down the Potomac River valley and along
the fall line, eventually working into the eastern fringes the Virginia Piedmont and onto the
Coastal Plain. Curry and Kavanagh (1991) have suggested that large portions of Western
Maryland, including the Great Valley and parts of the Potomac valley were uninhabited at
this time, which may have encouraged the easy movement of populations through the area
from the north and west. Whether or not this was the only path of entry to the Middle
Atlantic is unclear—it probably was not, given occurrences such as Minisink Island and
Island Field, where Jack’s Reef assemblages, characteristic burial goods, and later
radiocarbon dates have been reported.
A potentially important observation from the burial at Ramp 3 was the secondary
nature of the interment. While mortuary customs practiced by the people who left the feature
may have differed from the typical Kipp Island funerary ritual, little precedent exists for
secondary burials among associated late Middle Woodland groups—the Whitehurst burial
appears unique in being the only secondary burial. This suggests the possibility that the
group was transient, or at least was not settled in the immediate vicinity of the Whitehurst
sites at the time that the individual interred in Feature 283 died. A preliminary cremation
ritual may have been conducted elsewhere to allow the remains to be transported to an
appropriate riverine location—in this case the Potomac at the mouth of Rock Creek—where
a second burial with associated fire ritual, possibly symbolic of completing the original
cremation, was conducted. How long the group stayed in the Whitehurst area is unclear.
They did use locally manufactured items in the burial, as evidenced by one of the pendants
that was made from local schist, suggesting that they may have been in the region for some
length of time. Little occupation debris associated with the feature was recovered in the
Ramp 3 excavations, but the area investigated archaeologically was limited by the boundaries
of immediate development impact. Two unusual dentate-stamped sherds, reminiscent of
Point Peninsula, were recovered from the Peter House and Whitehurst West excavations.
Such forms are very uncommon in the region—only two have been documented in Virginia
collections (Keith Egloff, personal communication, 1998). Their discovery at the adjacent
Whitehurst sites suggested that additional remains related to the feature were indeed present.
But in the absence of a wider horizontal survey of the terraces, the question of an associated
occupation site located nearby remains unaddressed.
Cultural, Political, and Ecological Boundaries: The Whitehurst Area as Prehistoric

Crossroads
Ceramic Variation and Implications for Site Occupations. The amount of variation in
ceramic wares at the Whitehurst Freeway sites was extensive. The number of individual
vessels implied in total sherd counts as well as the different wares and variations among them
indicated numerous occupations by groups from a variety of regions. Even cursory analysis
of ceramic sherds from the sites indicated a high degree of variation within each temporal
component in terms of paste, temper, and surface treatment. In-depth analyses, such as
studies of textiles and fiber (Appendix I, J), and analysis of temper mineralogy (Appendix
227
H), showed a still greater degree of variability in the wares than had initially appeared to be
the case. Some of this variability was surely inherent in the artifacts as a class, indicating
that as more precise and acute analytical techniques are brought to bear on ceramics in the
region, more variation is likely to be observed than past coarser-grained analyses have
demonstrated. Fiber and textile analyses, for example, revealed distinctive patterns in the
direction of the final twist of cordage used to mark the surfaces of many of the sherds. Final
cordage twist has been recognized as a consistent and long-lived technological attribute
within textile-using prehistoric and ethnographic populations (Adovasio 1986; Petersen
1996a). The patterns identified in cord-marking within the Whitehurst assemblages appeared
to have been directly correlated with temporal data from the sites: a final S-twist was used
throughout the Early and early Middle Woodland, following which an abrupt change to a
final Z-twist was recorded in the later Middle Woodland. A similar pattern has been
observed regionally, particularly in the James Valley (Johnson and Speedy 1992) and in other
parts of the Potomac Valley (Johnson 1989; 1996). Petersen (1996b), who conducted the
fiber analyses of the Whitehurst ceramics, has noted a direct relationship between the
appearance of Z-twist in textiles and cordage in the Northeast and what he refers to as the
“expansion, or crystallization” of Iroquoian populations in the early Late Woodland. While
the connection with the Whitehurst findings is unclear, the ceramics associated with the late
Middle Woodland Kipp Island-related feature at Ramp 3 exhibited final S-twists typical of
earlier Woodland wares, suggesting that they were either holdovers from the earlier tradition,
or possibly that they were external in origin, more typical of northern ceramic wares of that
period.
In terms of the selection and use of tempering agents, data from the Whitehurst
ceramics suggested that potters employed material that was a hand, even when working
within a particular technological tradition. Thus, for example, evidence was noted of steatite
occurring in shell-tempered Townsend pastes. The degree to which these findings indicated
expedient use of available materials probably varied from case to case. For example, shell
represented an advance in ceramic manufacturing technology that allowed thinner bodied and
harder, more evenly fired vessels to be produced. Crushed shell forms platelets that tend to
align more regularly with the walls of a ceramic vessel than do rounded or angular clastic
tempering materials. In addition, shell has thermal expansion rates closer to those of clays
(Rye 1981), helping to reduce the incidence of breakage during firing. If a sufficient amount
of shell were not available in a region relatively far removed from easily reached shellfish
beds, a laminate material like schist or steatite might serve as an adequate proxy.
Shell was in fact present in the pastes of many wares that would not typically be
considered shell-tempered. Shell was noted, for example, in quartz-tempered Popes Creek
sherds, occasionally in sufficient quantity that in thin section the material appeared to have
been a minor tempering agent rather than an incidental inclusion. It is possible that crushed
shell was used in small amounts prior to its introduction as a major temper in the latter part of
the Middle Woodland period, presaging technological changes in ceramic manufacturing
techniques in the region. Barse (2002), for example, has suggested that a continuum existed
between quartz-tempered Popes Creek and shell-tempered Mockley wares, implying that
Mockley developed directly out of the earlier grit-tempered ceramic. He proposed that
Albemarle, Popes Creek, and Mockley were contemporary in the region, at least for a limited
228
period, based on the co-occurrence of the wares in pit features at Fletcher’s Boathouse, a site
on the east bank of the Potomac approximately 5,000 meters northwest of the Whitehurst
sites. Citing comparable frequency distributions among the three wares and early
radiocarbon dates on two Mockley sherds (180 BC and 100 BC), Barse argued that the
occupations at Fletcher’s Boathouse represented an early period in the gradual replacement
of Popes Creek by Mockley (Barse 2002). Earlier proponents of such a relationship between
the two wares include Custer (1989), based on evidence from several sites in the Delmarva
Peninsula, and Norton and Baird (1994), at the Taft site, in Virginia near the confluence of
the Occoquan and Potomac Rivers.
Two sherds from the Ramp 3 site at Whitehurst, with residue dates from the latter half
of the Middle Woodland period (AD 370 and AD 635), consisted of untyped grit-tempered
ceramics (Appendix B). Both of the dates were late for Popes Creek, the most common grit-
tempered ware in the region in the Middle Woodland. Each sherd had a fabric impressed
exterior, and one was described as exhibiting classic Mockley attributes other than temper.
While the sherds may have been additional examples of intermediate forms between Popes
Creek and Mockley, they may alternatively have been examples of expediency in the
selection of tempering materials, with shell used as a ready replacement for crushed stone.
The degree of variation in the ceramics at the Whitehurst sites through time suggested
that the area had witnessed a variety of occupations, and that rarely were stable populations
present. Yet, early in the analysis of the Whitehurst ceramic assemblages, Piedmont
ceramics did not appear to have been as important as Coastal Plain types, suggesting a bias
toward southern and eastern populations. In particular, Albemarle appeared to have been
absent from the Whitehurst assemblages, a seemingly unusual finding given the apparent
abundance of Albemarle deposits at Fletcher’s Boathouse, to the north, and at the Jones Point
site, a Middle Woodland occupation site located south of the Whitehurst sites, in Alexandria,
Virginia (Means 2003). It may be that some of the wares occurring at Whitehurst—some of
the Mockley sherds, for instance—were more pan-regional in their distribution than has
traditionally been recognized, and thus represented populations from both the Coastal Plain
and Piedmont zones. Johnson (1991), for example, has noted the presence of Mockley at
sites above the fall line in the Fairfax County. In fact, many of the Whitehurst sherds show
evidence of tempers originating in the Piedmont, suggesting that while ware identifications
did not necessarily correspond, ceramics of Piedmont origin were present at the sites.
Mineralogical analysis of tempers identified at least one untyped sherd to have been
tempered with hornfels, for example, a stone originating in the Triassic Basin of the Inner
Piedmont. Additionally, some of the untyped wares may have been local variants of
Piedmont wares: limonite tempered sherds, described as similar to Popes Creek and
Mockley in terms of paste and surface treatment, exhibited clay and temper mineralogy
strongly suggesting a Piedmont origin. Several fragments of Townsend contained minor
temper constituents from the Piedmont, including material such as steatite, hornfels, granite,
hornblende, and schist. And Potomac Creek sherds also bore evidence of Piedmont temper,
including plagioclase, granite, K-feldspar, hornblende, and steatite. The Potomac Creek
results suggested not only the use of the site by Piedmont groups, but possibly supported
arguments of the Piedmont origin of Potomac Creek ware itself.
229
In the end, an explanation of the absence of Albemarle at the Whitehurst sites is

unclear. His own findings notwithstanding, Barse (2002:4.63) admits the Albemarle is
poorly represented “in the Coastal Plain section of the Potomac Valley,” so that the
Fletcher’s Boathouse and Jones Point manifestations rather than the Whitehurst sites may in
fact be the unusual phenomena. The number of sites in the region from which sizeable and
well-documented ceramic assemblages from good depositional contexts have been recovered
is very small. Until the number grows, it will be difficult to determine which sites are
atypical and how much the variation may depend on the artifact identifications of the
individual analysts.
Boundary versus Buffer. The Potomac River fall line represents a physiographic boundary
area, a transition zone between the level Coastal Plain, with wide streams meandering within
silty floodplains, and the rolling Piedmont containing more sharply incised streams and
occasional bedrock outcrops. The fall line comprises an ecotone, an area of environmental
overlap within which a variety of rich resource zones occurred in a relatively compressed
space. But not only is the region a physical boundary zone, the great variety of artifact types
seen at the Whitehurst sites suggests that the Potomac River falls functioned prehistorically
as a cultural boundary area as well. In an economically derived definition, a socio-cultural
boundary has been characterized as a means of partitioning space and resources, and as a
consequence, allowing co-existence between potentially competitive populations (Yesner
1985). As population density increases, resource exploitation strategies may tend to be
managed through the formation and maintenance of boundary zones. In an extreme, a pattern
of geographic isolation may develop in which dead zones or areas with less abundant or
predictable resources function as buffers between occupied areas. Alternatively, resource-
rich areas may become boundary zones forming neutral areas or even reservoir areas that are
purposefully maintained (Hickerson 1965; Watrall 1968). In an ethnographic example of the
latter, the Kua, a Bushman population from the eastern Kalahari, use territorial boundaries as
a form of resource management, alternating between exploitation and husbandry depending
on ecological conditions (Hitchcock and Bartram 1998).
The central Virginia fall line zone has long been recognized as a transitional area and
boundary zone. As early as the 1930s, Kroeber (1939:183) cited ethnohistorical evidence of
the distribution of Coastal Plain Algonquian and Piedmont Siouan populations in the region
as a clear example of a correlation between distinct natural and cultural areas. Turner (1978)
suggested that the fall zone comprised a buffer area between these potentially conflicting
groups that avoided over-exploitation of an important resource, white-tailed deer (see also
Miller [in Egloff 1989] and Holland 1979). Mouer (1983, 1984) proposed the fall zone as a
strictly political buffer that protected against armed conflict between competing Piedmont
(Monacan) and Coastal Plain (Powhatan) populations, suggesting that the neutral area was
maintained by significant socio-economic structures that had developed through competition
and accommodation with regard to critical resources. In a slightly later study, Egloff (1989)
provided an alternative interpretation concluding that areas such as the fall line of the James
River Valley were not buffer zones, citing the presence of ceramic wares from both the
Coastal Plain and Piedmont areas, as well as from the fall line of North Carolina, as
indication of extensive settlement by many different populations. Elsewhere, Egloff
(1985:239) proposed that at times, distinct cultures had developed in association with the fall
230
line transition, as evidenced by regional wares such as Prince George, which was prevalent
on the Inner Coastal Plain of central Virginia in the early Middle Woodland.
Farther north along the fall line, the area including the Whitehurst sites was a
boundary region that may have served as a form of reservoir, representing an abundant
supply of a highly specific resource exploited by groups from several geographic areas. In a
manner similar to Turner’s deer reservoir, the attraction of the area would have been the
anadromous fish runs at Little Falls and Great Falls, where fish congregated in shallow water
as they made their way upriver to spawn in Piedmont streams. At points such as these, fish
were easily trapped, snared, speared, or netted. Many researchers have noted early European
accounts that marveled at the tremendous numbers of fish running up the river, including
species such as sturgeon, alewife, shad, and white perch (Lippson, et al. 1979; Fleet in Neill
1876). Potter (1999, 2002) noted a correlation with place names in the immediate area, in
which the Algonquian names of three of the villages on the right bank of the Potomac River
on John Smith's map of Virginia suggest the importance of fish in the region:
Nameraughquend, across from Whitehurst near Theodore Roosevelt Island, translated as
"fishing place"; Assaomeck, on a terrace overlooking Hunting Creek, south of Alexandria,
translated as "middle fishing place"; and Namassingakent, on the north bank of Dogue Run,
somewhat farther south, translated as "fish-plenty of." Dams and weirs were constructed to
make the work of collecting the bounty even easier. At least a dozen prehistoric fish weirs
were documented at points at or above the falls in an aerial photography survey (Strandberg
and Tomlinson 1969). More recent studies have questioned the prehistoric attribution of
many of the features identified in the photographic study (Stewart 1997; Guzy 1999). While
not finding definite structures at the falls, Guzy’s (1999) study documented more than 40
stone features on a stretch of the Middle and Upper Potomac. Most of these he attributed to
historical construction, while admitting that many could well have been placed over existing
prehistoric weirs or dams. The attraction of the falls location may have decreased by the
latter end of the Late Woodland, as suggested by the low incidence of Potomac Creek
ceramics at the Whitehurst sites in relation to Townsend, perhaps an indication of more
settled occupations on floodplains and the adoption and reliance on agriculture.
It should be noted that some researchers tend to downplay the Coastal Plain/Piedmont
dichotomy, particularly in the Late Woodland period, suggesting that groups moved freely
between the physiographic regions, and that archaeological evidence of distinct cultures is
merely a difference in available raw materials. Yet, however distinct or categorical such a
divide may have been, ceramic evidence from sites such as Whitehurst or Fletcher’s
Boathouse suggests that groups from various regions traveled to the area, while none appear
to have stayed very long or attempted to maintain long-term control. Whether the area was
in fact controlled by specific groups for some period, as Potter (1999, 2002) has suggested in
a scenario related to the late Middle Woodland occupation that produced the Kipp Island-
related funerary feature, or whether the area was largely open, similar to Turner’s (1978) deer
buffer or Stewart’s (1987) model for rhyolite quarries in the Great Valley of Maryland and
southwestern Pennsylvania, is unclear. Given the absence of evidence indicating long-term
occupation of the sites noted above, it would appear that the falls were typically not under the
control of any particular group for an appreciable, or at least archaeologically visible, length
of time.
231
The Potomac River fall line thus appeared to have been a boundary area visited by
people from southern and eastern Coastal Plain regions as well as from northern and western
Piedmont regions. Based on the varied ceramic evidence reviewed earlier, the valley may
also have served as a conduit for migrating populations near the latter end of the Middle
Woodland period, as they moved southward from regions far to the north. The area further
appeared to have served as a similar avenue later, during the Late Woodland, channeling the
populations that eventually developed the last extensive prehistoric archaeological culture in
the region, Potomac Creek.
The Question of the Origins of Potomac Creek. A second wave of migration has been
proposed in the Middle Atlantic, this involving the appearance of the Potomac Creek
complex in the Potomac Valley in the latter half of the Late Woodland. Four theories have
been advanced for the presence of Potomac Creek on the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain, two
of which center around population movement. The following summary is adapted from
Potter (1993), Dent and Jirikowic (2001), and Dent (2003), unless otherwise cited.
The first theory involves the migration of Montgomery focus groups down the
Potomac Valley. Schmitt (1952) was first to recognize the Montgomery focus as a distinct
archaeological culture in the middle and upper Potomac and Shenandoah valleys. The
Montgomery focus was typified by Shepard ceramics (crushed quartz-tempered, cord-
marked, and often with collared rims), large and small triangular points, and ceramic and
stone pipes (Slattery and Woodward 1992). Schmitt later noted similarities between Shepard
and Potomac Creek ceramics, as well as the presence of stockaded villages and an
agricultural subsistence base in both the Montgomery and Potomac Creek complexes,
eventually suggesting the former as the direct precursor to Potomac Creek (Schmitt 1965).
As fully developed, the Montgomery focus migration theory entails populations immigrating
to an unoccupied Coastal Plain around AD 1300, the period during which Potomac Creek
appears and Montgomery focus sites tend to disappear in the upper Potomac Valley (the date
range for the Montgomery focus is given as around AD 900-1300, although at the
Rosenstock site it is reported to have lasted to AD 1450 [Kavanagh 1982], an apparent
aberration that has not been adequately addressed). Collared rim sherds associated with
Shepard ware found beneath Potomac Creek sherds at the Patowomeck site in Stafford
County, Virginia, are cited as evidence for the movement of Montgomery focus populations
out of the Piedmont and their subsequent development into Potomac Creek (MacCord 1984;
Manson and MacCord 1985). Impetus for the migration has been variously assigned to
climatic changes associated with the Little Ice Age, beginning around AD 1300, and the
arrival in the Shenandoah and upper Potomac valleys of Mason Island groups from the west
(characterized by limestone-tempered Page ceramics), themselves pushed ahead by groups of
the Luray focus (characterized by shell-tempered Keyser ceramics) (Kavanagh 1982;
Jirikowic 1995; Dent 2003). Some have argued that the climatic impetus behind this theory
is weak, that the Little Ice Age did not greatly effect populations in the region (Klein 2003).
In addition, the ceramic attributes cited as common between the Shepard and Potomac Creek
wares are as easily associated with Owasco, the major Late Woodland ceramic tradition in
the New York region, suggesting direct influence from the northeast as opposed to the
northwest. Finally, house patterns and burial practices differed among Montgomery and
Potomac Creek cultures. Montgomery focus houses were typically circular, while at least
232
some Potomac Creek houses appear to have been parallel sided; Montgomery focus burials
tended to be individual, while ossuary burials were common in Potomac Creek sites.
Slattery and Woodward (1992), who helped define the Montgomery focus,
acknowledged Owasco influence on the culture, although they did not suggest that direct
settlement by Owasco populations was involved. In an alternative to the Montgomery focus
theory, Blanton (et al. 1999) have recently taken that step, suggesting that Potomac Creek
was a direct intrusion of Owasco groups onto the Coastal Plain around AD 1300. In a
reassessment of data from the Potomac Creek site occasioned by the cultural resource
management investigation of a proposed septic drain field. Blanton et al. noted that Potomac
Creek ceramics appear closer in attributes to Owasco than to Shepard. They cite as evidence
similarities including cord-marked surface treatment, cord-wrapped and incised decoration,
and collared rims, all of which are frequent on Owasco and Potomac Creek vessels, but less
so or rare on Shepard (Blanton et al. 1999). They also note the presence of palisaded villages
with surrounding ditches, and intensive reliance on horticulture as common characteristics
differentiating Owasco and Potomac Creek from Montgomery focus sites. As in the previous
theory, extended cold weather associated with the Little Ice Age is cited as a possible
impetus for the southern migration of Owasco groups. And as before, the effect of the Little
Ice Age on regional populations and their purported migrations has been questioned, as have
the actual affinities between Owasco and Potomac Creek ceramics. Moreover, the Owasco
migration theory seems to pose a potential language problem, since Owasco is typically
associated with proto-Iroquoian or Iroquoian speakers, while the direct descendants of
Potomac Creek, the Piscataway, were Algonquian speakers.
In partial answer to the question of language affiliation, Potter (1993) has argued that
the Owasco-derived groups of the Montgomery focus were not necessarily proto-Iroquoian
speakers, in spite of the recognized development of historical Iroquoian populations from
archaeologically defined Owasco cultures in New York and Pennsylvania. Thus, while they
may have been agriculturalists related archaeologically to Owasco, the question of whether
either Montgomery focus or Potomac Creek populations were Iroquoian or Algonquian
speakers appears open to debate. Ritchie (1994), who originally defined Owasco, noted that
the characteristic material culture was probably shared by Iroquoian and Algonquian
speakers in certain areas. Some groups, such as the ethnohistorical Munsee Delaware, who
were derived from Owasco in the upper Delaware Valley region (Castle Creek phase at
Minisink Island), were Algonquian speakers (Ritchie 1949; Kraft 1986). The ceramic motifs
associated with Owasco, as well as ossuary burial practices, and large village settlements
were part of a wider tradition observed in archaeological complexes including Potomac
Creek, in the Upper Potomac Valley; Rappahannock, characterized by Townsend ceramics in
the Lower Potomac Valley; and Slaughter Creek, characterized by Minguannan ceramics in
southern Delmarva. Notably these complexes together approximated the geographic
distribution of Algonquian speakers at the time of European Contact (Potter 1993). Custer
(1989), citing Flannery’s (1939) definition of the “Coastal Algonkian Culture Sub-Area,”
noted a similar distribution of ceramic wares such as the Delmarva Minguannan, Townsend,
and Killens wares, along with which he includes Moyaone from the Potomac Valley to the
west, and Overpeck and Bownman’s Brook from the Delaware River Valley and farther
north.
233
A third scenario for the origin of Potomac Creek is centered on the Eastern Shore of
the Chesapeake Bay. This proposal is based in large part on a mid-seventeenth-century oral
tradition of the Piscataway (the ethnographic representatives of the Potomac Creek
archaeological culture), which stated that the current tayac or chief, Uttapoingassinem, had
come from the Eastern Shore thirteen generations previously (Strachey 1953; Cissna 1986).
In support of this theory, linguistic evidence has been cited relating the Algonquian spoken
by the Piscataway to Nanticoke, from the Eastern Shore, and eventually to Munsee Delaware
to the north. Archaeological evidence for an eastern origin has been noted in the form of
certain design similarities in ceramic wares (e.g., between Potomac Creek and Townsend,
and Minguannan and Townsend of the Delmarva Slaughter Creek complex, respectively
[Griffith and Custer 1985]). Arguments against the eastern migration theory center around
the notion that, ceramic design similarities notwithstanding, the geographic distribution of
interrelated archaeological sites of the period from the eastern seaboard to the Potomac
Valley has not been demonstrated.
A final theory entails the autochthonous or indigenous development of Potomac

Creek. According to this theory, the archaeological culture coalesced from existing Coastal
Plain cultures. The theory implies that the similarities noted in material traits between
Potomac Creek and other regional archaeological cultures are a reflection of interactions
between the cultures, and that areas within the Coastal Plain of the Potomac Valley,
particularly below the fall line, were cross-roads locales, situated along and in some cases
controlling important and well-used natural trade corridors. This scenario in effect evokes
diffusion rather than migration to explain the introduction of new cultural traits. Arguments
against an in situ development theory involve the fact that it does not account for the rapid
appearance of Potomac Creek, and that the interaction through trade that is cited would have
been taking place as trade and exchange mechanisms were either breaking down or ceasing
to function, a well-documented phenomenon as populations at the later end of the Late
Woodland looked inward for resources, including such things as lithic raw materials (Dent
1995).
New Dates for Late Woodland Ceramics. The question of Potomac Creek origins takes on
an added dimension with an array of new absolute dates that have been published recently
which challenge the standard reading of the chronology of the complex (Table 7-8). Some of
this material was reviewed earlier, but is repeated here for emphasis. As recently as the early
1990s, Potter (1993) saw the need to propose extending the start date for Potomac Creek
from the traditionally accepted AD 1300 to AD 1200, following the announcement of a date
of AD 1200±55 from Robbins Farm, in Delaware (Stocum 1977; Custer 1984) on Potomac
Creek and Keyser vessels from a single pit feature, and supporting dates for Keyser of AD
1220±80, from 44LD14, in Loudoun County, Virginia (Rust 1986), and AD 1185±60, from
Biggs-Ford, in the Monocacy Valley in Maryland (Kavanagh 1982). Dent and Jirikowic
(2001) have since reported a date of AD 1160 on residue from a Potomac Creek sherd
thought to be from the Moyaone village excavation. Blanton (et al. 1999) published eight
dates from their re-analysis of the Potomac Creek site that range from AD 1520/1570/1630 to
AD 1025, and include four dates at or beyond the AD 1300 threshold. Finally, the three
dates from the Whitehurst Freeway sites include AD 1215 and AD 1030 from the Peter
House; and AD 880 from Whitehurst West. If confirmed and accepted, these early dates for
234
Date Intercept Lab Number Site

340±40 BP AD 1520/1570/1630 Beta-104592 Potomac Creek, Virginia (44ST2)
375±90 BP AD 1575 Data-13560 Posey, Maryland (18CH281)
430±90 BP AD 1520 Beta-34804 Little Marsh Creek, Virginia
435±155 BP AD 1515 SI-4819 Juhle (Nanjemoy), Maryland (18CH89)
590±60 BP AD 1360 Beta-49255 Hartwell, Virginia (44FX1847)
750±55 BP AD 1200 UGa-1761 Robbins Farm, Delaware (7K-F-12)
850±40 BP AD 1215 Beta-113868 Peter House, DC (51NW103)
900±50 BP AD 1160 Beta-141239 Accokeek Creek, Maryland (18PR8)
980±60 BP AD 1030 Beta-113869 Peter House, DC (51NW103)
1180±50 BP AD 880 Beta-113866 Whitehurst West, DC (51NW117W)
Table 7-8. Published Radiometric Dates for Potomac Creek (compiled from Potter
1993; Dent 1995; and Dent and Jirikowic 2001 -- note that some of the original dates were
reported in Custer 1984; Gleach 1985; Boyce and Frye 1986; Norton and Baird 1994; Blanton et
al. 1999; Curry 1999).
Potomac Creek stretch existing concepts of the appearance of the archaeological culture in
the region. They suggest that Potomac Creek may have either developed slowly out of
existing cultural traditions or may have been the result of numerous, small incursions out of
the Upper Potomac Valley rather than a single migration, as the scenario involving the
collapse of the Montgomery focus around AD 1300 implies.
Regional Cultural Development in the Woodland Period: A Summary Speculation.

The following is a conjectural scenario regarding the development and spread of
archaeological cultures through the Middle Atlantic beginning in the latter part of the Middle
Woodland period. It incorporates many of the aspects of expansion and internal development
presented in the last several sections of the report. The account begins with Proto-
Algonquian speakers spreading across the Middle Atlantic region from the north, having
been pushed out of their heartland by intrusive proto-Iroquoians starting around AD 700-800.
The Kipp Island phase material that occurs at site locations such as Minisink Island, Island
Field, Ramp 3 at Whitehurst, Bowman Mound, and Hand may be manifestations of this
migration, in Potter’s (1999) interpretation, examples of “flag follow[ing] prestige goods,”
with the exotic items in burials at these sites being “route marker and horizon marker” for the
population movement that was eventually expressed in the Rappahannock (Townsend)
complex in and around the Chesapeake Bay. These groups would have passed down the
Delaware and possibly Susquehanna valleys, and into the Bay area. It is possible that some
may also have followed the southern edge of the Ridge and Valley, eventually working up
valleys such as the Monocacy to the Potomac and southward along the fall lie, via
Whitehurst. A later out-migration of proto-Iroquoian groups, expressed in the Owasco
235
archaeological culture, may have followed much the same route. The impetus for this second
wave of migration is less clear—it could have been climatic or socio-political. There may
not have been a single stimulus event, in fact, and thus the migration could have been gradual
and reiterative, which could account for early dates on sherds with Potomac Creek-like
attributes occurring on the Coastal Plain before the appearance of a full-blown Potomac
Creek complex. Montgomery focus sites may have been early examples as well, since
similarities have been noted between the probable Owasco precursor, Clemson Island, and
Shepard and other cord-marked wares from the region (Custer 1986; Stewart 1994). The
movement of successive waves of groups from the north could account for apparent
differences east to west, as well as for varying but equally plausible origin theories; i.e., there
may be a measure of truth in each. Furthermore, the actual difference between the
Montgomery focus and Potomac Creek cultures may be overstated—more apparent than real,
to borrow a recurring phrase from Dent (1995). The later Owasco migrations may have
involved Algonquian speaking groups, as Potter (1993) has suggested, which could account
for the easy spread of Potomac Creek from the north into areas already inhabited by
Algonquian speakers. Were this the case, it would imply that the remnant Iroquoian
populations along the Virginia–North Carolina border (Nottoway, Meherrin, and Tuscarora)
were part of the initial proto-Iroquoian out-migration from the Ohio Valley that split Central
and Eastern Algonquian and brought Kipp Island groups southward. By this theory, echoed
by Fiedel (1991), the proto-Iroquoian groups would have been a southern arm of the
migration from the Ohio Valley that did not continue eastward but passed up the
Youghiogheny or Monongahela valleys into the upper Potomac region and southward.
Fiedel (1991) cites in support of this scenario unspecified Hopewellian elements in the
southern Appalachians as archaeological evidence of a language group in the region ancestral
to Cherokee, Tuscarora, and Nottoway.
A theory incorporating several migrations along a variety of routes would further

allow integration of traditional Piscataway knowledge of an eastern origin. Yet, a difficulty
with such an all-encompassing theory is that it may be too ecumenical, too inclusive, and
thus difficult to verify with archaeological precision, since almost any data may be cited to fit
it. Yet as post-processualists are fond of pointing out, complexity is a fundamental aspect of
human activity, and human behavior resists simple, positivist interpretations. Stothers et al.
(1994:180) note in another context, “ethnicity arguments are inherently weak and should not
be a basis for cultural-historical reconstructions.” And so in the end, proposals such as these
of ethnic identity derived from archaeological contexts are only hypotheses, and should be
taken as such.
The Whitehurst Sites in a Wider Cultural Landscape

Standing back several steps from the preceding analyses, it may be possible to look
beyond political and culture history to evidence of a more general Native American
worldview that informs the Whitehurst sites. Most of our knowledge of Native American
ritual, religious, and philosophical thought comes from either ethnographic or ethnohistorical
data, especially in the Middle Atlantic where prehistoric iconography has generally not
survived in a form that is widely readable or comprehensible. The majority of the
ethnohistorical information that is available regionally comes from reports of Eastern
236
Algonquian groups living in various parts of the Chesapeake Bay watershed when Europeans
first arrived on the continent.
As is typical of societies that are not technologically complex and that live in close
relation to the natural world, the worldview of most Eastern Algonquian groups was
structured in terms of a balance between the known and the unknown, between nature and
spirit. In the Middle Atlantic, an all-pervading life force, referred to in many areas as
manitou, was commonly acknowledged. This force had beneficial and harmful aspects, and
was in some cases accessible through or in others separate from other supernatural beings or
entities. In the Algonquian worldview, space, or the natural world, was intimately correlated
with the spiritual world in a multi-leveled cosmos. A widespread and presumably ubiquitous
belief in reincarnation or an afterlife was current across the region (Feest 1978). Aspects of
the material world that are taken somewhat for granted in a European view were imbued with
deeper meaning. Directions, for example, were associated with various deities and powers,
and departed spirits traveled along specific paths, particularly to the south (Weslager 1972)
or west (Hamell 1983; Rountree 1989). The west was often associated with darkness and
death, while the east was associated with light and rebirth, emphasizing an underlying view
of the cyclical nature of the universe. Sacred locations were typically located in boundary
areas where worlds merged, at the intersection between earth (the natural universe) and sky
(the spiritual universe), for example. In geographic terms, these boundary or transition areas
were often situated on high ground, with commanding views over open water (Curry 1999),
or near low, marshy areas where land and water merged. Water itself was an ambiguous
entity, being neither land nor sky and constantly in motion.
How far back through the generations these observations can be extrapolated is
debatable, although many aspects appear to represent underlying currents that may have been
fundamental to the traditional (and conservative) societies of the region for centuries. It is
possible, though, to look in somewhat more detail beyond the regional ethnohistorical record
of Eastern Algonquian populations, as far back as Middle Woodland Hopewell, where the
amount of pictorial symbolism on artifacts from that period is plentiful. In an archaeological
study of funerary practices in the Lower Illinois River Valley, Buikstra and Charles (1999)
noted systematic variation in the locations of regional mortuary features through time.
Burials were often placed on high bluffs during the Archaic period, in floodplain locales in
the Early Woodland, and on bluffs or floodplains during the Middle Woodland
(Hopewellian). A purely economic explanation was initially proposed for the occurrence of
sites in floodplain settings during the Woodland era. Access to river communication was
seen as critical to facilitating trade and exchange with outside groups that traveled to obtain
exotic Hopewell goods (Struever and Houart 1972). In this view, the occurrence of burial
sites in floodplain settings was merely incidental to the location of economically important
occupation sites. Yet there may be a wider, ritual perspective missing from this
interpretation. In Hopewell symbolism, water was an important figure of cleansing and
removal, and the dichotomy between water and air was emblematic of the division between
natural and spiritual worlds. Hopewell iconography commonly depicted birds of the air
(raptors) and of water (spoonbills), along with other creatures such as frogs and beavers that
move between the two realms. As inhabitants of both worlds, these figures became symbols
of the movement between the worlds of the living and the dead. Burial ritual represented
237
“disposal of the dead within a larger context of world renewal” (Buikstra and Charles
1999:216), a means of ensuring that the living and the dead were in balanced positions within
the natural and spiritual worlds. While the Hopewellian case is interesting in that it provides
an additional perspective on mortuary ritual in general, and one that traces well into the
prehistoric past, it is of even greater interest in the present investigation in that Hopewell is
often cited as the progenitor of Point Peninsula and eventually the Kipp Island phase that
appears to have been the source of the funerary remains at Whitehurst.
Thus, the siting of the Whitehurst sites on terraces above the river was probably more
that just a factor of proximity to water, and the obvious economic commodity and
communications access that the stream represented. The Whitehurst sites were located at a
bend in the Potomac River, on terraces above the confluence of the river and an important
upper estuary tributary, Rock Creek. It was a strategic location, with a good view of a long
stretch of the river, both upstream and down. But a large body of water such as the Potomac
may also have represented an important ritual symbol characterizing the path of the dead to
the spiritual world. It may further have symbolized renewal, since the stream not only took
the dead but provided sustenance—food as well as drink, and continual flux, with the edge of
the water representing the transition between worlds. Thus, beyond general strategic
advantage, the river terraces would have represented favorable, even propitious symbolic
locations, particularly for mortuary purposes, being near water and exhibiting commanding
unobstructed paths for the dead.
To determine what the view from the Whitehurst locale might actually have been, a
viewshed analysis was conducted for the region immediately surrounding the sites. The
analytical process entailed acquisition of a digital elevation model (DEM), a computer-
generated, two-dimensional rendering of the three dimensions of surface topography across
the area. The DEM used in the study was obtained from the United States Geological Survey
(USGS). The model, developed from 7.5-minute topographic quads, was downloaded from
the USGS as a pair of raster or grid files corresponding to the Washington West and
Alexandria, Va. quad sheets. The two DEMs were converted to ArcGIS raster grids and
were merged to form a single 30-meter elevation model (30-meter referring to the maximum
resolution of the grid squares). Figure 7-13 shows portions of the two quad sheets: on the
right, Figure 7-13a, with modern landmarks labeled for orientation, and on the left, Figure 7-
13b, a surface rendering of the DEM. With elevations highlighted by colored shading, the
fall line is very prominent in the DEM.
Using the elevation model, analysis was conducted comparing the relative elevations
of the Ramp 3 site and of surrounding areas to determine potential visibility. Because of the
amount of historical development that has occurred in and around the city of Washington,
particularly along the Potomac River waterfront, an elevation model based on modern
topography is not necessarily an accurate depiction of the original shoreline configuration
prior to European settlement. When compared with a series of historical maps of the city, the
overall representation of topography did appear to be reasonable, yet significant additions to
the river shoreline have been documented historically that might potentially affect analysis of
the view from the sites (Williams 1989). For example, areas at the mouth of Rock Creek had
been infilled for construction of wharves in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and,
238
e
Fall Lin
Whitehurst
Sites
Whitehouse Elevation Scale
400 ft
Washington 360 ft
Monument Capitol 320 ft
280 ft
240 ft
200 ft
Pentagon 160 ft
120 ft
80 ft
40 ft
0 ft
National
Airport
a.) Modern Topographic Quad Sheets b.) Digital Elevation Model

Meters
0 1,500 3,000 4,500
Figure 7-13. The Potomac River At the Fall Line

(right: modern urban features; left: topography with fill deposits along shoreline removed).
239
eventually, for the turn basin of the C&O Canal. Infilling had also been carried out along the
west bank of the river to the mouth of Tiber Creek (now partly supporting the Kennedy
Center and areas built up for ramps at the east ends of the Teddy Roosevelt Bridge and
Memorial Bridge). Much of Tiber Creek itself now lies beneath fill used to create portions of
the National Mall, while West and East Potomac Parks south of the creek were also created
with fill. On the east bank of the river, Lady Bird Johnson and Gravelly Point Parks, parts of
Daingerfield Island, and much of National Airport were also created with fill. Prior to
historical development, these areas would have consisted of open estuary or marshy flats.
Some of the filled areas, such as the support mounds for the two road bridges, would
substantially block the view southward from the Whitehurst locale were intervening
buildings and vegetation removed. Thus, to more closely depict the pre-development
landscape in these areas, the grid files containing elevation data were edited to effectively
lower these raised areas and bring them back to the level of open water (Figure 7-13b).
Upstream from Rock Creek (to the west and north), the river almost immediately reaches the
fall line, and its banks are naturally constricted by rocky palisades on either shore. Except at
the very mouth of Rock Creek, relatively little historical development has occurred that
would have altered the view upstream from the Whitehurst sites. Thus, the elevation grid
was not altered substantially in this direction.
Results of the viewshed analysis are depicted in Figure 7-14. The study indicated that
the view to the south, downstream from the Ramp 3 site, may have extended for a distance of
approximately 4.7 kilometers, while the view upstream, to the west, extended approximately
3.8 kilometers. The Ramp 3 site is situated approximately 4 meters above sea level, from
which height the unimpeded horizon would lie about 7.8 kilometers distant. The viewshed
analysis thus indicated that while standing on the terrace at the Ramp 3 site, a good portion of
the distance to the horizon would have been visible in either direction assuming no
obstruction from vegetation. The view would have been commanding both in terms of
strategic position and from the perspective of mortuary symbolism.
Two additional figures were constructed to simulate three-dimensional views from the sites.
Figure 7-15 represents the view to the south, overlooking the terrace at the mouth of Rock
Creek as the stream drops from the fall line to meet the Potomac River. The Potomac estuary
broadens rapidly in the background, providing a wide view to the south and east. Figure 7-16
illustrates the view to the northwest, where the Potomac flows out of the Piedmont. The
relatively narrow confines of the valley above the fall line can be seen just below the first of
the bedrock falls at Three Sisters Islands and Little Falls, where seasonal fish runs would
have begun.
These views are, of course, merely simulations, computer-generated representations

that broadly estimate the appearance of the terrain. The images are based on the 30-meter
topographic grid noted earlier, a relatively low-resolution model generated from modern
contours that account more or less, depending on the specific location, for historical
landscape alterations that have occurred. In addition, a degree of vertical exaggeration has
been applied to increase the effect of the three-dimensional display on the two dimensions of
the printed page. Cautions have been voiced in reference to the dangers of misleading
visualizations that may be produced by such computer-generated illustrations (Richards
240
Potomac
River
Ramp 3
Potomac River
Estuary
Figure 7-14. Results of A Viewshed Analysis from the Ramp 3 Site at Whitehurst
(highlighted zones indicate areas directly visible from the terrace on which the site was situated).
1998). Confusing or even incorrect images can result, in part from the type of
oversimplification that digital input represents and in part from inadvertent data selection
resulting from attempts at producing dramatic effects. And yet, images such as those
generated here can be useful tools that enhance comprehension of certain aspects of the site
occupations that are not directly recoverable from the archaeological record. The images are
not intended to reproduce or recreate the prehistoric landscape, but they can help emphasize
the importance of the physical location of the sites by providing immediate impressions of
the views from the site locales.
241
SOUTH
Potomac River Elevatio
Rock Creek
Potomac River
Whitehurst
Sites
NORTH
Figure 7-15. Isometric Depiction of the View Downriver from the Whitehurst Sites (with the Potomac River flowing out of the Piedmont in the
foreground and the Potomac estuary in the background).
242
tion Scale
400 ft
360 ft Potomac River
320 ft
NORTH
280 ft
240 ft Rock Creek
200 ft
160 ft SOUTH
120 ft Potomac River
Whitehurst Sites
80 ft
40 ft
0 ft
Figure 7-16. Isometric Depiction of the View Upriver from the Whitehurst Sites (with the Potomac estuary in the foreground).
243
7.6. Management Considerations
In the Shadow of the Watergate Hotel: The Preservation of Early Landscapes in an

Urban Environment
The Whitehurst Freeway prehistoric sites were located in a highly urbanized part of
Washington, D.C., surrounded by a busy, modern city. In the documented historical past, the
sites had shared the landscape with nineteenth and early-twentieth century industrial works
and long ranks of row houses. In a typical pattern of urban development and renewal, the
area witnessed the construction, demolition, rebuilding, and final demolition of commercial,
industrial, and residential buildings over the course of nearly two hundred years. While no
buildings were standing on the archaeological sites at the time of the current investigation,
the sites remained in the shadow of modern structures, lying in the midst of city streets,
modern throughways, and existing freeway overpasses.
At first glance, this would seem an unlikely place in which to find surviving
prehistoric terrain. Conventional wisdom suggests that all traces of such early use of the area
would have been erased, the old ground surfaces long ago dug out for house foundations and
basements, or cut and leveled for road construction or the erection of bridge piers.
Nevertheless, initial studies of archival records indicated that most of the buildings
constructed in the area over the years did not have deep basements, and that in many cases
leveling had consisted of adding fill rather than cutting or grading the existing landscape.
The results of these preliminary studies, conducted in advance of the proposed freeway
expansion, prompted recommendations for on-the-ground-survey to determine whether
undisturbed and potentially significant archaeological deposits might remain in the areas
specifically slated for development. The field survey consisted of a series of test excavations
that, due to the expected depth of fill in many areas, took the form of backhoe trenches. The
sample of test excavations, chosen on the basis of archival research indicating locations that
were most likely to be of interest, demonstrated that undisturbed archaeological deposits
were indeed present.
Archaeological remains were identified in many parts of the area, representing an

almost unbroken line from early prehistory through the twentieth century. The earliest
evidence consisted of indistinct remnants of Archaic period occupation of the low terrace
along Rock Creek at Whitehurst West and on the upper landform at the Peter House. The
remains of nearly consecutive occupations throughout the Woodland period were discovered
at each of the three sites, with Late Woodland occupations dominant at each location, and a
distinctive and exotic set of mortuary remains from the late Middle Woodland occurring at
Ramp 3. At the Peter House, early historical use of the area was seen in pre-urban, probably
eighteenth-century agriculture evidenced by plowed fields in the yards behind the Peter
House and adjacent row houses. Sheet wash deposits that cut the surface of the main
prehistoric layers in the Peter House block excavation along K Street suggested erosion
either resulting from early historical land clearing or from the initial construction of the Peter
House at the time of the founding of the city in the late-eighteenth century. Mid-nineteenth
century use of the area was evidenced by Civil War period artifacts, including a Minié ball
from Ramp 3, and a deposit of military buttons from Whitehurst West. The intensity of land
use during the era of nineteenth-century urbanization was seen in the construction of row
244
houses next to the Peter House, as well as in the historic period surface deposits associated
with Reed Alley, at Ramp 3, and in the mid-nineteenth century fill deposits at Whitehurst
West. The latter included dredging spoil related to construction of the C&O Canal turn
basin. Fill deposits associated with the construction of Rock Creek Parkway, along with
various near-surface utility lines throughout all three sites indicated continued use of the area
in the twentieth century. The Peter House was demolished in the early 1960s, during the
initial phases of freeway ramp construction: demolition debris from the process was
discovered capping the Peter House site, including a sign from the company that conducted
the demolition work (Figure 7-17). And finally, bringing the sequence to the present was the
identification and re-excavation of archaeological trenches and excavation units from the
Phase I and II investigations at the Peter House conducted in 1991 and 1993. Figure 7-18
illustrates a composite section through the Peter House site, which exemplifies the
completeness of the cultural sequence discovered in the excavations. The section shows the
various stacked deposits, including the prehistoric sequence at the base of the slope beneath
the nineteenth-century sidewalk, and up the slope to the right, the Peter House foundation
overlying an early historic period plow zone with late twentieth-century demolition debris
capping the entire site.
Figure 7-17. Metal Sign Recovered from the Demolition

Debris at the Peter House (Leo Bernstein, Co., was the
construction firm that demolished structure in the 1960s).
Thus, one of the key findings of the investigation was simply that significant
archaeological deposits were present in the study area. That is, archaeological sites, both
small and large, can and do survive in the midst of highly developed urban areas; it cannot
be assumed that nothing of interest or importance remains in an area merely because it is
urbanized, no matter how seemingly extensive the historical development appears. In part
because of the irregular, sporadic nature with which undisturbed areas may be distributed
within an urbanized landscape, field testing is essential prior to making valid
245
Figure 7-18. Composite Section Through the Peter House Site Illustrating the Sequence of Chronologically Stacked Deposits (view east,
archaeological grid scale noted along the bottom, elevation on the right).
246
determinations of no effect: that is, determining that no significant archaeological resources

remain in a proposed development project. Initial study of maps, deed records, and insurance
records can go a long way toward demonstrating the potential for undisturbed areas, yet an
adequate and well-designed program of field testing is necessary for confident verification
Impact-Driven Studies and Archaeological Site Boundary Definition

Site boundary definition can be problematical in urban situations, particularly when
the scope of the investigation is determined by the proposed limits of a development project.
Features related to prior urban development, such as building foundations or buried utility
lines, may transect a study area making it difficult to establish relationships between parts of
an archaeological site. Moreover, the same types of modern urban features can abruptly
truncate individual archaeological deposits rendering boundary definition studies impractical.
These problems can be compounded in a strictly impact-driven study in which testing,
evaluation, or data recovery efforts are constrained by the boundaries of proposed
construction or landscaping disturbances: the size, character, and significance of the
archaeological resource may be difficult if not impossible to determine if the deposits are not
adequately exposed.
In the present case, the horizontal extent of each of the three sites investigated
remained unclear due to a combination of prior disturbance and the boundaries of the
proposed development impacts. The Peter House excavation was truncated by utility
trenches and modern features associated
with K Street to the north and bounded by
proposed development impacts to the east 34N
and west. The Ramp 3 investigation was
bounded by impact limits in each
direction. The Whitehurst West 33N
excavation block was directly bounded by
the footprint of a proposed bridge pier
32N
excavation. As maps depicting the results
of cluster analyses of artifact distributions
at each site indicated, the excavation 31N
blocks occasionally did not appear to
capture the edges of the artifact
concentrations on which the investigations 30N
focused. In many cases, the contour lines
depicting relative artifact densities were 29N
not closed, but continued open-ended
artifact density contour interval = 50
along the borders of the excavation blocks E28 E29 E30 E31 E32 E33
(Figure 7-19), implying that artifact

densities did not fall off, as would be Figure 7-19. Artifact Distribution in the 2Ab1
Stratum at Whitehurst West, Illustrating
expected were the edges of the site Unbounded Contour Lines to the North and
defined. South of the Excavation Block.
247
The implications of impact driven studies in terms of limiting the potential scope of
research are obvious and should be taken into account at the planning stages of a project,
when research designs and work scopes are being developed. Important areas of study and
significant research questions may remain unanswered in this form of investigation, and it is
well to acknowledge this from the outset. An example of an important unresolved issue in
the Whitehurst study was whether additional cultural remains associated with the Kipp Island
burial were present at the Ramp 3 site. Many of the Kipp Island sites that have been
documented consisted of single, often isolated burials, while mortuary practices associated
with this culture did not typically include ossuaries or large cemetery sites. But several of
the known sites contained more than one interment: the Hand site contained nine, for
example, and the Kipp Island site 20. Due to limits imposed by development impact,
additional excavation in the area around the Whitehurst burial feature was not undertaken in
an attempt to answer this question. In addition to more burial features, the question of
whether a habitation site was associated with the burial was not fully addressed. Few Kipp
Island domestic sites have been documented, and the discovery of an example on the banks
of the Potomac River would be significant. Little potentially associated occupation debris
was recovered at the Ramp 3 site, although two unusual ceramic sherds with decoration
characteristic of Kipp Island were recovered from the sites on the terraces above and below
the site. Whether or not additional mortuary remains were present was in the end unclear
due to the limited area excavated, and without additional survey of the terraces, the question
of an associated occupation site nearby remains unaddressed.
7.7 Summary and Overall Contributions

The archeological study of the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement Project was large-
scale endeavor that was many years in the making, from initial planning, through field and
analysis stages, to reporting and final completion. The project has resulted in a variety of
both substantive and methodological contributions that have enhanced our view of the
region. Substantive contributions included providing new and relevant information about the
prehistory of the Middle Atlantic region and Washington, D.C., in particular.
Methodological insights included demonstrating the effectiveness of coordinated field
investigations at a series of sites within a single stream valley setting, and of employing
multi-disciplinary approaches to artifact analysis to derive significant information from the
data recovered in the field.
Ceramic Dates and Regional Chronologies

The dates returned on organic residues adhering to the interiors of several ceramic
residues resulted in surprising information suggesting that some reassessment of regional
wares and their temporal boundaries may be required. Obviously, little would be served by
discarding existing chronological sequences altogether. But neither should present
chronologies be seen as fully realized, completely detailed systems. When viewed in light of
the information from the Whitehurst sites, as well as that of new temporal data from other
sites in the region, the potentially restricted view of current outlooks on chronology becomes
apparent.
248
The data further indicated the need for maintaining a wide perspective, even in the
assessment of a single occupation site. It may potentially be misleading or even incorrect,
for example, to place temporal labels on a site on the basis of only one or two diagnostic
artifacts or salient radiocarbon dates. Archaeology is in many respects a study of probability.
Some probabilities can be measured statistically, while others cannot. Since few absolutes
are available in the archaeological record, trends are sought in the data. Ceramic residue
dates and the implications for the ages of particular artifacts represent a rare example of
absolute data. But radiocarbon dates are themselves expressed as probabilities, while their
contexts and relationships to other material found at a site should also be viewed as
probabilistically. Moreover, accelerator dates have provided new frontiers in terms of the
kinds of material can be reliably dated. But the technology comes at a cost, not only
monetary, but also in terms of requirements for demonstrating contextual associations. Very
small particles can now be assayed, but small particles can more easily migrate within a
stratigraphic profile than the larger fragments of carbon that are datable with conventional
radiocarbon techniques. And so, stratigraphic contexts must be carefully analyzed and
explicitly demonstrated as valid prior to submitting small samples of free carbon for dating.
Different materials, such as small particles of organic residue, can be dated as well, but the
effects of newly identified sources of potential contamination, such as carbon reservoirs,
need to be assessed. In the end, analytical programs must be carefully and wisely planned so
that critical and often limited financial resources may be appropriately allocated.
An additional substantive contribution of the current investigation was made in terms

of dating site components, specifically in reassessing the dates of a group of burial features at
the Hand site. The study was conducted as an integral part of the analysis of the Middle
Woodland mortuary feature at the Ramp 3 site. Artifact assemblages similar to those at
Ramp 3 were noted from burials at the Hand site. A newly assayed charcoal sample from
one of the features at that site demonstrated that the dates of the features at both sites were
statistically identical, confirming the relative site chronologies and helping establish the
regional context of the Whitehurst feature.
Ceramic Attributes and Ware Identification

A wide variety of tempers was identified in the sherds from the Whitehurst sites. An
important question that arises from the very diversity seen in the ceramics concerns the
degree to which the variety was an intentional or incidental aspect of prehistoric
manufacture. Archaeologists recognize general technological patterns in prehistoric
ceramics and use the characteristics to define ceramic wares, which are in turn used to build
chronologies and outline culture history. Yet, it is unclear how these same patterns were
distinguished by prehistoric potters. In an imagined conversation with a prehistoric ceramic
artisan—characterized as a “fictional exchange between a modern archaeologist and an Early
Owasco potter”—Espenshade (2001:81) summarized various ideas about the difference
between what may haven been considered appropriate or purely functional in prehistoric
ceramic manufacture, about consistency of production, and about the place of innovation.
While fanciful, the conversation raises important points about the decisions that may have
gone into the making of pottery vessels, and in particular, about the individuality of those
decisions in the context of wider technological traditions. While both practical and
249
utilitarian, ceramic technology probably remained within relatively strict limits of both social
and functional acceptability, in a form of bounded expediency. Notably, the discussion
concerns functional technology, not decoration, so a relatively restricted amount of
experimentation would be expected. It is in the nature of traditional societies to be
conservative, with innovation carefully, even cautiously approached (Service 1966). Making
pottery would have represented a substantial effort, and the results—the pots themselves—
would have been heavily relied upon by the groups using them. Thus, it may be assumed
that the potters would tend to use techniques that had been proven to work, generally varying
only in unusual circumstances, as when particular raw materials were not available. A large
assortment of clays, tempers, and even vessel types would not be expected among individual
cultural groups.
Consequently, the variety of tempers, surface treatments, and decorations identified

on sherds from the Whitehurst sites implied that a range of geographic locations was
represented by the groups that occupied or visited the area. The sites appeared to have
represented a crossroads at which people and ideas from a variety of regions would have had
an opportunity to mix. Each group would have brought with them containers made
elsewhere, at sites in the Coastal Plain or in the Piedmont, for example. They may have
made new containers while in the fall line area using the technological knowledge and
cultural notions they possessed but gathering raw material from the local area, and they may
have encountered new ideas from groups from other areas that they met.
The ceramic data, including studies of cordage twist direction, also bore implications
for the possibility of population movement within the region. Variation in the prevailing
twist direction exhibited by ceramics associated with the Kipp Island material supported
interpretations that the mortuary artifact assemblage was foreign to the area, and probably
Algonquian in origin. Cordage twist findings also bore implications for later intrusion
theories. A proposed correlation between the late-occurring Z-twist direction and Iroquoian
groups (Petersen 1996b) did not appear to hold this far south, since the presumably intrusive
Potomac Creek groups (bearing Z-twist textiles and cordage) were Algonquian speakers.
The finding supported the observation made by Ritchie (1944) and Potter (1993) that the
connection between the archaeological culture (Owasco) and language (Iroquoian) may not
have been as exclusive as previously assumed.
Finally, the ceramic findings from the investigations bore critical implications for the
definition of specific ceramic wares in the region, such as Popes Creek, Mockley, and
Potomac Creek, and ultimately for the general interpretation of chronology based on
ceramics used as fossil indices. The variety of attributes noted in the ceramic assemblages
suggested questions about the usefulness of features such as temper and surface treatment in
identifying archaeological cultures. Such broad technological characteristics may not
necessarily comprise culturally specific attributes. They may instead be more closely related
to expedience or utility, and thus to individual decision making rather than cultural norms.
Dent and Jirikowic (2001:53) have similarly noted that regional ceramic data are relatively
shallow and non-robust analytically, based as they are on surface treatment and paste
characteristics alone. The researchers reiterate that it is unclear how well these features
actually operate as comparative attributes: “…understanding the difference between analogy
250
and homology is crucial to identifying true evolutionary relationships.” Some researchers

may bristle at the term evolutionary, but the notion of discerning the nature of the underlying
relationships is significant.
Geoarchaeological Research
A transect approach was used in the field study and subsequent analyses. Three sites
located on related terraces above a single stream were investigated together. This technique
allowed a schematic reconstruction of the terrace system, providing relevant information
about the physical development of the valley and the interrelationships between the
archaeological sites located within it. One of the most intriguing findings of the study was
the presence of significant buried deposits on the eroded upper terrace at the Peter House
site. The gully underlying the site represented an old, stratified depositional sequence, and it
was situated within a portion of the late Holocene landscape that would not normally be
expected to contain stratified deposits. Depressions such as the gully would have been both
attractions for prehistoric occupations, resulting in primary cultural deposition, and traps for
discarded cultural material, leading to incidental artifact deposition. Survival of these
particular deposits was due initially to their topographic position, which allowed them to
become buried, and secondarily to the vagaries of urban development, which in this instance
left them relatively undisturbed.
The study also highlighted the deposition and relative effects of fill in urban settings.
At each of the Whitehurst sites, fill had generally had a stabilizing and preservative effect on
the archaeological deposits: that is, non-intrusive historical development tended to seal
existing prehistoric remains. Historically, stream-side areas have been perceived differently
in urban and non-urban environments. In non-urbanized regions, prehistoric and historical
populations sought out the same fertile bottomland. Initially, prehistoric groups often
inhabited these areas to take advantage of the rich natural resources they found there. Later,
prehistoric and eventually historical populations used some of the same locales for
increasingly large-scale agriculture. Thus it is that many prehistoric sites, particularly from
the Woodland period, occur in plowed fields where historical agriculture has compromised
the integrity of the original depositional contexts. In contrast, urban historical populations
saw low ground on the margins of streams as undesirable areas. Being lower than the
surrounding, developed land, low areas were often filled over in the nineteenth and early-
twentieth centuries in land reclamation efforts. When the process did not involve
preliminary grading, any pre-existing cultural deposits would in effect be sealed. Examples
of preserved early landscapes discovered in other parts of Washington, D.C., include the low
terraces along the Anacostia River, at the Correctional Treatment Facility, south of RFK
Stadium (Toulmin et al. 1990), and Barney Circle (Flanagan et al. 1985), and along the the
Potomac River at Bolling Air Force Base (Galke and Cheek 1994) and the Naval Research
Laboratory (Knepper et al. 2006).
Regional Settlement Patterns

An extensive amount of data was recovered during the investigations from which site
chronologies were constructed. Information concerning specific occupations contributed to
the understanding of regional settlement patterns and the implications for culture history in
251
the immediate Washington, D.C., area as well as in the broader, Potomac Valley region. Of
wider implication was evidence garnered from Feature 283 at the Ramp 3 site, which
provided potential information concerning the movement of Algonquian populations into the
Middle Atlantic region some 1,200 years ago. Additional data bore implications for the
origin of Potomac Creek, the last major prehistoric archaeological culture occurring on the
Coastal Plain of the Potomac River.
General Methodological Contributions

A number of additional contributions were made through the use of a multi-
disciplinary approach to the investigations. While not a new concept, employing experts
from a wide range of investigative fields brought additional perspective to the Whitehurst
analyses through a comprehensive and integrated program of research. Initially, important
contributions were made as a result of the field approach, in which geoarchaeological
analysis was used to more fully describe the relationship between the development of natural
and cultural contexts. The transect approach used in the study provided a means of
conducting diachronic, intersite analysis. Any one of the sites alone would have contributed
significantly to our knowledge of prehistoric occupation of Washington, D.C., and the
surrounding region, but the insights were compounded substantially by investigating the sites
as part of an integrated landscape.
Artifact analyses included a lithic catchment study informing the selection of stone
used at the sites as raw material for tools. The study further served as a basis for interpreting
a mineralogical analysis of ceramic paste and tempering agents. These interpretations
provided important information about manufacturing techniques, noting tempers not
typically recognized as being present in specific wares. The analyses also provided
information about the provenance of some of the wares—in some cases, sherds presumed to
be from wares characteristic of Coastal Plain areas appeared more likely to have been
Piedmont in origin. Additional studies of ceramics included textile and cordage analyses,
which supplied information about chronological patterning and the possibilities of population
movements in the region, as discussed above. Further, residue dates provided direct
temporal information about certain ceramic sherds without problems of establishing
contextual relationships between the artifact and the organic material that was assayed.
While issues were raised about potential problems with contamination of residues,
suggesting the need to construct and carry out calibration tests, the information from the
analyses has suggested a need to reassess current chronologies for certain ceramic wares in
the region. Macrobotanical and phytolith analyses added information about plant resources,
both those present in the area and those directly utilized by individuals occupying the sites.
The studies provided confirmation of a local deciduous arboreal environment punctuated by
open, grassy areas, the later probably occurring along the margins of streams. The studies
further produced direct evidence of materials processed in ceramic vessels, by identifying the
probable use of water in processing (from sponge spicules and diatoms in ceramic residues),
and evidence of grass seed and a form of tuber.
252
Final Conclusion
Finally, and perhaps as important as the substantive information derived from the
project, was a methodological contribution toward the development of practical perspectives
in the management of cultural resources in urban areas. The intensity of prehistoric
occupation of the terraces at the mouth of Rock Creek was documented in the archaeological
study. Implied in the results of the investigation was the likelihood that other locations in the
area were as heavily occupied. The Whitehurst Freeway archaeological excavations thus
demonstrated the survival of significant portions of the prehistoric landscape in heavily
developed, modern urban environments. The project showed that with a well-designed
research effort, including comprehensive archival research guiding targeted field
investigations and appropriately detailed analytical techniques, these areas can be efficiently
identified and their information potential realized.
253
254
REFERENCES CITED
Adams, W.Y, D.P. Van Gerven, and R.S. Levy

1978 The Retreat from Migrationism. Annual Review of Anthropology 7:483-532.
Adovasio, J.M.
1986 Artifacts and Ethnicity: Basketry as an Indicator of Territoriality and Population Movements
in the Prehistoric Great Basin. In Anthropology of the Desert West, Essays in Honor of Jesse
D. Jennings, edited by C.J. Condie and D.D. Fowler, pp. 44-88. University of Utah
Anthropological Papers 110. Salt Lake City.
Ahler, S.A.
1979 Functional Analysis of Nonobsidian Chipped Stone Tools: Terms, Variables, and
Quantifications. In Lithic Use-Wear Analysis, ed. B. Hayden, pp. 301-328. New York:
Academic Press.
1986 The Knife River Flint Quarries: Excavations at Site 32DU508. State Historical Society of
North Dakota, Bismarck.
1989 Mass Analysis of Flaking Debris: Studying the Forest Rather than the Tree. In Alternative
Approaches to Lithic Analysis, edited by D.O. Henry and G.H. Odell, 85-118. Archeological
Papers of the American Anthropological Association No. 1.
Arber, G.
1910 A Relation of the Discovery of Our River. The Description of the Now Discovered River and
Country of Virginia. A Brief Description of the People. In The Jamestown Voyages, edited
by Philip Barbour, Vol. 1:80-1-4. Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society,
London.
Army Air Corps

1927 Key Bridge and Vicinity, Washington, D.C. Record Group 18. On file, Still Picture Unit,
Special Media Archives Services Division, National Archives and Records Administration,
College Park, Maryland.
Arnebeck, Bob
1991 Through a Fiery Trial; Building Washington, 1790 - 1800. Madison Books, Lanham,
Maryland.
Artemel, J.G., F.W. Bromberg, D.Knepper, and E.A. Crowell

1992 Whitehurst Freeway Improvement Project: Phase I Archaeological Testing. Parsons
Engineering Science, Washington, D.C.
Artemel, J.G., and E.A. Crowell

1984 Preliminary Case Report; Whitehurst Freeway Corridor Study. Parsons Engineering
Science, Washington, D.C.
1985 Technical Report on Historical and Archaeological Resources, Rehabilitation of the Francis
Scott Key Bridge. Parsons Engineering Science, Washington, D.C.
255
Artemel, J.G., and E.J. Flanagan

1984 New Temporary Connector for the Whitehurst Freeway and Removal of the Demapped
Potomac River Freeway Ramps 2 and 3, Archaeological and Historical Report. Parsons
Artemel, J.G., N.V. Mackie III, E.A. Crowell, and E.J. Flanagan
1985 Georgetown Waterfront Park Archaeological Testing Program, Phase I. Parsons
Bandler, B.G.
1989 In the Anacostia Watershed. Vol II, No. 2. Interstate Commission on the Potomac Basin,
Rockville, Maryland.
Barber, R.
1979 A Summary and Analysis of Cultural Resource Information on the Continental Shelf from the
Bay of Fundy to Cape Hatteras, Final Report. Vol. II, Institute for Conservation
Archaeology, Peabody Museum, Harvard University.
Barse, W.P.
2002 An Archaeological Survey, Inventory, and Evaluation Study, and Data Recovery for the
Fletcher’s Boathouse Site (51NW13), C&O Canal National Historical Park, Washington,
DC. URS Corporation. On file, National Capital Region, National Park Service.
Behm, J.A.
1983 Flake Concentrations: Distinguishing Between Flintworking Activity Areas and Secondary
Deposits. Lithic Technology 12: 9116.
Bergsland, K., and H. Vogt

1962 On the Validity of Glottochronology. Current Anthropology 3(2):115-153.
Bernabo, J.C., and T. Webb

1977 Changing Patterns in the Holocene Pollen Record of Northeastern North America: A
Mapped Summary. Quaternary Research 8: 64-96.
Bettinger, R.
1982 Explanatory/Predictive Models of Hunter-Gatherer Adaptation. In Advances in
Archaeological Method and Theory: Selections for Students from Volumes 1 through 4,
edited by M.B. Schiffer, pp. 157-223. Academic Press, New York.
Binford, L.R.
1964 An Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Investigation of Cultural Diversity and Progressive
Development Among Aboriginal Cultures of Coastal Virginia and North Carolina.
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.
1978 Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology. Academic Press, New York.
Binford, L.R., and M.L. Papworth

1963 The Eastport Site, Antrim County Michigan. In Miscellaneous Studies in Typology and
Classification, edited by A. Montet-White, L.R. Binford, and M.L. Papworth, pp. 71-123.
Museum of Anthropology, the University of Michigan, Anthropology Papers No. 19.
256
Blaker, M.C.
1963 Aboriginal Ceramics: The Townsend Site Near Lewes, Delaware. The Archeolog 15(1):14-
39.
Blanton, D.B., and G.G Robinson

1990 Phase III Data Recovery of Site 44PW308, Interstate 95 HOV Lane, Prince William County,
Virginia. Archaeological Project Center, The College of William and Mary, Technical
Report Series No. 10.
Blanton, DB., S.C. Pullind, and V.L. Deitrick

1999 The Potomac Creek Site (44ST2) Revisited. Virginia Department of Historic Resources,
Research Report Series No. 10. Richmond.
Blick, J.P.
1987 The Huskanaw and Ossuary Rituals of the Quiyoughcohannock of Southeastern Virginia.
Quarterly Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Virginia 42:193-204.
Bowden, B., editor

2003 Archaeological Data Recovery of a Portion of the Gala Site (44BO48), Botetourt County,
Virginia. Gray and Pape, Inc., Richmond, Virginia.
Boyce, H., and L. Frye

1986 Radiocarbon Dating of Archaeological Samples from Maryland. Maryland Geological
Survey Archaeological Studies, Baltimore.
Braun, E.L.
1950 Deciduous Trees of Eastern North America. Free Press, New York.
Broyles, B.J.
1971 Second Preliminary Report: The St. Albans Site, Kanawha County, West Virginia. West
Virginia Geological and Economic Survey, Report of Archeological Investigations No. 3,
Morgantown, West Virginia.
Buikstra, J., and D.K. Charles

1999 Centering the Ancestors: Cemeteries, Mounds, and Sacred Landscapes of the Ancient North
American Midcontinent. In Archaeologies of Landscape: Contemporary Perspectives, edited
by Wendy Ashmore and A. Bernard Knapp, pp. 201-228. Blackwell Publishers, Malden,
Massachusetts.
Butzer, K.W.
1982 Archaeology as Human Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Callahan, E.
1979 The Basics of Biface Flintknapping in the Eastern Fluted Point Tradition: A Manual for
Flintknappers and Lithic Analysts. Archaeology of Eastern North America 7:1-180.
Carbone, V.A.
1976 Environment and Prehistory in the Shenandoah Valley. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Catholic University, Washington, D.C.
257
Carpenter, E.S.
1950 Five Sites of the Intermediate Period. American Antiquity 15:298-314.
Carr, P.J., and A.P. Bradbury

2004 Exploring Mass Analysis, Screens, and Attributes. In Aggregate Analysis in Chipped Stone,
edited by C.T. Hall and M.L. Larson, pp. 21-44. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Catlin, M, J.F. Custer, and R.M. Stewart

1982 Late Archaic Culture Change in Virginia: A Reconstruction of Exchange, Population
Growth, and Migration. Quarterly Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Virginia. 37:123-
140.
Cissna, P.B.
1986 The Piscataway Indians of Southern Maryland: An Ethnohistory from Pre-European Contact
to the Present. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The American University, Washington, D.C.
Clark, G.
1966 The Invasion Hypothesis in British Archaeology. Antiquity 40(159): 172-189.
Clark, W.E.
1980 The Origins of the Piscataway and Related Indian Cultures. Maryland Historical Magazine
75(1):8-22.
Clarke, D.
1968 Analytical Archaeology. Methuen, London.
Coe, J.L.
1964 The Formative Cultures of the Carolina Piedmont. Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society 54(5).
Collins, M.B.
1975 Lithic Technology as a Means of Processual Inference. In Lithic Technology: Making and
Using Stone Tools, edited by E. Swanson, pp. 15-34. Mouton, The Hague.
1979 Excavations at Four Archaic Sites in the Lower Ohio Valley, Jefferson County, Kentucky.
Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 1. Department of Anthropology, University of
Kentucky.
1993 Comprehensive Lithic Studies: Context, Technology, Style, Attrition, Breakage, Use-wear
and Organic Studies. Lithic Technology 18(1-2): 87-94.
Cook, G.T., C. Bonsall, R.E.M. Hedges, K. McSweeney, V. Boroeant, L. Bartosiewicz, and P.B.
Pettit
2002 Problems of Dating Human Bones from the Iron Gates. Antiquity 76: 77-85.
Cox, K.A. and H.A. Smith

1991 Perdiz Point Damage Analysis. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 60:283-301.
Crane, B.D., C. Auman, E. Crowell, M. Pappas, J. Abell, D. Knepper, C. Bowen, C. Shields,

and M. Pipes
2006 The Archaeology of an Urban Landscape, The Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Project
Volume II: Historic Sites. 51NW103 (Peter House), 51NW104 (Square 1182), 51NW117
258
(Ramp 3), 51NW117W (Whitehurst West), 51NW118 (Dyer Planing Mill), Washington, D.C.
Prepared for D.C. Department of Transportation. Prepared by Parsons, Washington, D.C.,
and Versar, Inc., Springfield, Virginia.
Crowell, E.A.
1984 Early Investigations Along the Anacostia River, Washington, D.C. Paper presented at the
Eastern States Archaeological Federation Meetings, Annapolis, Maryland.
1986 In Pursuit of Ancient Cultures: Early Archaeologists and Collectors in the District of
Columbia. Paper presented at the 1986 American Anthropological Association Annual
Meeting, Washington, D.C.
Crowell, E.A., A.M. Fehr, M.M. Miller, and N.V. Mackie III
1987 Archaeological Survey: Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, Georgetown Subdivision. Parsons
Curry, D.C.
1980 Burial of Late Archaic Coastal Plain Sites as a Result of Aeolian Deposition. Paper
presented at the Middle Atlantic Archaeological Conference, Dover, Delaware.
1992 Burial of Late Archaic Coastal Plain Sites as a Result of Aeolian Deposition. Maryland
Archeology 28(2): 17-26.
1999 Feast of the Dead: Aboriginal Ossuaries in Maryland. Maryland Historical Trust Press,
Crownsville.
Curry, D.C., and C.A. Ebright

1989 Buried Archaic Sites in Ridgetop Settings on the Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain. Paper
presented at the Joint Archaeological Congress, Baltimore.
Curry, D.C., and M. Kavanagh

1991 The Middle to Late Woodland Transition in Maryland. North American Archaeologist
12(1):3-28.
Custer, J.F.
1978 Broadspears and Netsinkers: Late Archaic Adaptation Indicated in Depositional Sequences
from Four Middle Atlantic Sites of the Ridge and Valley Province. Paper presented at the
Middle Atlantic Archaeological Conference, Rehoboth Beach, Delaware.
1984 Delaware Prehistoric Archaeology: An Ecological Approach. University of Delaware Press,
Newark.
1986 Late Woodland Cultures of the Lower and Middle Susquehanna Valley. In Late Woodland
Cultures of the Middle Atlantic Region, edited by J.F. Custer. p 116-142. University of
Delaware Press, Newark.
1989 Prehistoric Cultures of the Delmarva Peninsula: An Archaeological Study. University of
Delaware Press, Newark.
1990 Early and Middle Archaic Cultures of Virginia: Culture Change and Continuity. In Early
and Middle Archaic Research in Virginia: A Synthesis, edited by T.R. Reinhart and M.E.N.
Hodges, pp. 1-60. Archeological Society of Virginia, Special Publication No. 22.
1996 Prehistoric Cultures of Eastern Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum
Commission, Harrisburg.
259
Custer, J.F., and C.A. DeSantis

1985 Preliminary Investigations at the Mitchell Farm site (7NC-A-2), New Castle County,
Delaware. Pennsylvania Archaeologist 55(4):30-40.
Custer, J.F., K.R. Rosenberg, G. Mellin, and A. Washburn

1990 A Re-examination of the Island Field Site (7K-F-17), Kent County, Delaware. Archaeology of
Eastern North America 18:145-212.
Daniels, W.F.
1993 Late Quaternary Geomorphic Setting of Archaeological Site 7K-C-107, Kent County,
Delaware. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Geology, University of Delaware,
Newark.
Delcourt, P.A., and H.R. Delcourt

1981 Vegetation Maps for Eastern North America: 40,000 yr B.P. to the Present. In Geobotany II,
edited by R.C. Romans, pp. 123-165. Plenum Press, New York.
Densmore, F.
1928 Uses of Plants by the Chippewa Indians. Forty-fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1926-1927. pp. 275-397.
United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Dent, R.J.
1979 Ecological and Sociocultural Reconstruction in the Upper Delaware Valley. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, The American University, Washington, D.C.
1995 Chesapeake Prehistory: Old Traditions New Directions. Plenum Press, New York.
2003 Excavations at a Late Woodland Village in the Middle Atlantic Valley: Theory and Practice
at the Winslow Site. Journal of Middle Atlantic Archaeology 19:3-24.
Dent, R.J., and C.A. Jirikowic

2001 Accokeek Creek: Chronology, the Potomac Creek Complex, and Piscataway Origins.
Journal of Middle Atlantic Archaeology17:39-58.
Dibble, H.L.
1995 Middle Paleolithic Scraper Reduction: Background, Clarification, and Review of the
Evidence to Date. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 2(4):299-368.
District of Columbia Historic Preservation Division (DCHPD)

1991 Historic Contexts for the District of Columbia. Historic Preservation Division, D.C.
Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, Washington, D.C.
Duncan Grimm, W.H., and M.B. Duncan

1988 Trees of the Southeastern United States. The University of Georgia Press, Athens.
Dunham, G.H.
1994 Common Ground, Contesting Visions: The Emergence of Burial Mound Ritual in Late
Prehistoric Central Virginia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville.
260
Ebright, C.
1987 Quartzite Petrography and Its Implications for Prehistoric Use and Archeological Analysis.
Archaeology of Eastern North America 15:47-57.
Egloff, K.T.
1985 Spheres of Cultural Interaction across the Coastal Plain of Virginia in the Woodland Period.
In Structure and Process in Southeastern Archaeology, edited by R.S. Dickens, Jr., and H.T.
Ward, pp. 229-242. University of Alabama Press.
1989 Native American Sites in Fall Line Transition Study Area. Research Report Series No. 5,
Department of Historic Resources, Commonwealth of Virginia, Richmond.
Egloff, KT., and S.R.Potter

1982 Indian Ceramics from Coastal Plain Virginia. Archaeology of Eastern North America 10:95-
117.
Erichsen-Brown, C.
1979 Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants: A Historical Survey with Special
Reference to the Eastern Indian Tribes. Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York.
Espenshade, C.T.
2001 Two Native Potters “Speak” About Punctates: Harding Flats Data and the Clemsons Island
Concept. Journal of Middle Atlantic Archaeology 17: 59-84.
Evans, J., and J.F. Custer

1990 Guidelines for Standardizing Projectile Point Typology in the Middle Atlantic Region.
Journal of Middle Atlantic Archaeology 6:31-42.
Feest, C.F.
1978 Virginia Algonquians. In Northeast, edited by B.G. Trigger, pp. 253-270, Handbook of
North American Indians, vol. 15. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Fiedel, S.J.
1987 Algonquian Origins: A Problem in Archaeological-Linguistic Correlation. Archaeology of
1991 Correlating Archaeology and Linguistics: The Algonquian Case. Man in the Northeast 41:9-
32.
Fischer, A., and J. Heinemeier

14
2003 Freshwater Reservoir Effect in C Dates of Food Residue on Pottery. Radiocarbon
45(3):449-466.
Fitting, J.E.
1978 Regional Cultural Development, 300 B.C. to A.D. 1000. In Northeast, edited by B.G.
Trigger, pp. 44-57, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.
Fitzpatrick, S., and M.R. Goodwin

1990 The Guide to Black Washington: Places and Events of Historical and Cultural Significance
in the Nation’s Capital. Hippocrene Books, New York.
261
Fladmark, K.R.
1982 Microdebitage Analysis: Initial Considerations. Journal of Archaeological Science 9:205-
220.
Flanagan, E.J., J.G. Artemel and E.A. Crowell

1985 Barney Circle Archaeological Project. Parsons Engineering Science, Washington, D.C.
Flannery, R.
1939 An Analysis of Coastal Algonquian Culture. Catholic University of America Anthropological
Series 7. Washington, D.C.
Flenniken, J.J., and A.W. Raymond

1986 Morphological Projectile Point Typology: Replication Experimentation and Technological
Analysis. American Antiquity 51:603-618.
Flenniken J.J., and P.J. Wilke

1989 Typology, Technology, and Chronology of Great Basin Dart Points. American
Anthropologist 91:149-158.
Foote, S.
1974 The Civil War: A Narrative. Volume 3: Red River to Appomattox. Random House, New
York.
Foss, J.E., R.J. Lewis, and M.E. Timpson

1995 Soils in Alluvial Sequences: Some Archaeological Implications. In Pedological
Perspectives in Archaeological Research, edited by M.E. Colllins, B.J. Carter, B.G.
Gladfelter, and R.J. Southard, pp. 1-14. Soil Science Society of America, Special Publication
Number 44, Madison, Wisconsin.
Fowke, G.
1894 Archeological Investigations in James and Potomac Valleys. Smithsonian Institution Bureau
of American Ethnology, Bulletin 23, Washington, D.C.
Fox, W.A.
1990 The Middle Woodland to Late Woodland Transition. In Archaeology of Southern Ontario to
A.D. 1650, edited by C.J. Ellis and N. Ferris, pp. 171-188, Occasional Publication of the
London Chapter, OAS Number 5, Ontario.
Frison, G.C. and B.A. Bradley

1980 Folsom Tools and Technology at the Hanson Site, Wyoming. University of New Mexico
Press, Albuquerque.
Froelich, A.J., and J.T. Hack

1976 A Preliminary Geologic Map, District of Columbia. Open File Report 75-537. U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
Froncek, Thomas, editor

1977 The City of Washington: An Illustrated History. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
262
Galke, Laura J. and Charles Cheek

1994 Phase 1B Archaeological Resources Survey, United States Navy, Bellevue Housing,
Washington, D.C. Prepared for TAMS Consultants, Inc. Prepared by John Milner
and Associates.
Gardner, W.M.
1974 The Flint Run Paleo-Indian Complex: A Preliminary Report 1971-1973 Seasons. Catholic
University of America, Department of Anthropology Occasional Publication 1, Washington
D.C.
1978 Comparison of Ridge and Valley, Blue Ridge, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain Archaic Period
Site Distribution: An Idealized Transect (Preliminary Model). Paper presented at the Middle
Atlantic Archaeological Conference, Rehoboth Beach, Delaware.
1982 Early and Middle Woodland in the Middle Atlantic: An Overview. In Practicing
Environmental Archaeology: Methods and Interpretations, edited by. R. Moeller, pp. 53-86.
American Indian Archaeological Institute Occasional Paper No. 3, Washington, Connecticut.
1987 Comparison of Ridge and Valley, Blue Ridge, Piedmont and Coastal Plain Archaic Period
Site Distribution: An Idealized Transect (Preliminary Model). Journal of Middle Atlantic
Archaeology 3:49-80.
2000 Recent Observations on the Post-1888 B.C. Late Archaic, Early Woodland and Middle
Woodland. Paper presented at the Eastern States Archeological Federation Conference,
Solomons Island, Maryland.
Geier, C.R.
1990 The Early and Middle Archaic Periods: Material Culture and Technology. In Early and
Middle Archaic Research in Virginia: A Synthesis, edited by T.R. Reinhart and M.E.N.
Hodges, pp. 81-98. Dietz Press, Richmond.
Gleach, F.W.
1985 A Compilation of Radiocarbon Dates with Applicability to Central Virginia. Quarterly
Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Virginia 40:180-200.
Glumac, P.D., E.A. Crowell, M.Pappas, C.Shields, C.Martin, H.P. Fogel, and J.M. Rutherford
1993 Whitehurst Freeway Testing at 51NW103, 51NW104. Parsons Engineering Science,
Washington, D.C.
Goodyear, A.C., J.H. House, and N.W. Ackerly

1979 Laurens-Anderson: An Archeological Study of the Inter-Riverine Piedmont. Anthropological
Studies 4, Occasional Papers of the Institute of Archeology and Anthropology, The
University of South Carolina.
Griffin, J.B.
1944 The Iroquois in American Prehistory. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and
Letters 29:357-374. Ann Arbor.
1967 Eastern North American Archaeology: A Summary. Science 156:175-191.
Griffith, D.R.
1977 Townsend Ceramics and the Late Woodland of Southern Delaware. Unpublished Master’s
Thesis, The American University, Washington, D.C.
263
1980 Townsend Ceramics and the Late Woodland of Southern Delaware. Maryland Historical
Magazine 75(1):23-41.
1982 Prehistoric Ceramics in Delaware (An Overview). Archaeology of Eastern North America
10:46-68.
Griffith, D.R., and J.F. Custer

1985 Late Woodland Ceramics of Delaware: Implications for the Late Prehistoric Archaeology of
Northeastern North America. Pennsylvania Archaeologist 55(3):5-20.
Grimm, W.C.
2000 The Illustrated Book of Trees. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania.
Guilday, J.E.
1982 Appalachia 11,000-12,000 Years Ago: A Biological Review. Archaeology of Eastern North
America 10:22-26.
Guilday, E., P.S. Martin, and A.D. McCrady

1964 New Paris No. 4: A Pleistocene Cave Deposit in Bedford County, Pennsylvania. Bulletin of
the National Speleological Society 26(4):121-194.
Gunn, J.R., R. Mahula and J.B. Sollberger

1976 The Sollberger Distribution. La Tierra 3: 2-8.
Guzy, D.
1999 Fish Weirs in the Upper Potomac. Maryland Archeology 35(1):1-24.
Halsey, J.A.
1976 The Bussinger Site: A Multicomponent Site in the Saginaw Valley of Michigan with a Review
of Early Late Woodland Mortuary Complexes in the Northeastern Woodlands. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Hamel, J.V.
1992 Geological Investigations for Archaeological Studies, Five Selected Stream and River
Crossing, CNG TL-400 Extension 1, Beaver, Butler, and Armstrong Counties, Pennsylvania.
In Phase I Survey and Phase II Testing along the CNG Natural Gas Pipeline (TL-400
Extension 1) Beaver, Butler and Armstrong Counties, Pennsylvania, M.D. Petraglia, D.A.
Knepper, C. Martin, and M.E. Rosenthal. Appendix C. Parsons Engineering Science,
Washington, D.C.
Hamell, G.R.
1983 Trading in Metaphors: The Magic of Beads. In Proceedings of the Glass Trade Bead
Conference, edited by C.F. Hayes, III, pp. 5-28. Rochester Museum and Science Center,
Rochester, New York.
Hantman, J.L., and M.J. Klein

1992 Middle and Late Woodland Archaeology in Piedmont Virginia. In Middle and Late
Woodland Research in Virginia: A Synthesis, edited by T.R. Reinhart and M.E.N. Hodges,
pp. 137-164. Dietz Press, Richmond.
264
Healan, D.M
1995 Identifing Lithic Reduction Loci wtih Size-Graded Macrodebitage: A Multivariate
Approach. American Antiquity 60: 689-699.
Henry, D.O., C.V. Haynes and B. Bradley

1976 Quantitative Variations in Flaked Stone Debitage. Plains Anthropologist 21: 57-61.
Hickerson, H.
1965 The Virginia Deer and Intertribal Buffer Zones in the Upper Mississippi Valley. In Man,
Culture, and Animals, edited by A. Leeds and A.P. Vayda, pp. 45-65. American Association
of the Advancement of Science, Publication No. 78, Washington, D.C.
Hines, C.
1981 Early Recollections of Washington City. Original edition, 1866. Junior League of
Washington, Washington, DC.
Hitchcock, A.S., and P.C. Standley

1919 Flora of the District of Columbia and Vicinity. Contributions from the United States National
Herbarium 21:1-329.
Hitchcock, R.K., and L.E. Bartram, Jr.

1998 Social Boundaries, Technical Systems, and the Use of Space and Technology in the Kalahari.
In The Archaeology of Social Boundaries, edited by M.T.Stark, pp. 12-14. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Holland, G.C.
1979 The Ramifications of the Fire Hunt. Quarterly Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of
Virginia 33(4):134-140.
Holmes, W.H.
n.d. Random Records. National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.
1890 A Quarry Workshop of the Flaked-Stone Implement Makers in the District of Columbia. The
American Anthropologist 3:1-26.
1897 Stone Implements of the Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province. In 15th Annual Report of
Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D.C, pp. 3-152.
1903 Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States. Twentieth Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology, Washington, D.C.
1907 Aboriginal Shellheaps of the Middle Atlantic Tidewater Region. American Anthropologist
9(1):113-128.
Holmes, W.H., W. Dinwiddie, and G. Fowke

1891 Archaeological Survey of the Tidewater Maryland and Virginia Area. Manuscript 2125,
National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Hudson, Charles
1976 The Southeastern Indians. The University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
265
Humphrey, R. L., and M.E. Chambers

1977 Ancient Washington; American Indian Cultures of the Potomac Valley. George Washington
Studies No. 6. George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
1985 Ancient Washington; American Indian Cultures of the Potomac Valley. George Washington
Studies No. 6. Second edition. George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
Afterword by Steven R. Potter.
Jirikowic, C.A.
1995 The Hughes Village Site: A Late Woodland Community in the Potomac Piedmont.
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, American University, Washington, D.C.
Johnson, J.K.
1981 Lithic Procurement and Utilization Trajectories: Analysis, Yellow Creek Nuclear Power
Plant Site, Tishomingo County, Mississippi. Tennessee Valley Authority Publications in
Anthropology No. 28.
Johnson, M.F.
1986 The Prehistory of Fairfax County: An Overview. Heritage Resources Branch, Falls Church,
Virginia.
1991 Middle and Late Woodland Settlement Systems in the Interior Fall Zone of the Potomac
Valley: Not a Live Oyster in Sight. North American Archaeologist 12:29-60.
2002 The Upper Cub Run Complex: Preliminary Archeological Reconnaissance and
Methodological Analysis of Parcel 43-3 (1) 1 in the Hunter/Hacor Acquisition Property.
Fairfax County Archeological Services, Falls Church, Virginia.
Johnson, W.C.
1989 Analysis of Cordage Impressions on Late Woodland Ceramics from the Patawomeke Site
(44ST2) and Five Montgomery Complex Sites in the Potomac River Piedmont and Ridge and
Valley Province, or a New Twist on an Old Tale. Paper presented at the Middle Atlantic
Archaeological Conference, Ocean City, Maryland.
1996 A New Twist to an Old Tale: Analysis of Cordage Impressions on Late Woodland Ceramics
from the Potomac River Valley. In A Most Indispensable Art: Native Fiber Industries from
Eastern North America, edited by J.B. Petersen, pp. 144-159. University of Tennessee Press,
Knoxville.
Johnson, W.C., and D.S. Speedy

1992 Cultural Continuity and Change in the Middle and Late Woodland Periods in the Upper
James Estuary, Prince Gorge County, Virginia. Journal of Middle Atlantic Archaeology
8:91-106.
Johnston, P.M.
1964 Geology and Ground-water Resources of Washington, D.C., and Vicinity. Geological Survey
Water-Supply Paper No. 1776. Washington, D.C.
Joyce, A.A.
1988 Early/Middle Holocene Environments in the Middle Atlantic Region: A Revised
Reconstruction. In Holocene Human Ecology in Northeastern North America, edited by G.P.
Nicholas, pp. 185-214. Plenum Press, New York.
266
Kavanagh, M.
1982 Archaeological Resources of the Monocacy River Region, Frederick and Carroll Counties,
Maryland. Maryland Geological Survey, Division of Archaeology, File Report No. 164.
1983 Prehistoric Occupation of the Monocacy River Region. In Piedmont Archaeology, edited by
J.M. Wittkofski and L.E. Browning, pp. 40-54. Archeological Society of Virginia Special
Publication No. 10.
Kellogg D.C. and J. F. Custer, editors

1994 Paleoenvironmental Studies of the State Route 1 Corridor: Contexts for Prehistoric
Settlement, New Castle and Kent Counties. Delaware Department of Transportation
Archaeology Series No. 114, Dover.
Kinsey, W.F., III

1972 Archeology in the Upper Delaware Valley. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum
Knepper, D., Bowen, C.L., Mangum, R. L.J. Paonessa, S.M. Moffett, and S.L. Bupp
2006 Phase I Archaeological Survey of the Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C.
Prepared for the United States Department of the Navy. Prepared by Versar, Inc.,
Springfield, Virginia.
Klein, M.J.
2003 Ceramics, Style, and Society in the Potomac Valley of Virginia. Journal of Middle Atlantic
Archaeology 19:25-35.
Kraft, H.C.
1986 The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. New Jersey Historical Society,
Newark.
1990 The Terminal Archaic in the Upper Delaware Valley: A Broad and Narrow Perspective. In
Experiments and Observations on the Terminal Archaic of the Middle Atlantic Region. edited
by R.W. Moeller, pp 63-83. Archaeological Services, Bethlehem, Connecticut.
Kraft, J.C.
1971 A Guide to the Geology of Delaware’s Coastal Environments. College of Marine Studies at
University of Delaware, Newark.
Kraft, J.C., and G.S. Brush

1981 A Geological-Paleoenvironmental Analysis of the Sediments in St. John's Pond and the
Nearshore Zone Near Howard's Wharf at St. Mary's City, Maryland. Manuscript on file,
Historic St. Mary's City, St. Mary's City, Maryland.
Kroeber, A.L.
1939 Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. University of California Press,
Berkeley.
1955 Linguistic Time Depth Results So Far and Their Meaning. International Journal of American
Linguistics 21(2):91-104.
267
LeeDecker, C.H., B. Koldehoff, C.A. Holt, D.P. Wagner, G.S. Brush, and M. Newman
1991 Excavation of the Indian Creek V Site: An Archaic Gathering Camp in the Maryland Coastal
Plain. Louis Berger Associates, Washington,D.C.
Lippson, A.J., M.S. Haire, A.F. Holland, F. Jacobs, J. Jensen, R.L. Moran-Johnson, T.J. Polgar, and
W.A. Richkus
1979 Environmental Atlas of the Potomac Estuary. Prepared by Martin Marietta Corporation for
Maryland Department of National Resources, Baltimore.
Little, Elbert L.
1980 The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
Lothrop, J.C., and R.M. Gramly

1982 Pièces Esquillées from the Vail Site. Archaeology of Eastern North America 10: 1-22.
Louis Berger Group

2003 Archeological Identification and Evaluation Study of C&O Canal National Historical Park,
Rock Creek to Sandy Hook (Mile Markers 0 to 59), Montgomery, Frederick, and Washington
Counties, Maryland and Washington, D.C.: Year 1 Management Summary. National Capital
Region, National Park Service, Washington, D.C.
Luckenbach, A.H., W.E. Clark, and R.S. Levy

1987 Rethinking Cultural Stability in Eastern North American Prehistory: Linguistic Evidence
from Eastern Algonquian. Journal of Middle Atlantic Archaeology 3:1-33.
MacCord, H.A., Sr.

1957 Archeology of the Anacostia Valley of Washington, D.C., and Maryland. Journal of the
Washington Academy of Sciences 47(12):393-397.
1984 Evidence for a Late Woodland Migration from Piedmont to Tidewater in the Potomac Valley.
Maryland Archeology 20:2.
1986 The Lewis Creek Mound Culture in Virginia. Archeological Society of Virginia. Ms on file at
Virginia Department of Historic Resources, Richmond.
MacCord, H.A., Sr., K Schmitt, and R.G. Slattery

1957 The Shepard Site Study. Archeological Society of Maryland Bulletin No. 1.
MacDonald, G.F.
1968 Debert: A Paleo-Indian Site in Central Nova Scotia. National Museum of Canada
Anthropology Papers 16.
McElrath, D.L.
1986 The McLean Site. American Bottom Archaeology FAI-270 Site Reports Vol. 14. University
of Illinois Press, Urbana.
McLearen, D. C.
1991 Late Archaic and Early Woodland Material Culture in Virginia. In Late Archaic and Early
Woodland Research in Virginia: A Synthesis, edited by T.R Reinhart and M.N. Hodges, pp.
89-137. Dietz Press, Richmond.
268
Mack, F.K.
1966 Ground Water in Prince George's County. Maryland Geological Survey, Bulletin 29.
Mackintosh, B.
1985 “Rock Creek Park: An Administrative History.” History Division National Park Service
U.S., Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
www.nps.gov/rocr/cultural/history/adhi.htm, accessed August 2005.
Manson, C.P.
1948 The Marcey Creek Site: An Early Manifestation in the Potomac Valley. American Antiquity
13:223-227.
Manson, C.P., and H.A. MacCord, Sr.

1985 The Stratigraphic Sequence at Patawomeke. In Falls Zone Archeology in Virginia, edited by
H.A. MacCord, Sr., pp. 13-14. Privately published.
Mangerud, J.
1972 Radiocarbon Dating of Marine Shells, Including a Discussion of Apparent Age of Recent
Shells from Norway. Boreas 1:143-172.
Martin, D.S.
1958 Taiga-tundra and the Full Glacial Period in Chester County, Pennsylvania. American Journal
of Science 256: 470-502.
Maxwell, J.A., and M.B. Davis

1972 Pollen Evidence of Pleistocene and Holocene Vegetation on the Allegheny Plateau,
Maryland. Quaternary Research 2:506-530.
Mayre, W.B.
1935 Piscataway. Maryland Historical Magazine 30(3):183-240.
Means, B.K.
2003 Building a Bridge from the Past to the Future: Archaeological Discoveries of Alexandria,
Virginia’s, American Indian Heritage through the Wilson Bridge Project. Ms. on file,
Alexandria Archaeology, Alexandria.
Moermann, D.E.
1986 Medicinal Plants of Native America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany, Contribution 2,
University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, Technical Reports Number 19.
Morgan, L.H.
1962 League of the Iroquois. Citadel, Secaucus, New Jersey.
Mouer, L.D.
1983 A Review of the Ethnohistory and Archaeology of the Monacans. In Piedmont Archaeology,
edited by J.M. Wittkofski and L.E. Browning, pp. 21-39. Archeological Society of Virginia,
Special Publication No. 10, Richmond.
1984 DMZ or Deer Park? Buffer Zones as Boundary Systems. Ms on file, Virginia Department of
Historic Resources, Richmond.
269
Mudar, K.M., E.B. Jones, and J.W. Verano

1998 Cultural Identity and Mortuary Behavior: An Examination of the Hand Site Cemetery
(44SN22), Southampton County, Virginia. Archaeology of Eastern North America 26:133-
162.
Munford, B.A.
1982 The Piney Branch Quarry Site: An Analysis of a Lithic Workshop in Washington, D.C. M.A.
thesis, George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
Murphy, C., and N. Ferris

1990 The Late Woodland Western Basin Tradition in Southwestern Ontario. In Archaeology of
Southern Ontario to A.D. 1650, edited by C.J. Ellis and N. Ferris, pp. 189-290, Occasional
Publication of the London Chapter, OAS Number 5, Ontario.
Muto, G.R.
1971 A Technological Analysis of the Early Stages in the Manufacture of Lithic Implements. M.A.
thesis, Idaho State University, Pocatelo.
Nash, D.T. and M.D. Petraglia,. editors

1987 Natural Formation Processes and the Archaeological Record. BAR International Series 352,
Oxford.
Neill, Edward D., editor

1876 A Brief Journal of a Voyage Made in the Bark Warwick to Virginia and other Parts of the
Continent of America by Henry Fleet in the Founders of Maryland. Joel Munsell, Albany.
Norton, R.F, and E.A. Baird

1994 The Taft Site: A Middle and Late Woodland Assemblage from the Virginia Coastal Plain.
Archaeology of Eastern North America 22:89-133.
O’Connell, J.
1987 Alyawara Site Structure and Its Archaeological Implications. American Antiquity 52:74-108.
Patterson, L.W.
1990 Characteristics of Bifacial-Reduction Flake-Size Distribution. American Antiquity 55:550-
558.
Pearsall, D.M.
1989 Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures. Academic Press, New York.
Peattie, Donald C.
1991 A Natural History of Trees of Eastern and Central North America. Original edition, 1948.
Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Petersen, J.B.
1996a The Study of Native Fiber Industries from Eastern North America: Resume and Prospect. In
A Most Indispensable Art: Native Fiber Industries from Eastern North America, edited by
J.B. Petersen, pp. 1-29. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
1996b Fiber Industries from Northern New England: Ethnicity and Technological Traditions during
the Woodland Period. In A Most Indispensable Art: Native Fiber Industries from Eastern
270
North America, edited by J.B. Petersen, pp.100-119. University of Tennessee Press,

Knoxville.
Petraglia, M.D., D.Knepper, C.Martin, and M.E. Rosenthal

1992 Phase I Survey and Phase II Testing Along the CNG Natural Gas Pipeline (TL-400 Extension
1), Beaver, Butler and Armstrong Counties, Pennsylvania. Parsons Engineering Science,
Washington, D.C.
Phelps, D.S.
1983 Archaeology of the North Carolina Coast and Coastal Plain: Problems and Hypotheses. In
The Prehistory of North Carolina: An Archaeological Symposium, edited by M. Mathis and
J. Crow, pp. 1-51. North Carolina Division of Archives and History, Raleigh.
Popper, Virginia S.
1988 Selecting Quantitative Measurements in Paleoethnobotany. In Current Paleoethnobotany:
Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, edited by
Christine A. Hastorf and Virginia S. Popper, pp. 53-71. The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.
Potter, S.R.
1982 An Analysis of Chicacoan Settlement Patterns. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
1993 Commoners, Tribute, and Chiefs: The Development of Algonquin Culture in the Potomac
Valley. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
1999 The Whitehurst Freeway Site in a Wider World: Thinking the Unthinkable. Paper presented
at the Society for American Archaeology Meeting, Chicago.
2002 Power and Politics in Ancient Washington. Paper presented at the Middle Atlantic
Archaeological Conference, Cape May, New Jersey.
Prince Georges County

n.d. Land Records. On file at Prince Georges County Courthouse, Upper Marlboro, Maryland.
Proudfit, S. V.
1889 Ancient Village Sites and Aboriginal Workshops in the District of Columbia. American
Anthropologist 2:241-246.
1890 A Collection of Stone Implements from the District of Columbia. Proceedings of the U.S.
National Museum 13:187-194.
1891 Records of the Anthropological Society of Washington, Manuscript 4821, National
Anthropology Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Proulx, P.
1980 The Linguistic Evidence on Algonquian Prehistory. Anthropological Linguistics 22(1):1-21.
Purdy, B.A.
1975 Fractures for the Archaeologist. In Lithic Technology: Making and Using Stone Tools, edited
by E. Swanson, 133-141. Mouton, The Hague.
271
Raber, P.A.
1985 Environment and Culture History in Pennsylvania. In A Comprehensive State Plan for the
Conservation of Archaeological Resources. vol. 2, edited by P. A. Raber, pp. 5-22.
Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.
Reidhead, V.A.
1980 The Economics of Subsistence Change: A Test of an Optimization Model. In Modeling
Change in Prehistoric Subsistence Economics, edited by T.K. Earle and A.L. Christensen, pp.
141-186. Academic Press, New York.
Reinhart, T.R. and M.E.N. Hodges, eds.

1991 Late Archaic and Early Woodland Research in Virginia: A Synthesis. Dietz Press,
Richmond.
1992 Middle and Late Woodland Research in Virginia: A Synthesis. Dietz Press, Richmond.
Renfrew, C.
1973 Before Civilization: The Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe. Alfred A. Knopf,
New York.
Richards, J.D.
1998 Recent Trends in Computer Applicatins in Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological
Research 6:331-382.
Riley, L., D.C. Bachman, G. Mellin, J.E. Jamison, B.H. Silber, J.F. Custer, and D.J. Grettler
1994 Phase II Archaeological Excavation of All Prehistoric Sites in the Early Action Segment of
the Delaware Route 1 Corridor, New Castle and Kent Counties, Delaware. Delaware
Department of Transportation Archaeological Series No. 101.
Rippeteau, B.
1977 New Data and Models for 8,000 Years of Archaic Societies and their Environments in the
Upper Susquehanna Valley of New York State. In Amerinds and their Paleoenvironments in
Northeastern North America, edited by W.S. Newman and B. Salwen, pp. 392-399. Annals
of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 228.
Ritchie, W.A.
1944 The Pre-Iroquoian Occupations of New York State. Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences,
Rochester, New York.
1949 The Bell-Philhower Site, Sussex County, New Jersey. Indiana Historical Society, Prehistory
Research Series, vol. 3, no. 2. Indianapolis.
1971 A Typology and Nomenclature for New York Projectile Points. New York State Museum and
Science Bulletin No. 384.
1994 The Archaeology of New York State. Purple Mountain Press, Fleischmanns, New York.
Ritchie, W.A., and R.E. Funk

1973 Aboriginal Settlement Patterns in the Northeast. New York State Museum and Science
Service, Memoir 20.
272
Ritchie, W.A., and R.S. MacNeish

1949 The Pre-Iroquoian Pottery of New York State. American Antiquity 15(2):97-124.
Rose, C.B., Jr.

1976 Arlington County, Virginia: A History. Arlington County Historical Society, Arlington,
Virginia.
Rountree, H.C.
1989 The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture. University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman.
Rouse, I.
1986 Migrations in Prehistory: Inferring Population Movement from Cultural Remains. Yale
University Press, New Haven.
Rust, W.F., III

1986 Chronology of Prehistoric Habitation Sites on the Potomac River in Loudoun County,
Virginia, from the CountrySide Planned Community to the Catoctin Creek/Potomac
Confluence. Loudoun County Department of Planning, Zoning, and Community
Development, Leesburg.
Rye, O.S.
1981 Pottery Technology. Taraxacum, Washington, D.C.
Sanger, D.
1981 Unscrambling Messages in the Midden: An Investigation into the Age Relationship of
Oyster Shell Middens Along the Lower Hudson River and the Cultural Materials Found On
and In Them. Archaeology of Eastern North America 9:37-42.
Schick, K.D.
1986 Stone Age Sites in the Making: Experiments in the Formation and Transformation of
Archaeological Occurrences. BAR International Series, Oxford 319.
1987 Experimentally derived Criteria for Assessing Hydrologic Disturbance of Archaeological
Sites. In Natural Formation Processes and the Archaeological Record, edited by D.T. Nash
and M.D. Petraglia, pp. 86-107. BAR International Series, Oxford 352.
Schlee, J. S.
1957 Upland Gravels of Southern Maryland. Geological Society of America Bulletin 68:1371-
1409.
Schmitt, K.
1952 Archeological Chronology of the Middle Atlantic States. In Archeology of the Eastern
United States, edited by J.B. Griffin, pp 59-70. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
1965 Patawomeke: A Historic Algonkian Site. Quarterly Bulletin of the Archeological Society of
Virginia 20(1):1-36.
Schuldenrein, J.
1994 Geomorphology and Geoarchaeology at 36CN165 and 36CN199, Kettle Creek, Clinton
County, Pennsylvania. In Archaeological Excavations on Kettle Creek: Investigations at
273
36CN165 and 36CN199, Clinton County, Pennsylvania, M.D. Petraglia and DA. Knepper.
Appendix B. Parsons Engineering Science, Washington, D.C.
Seeman, M.F.
1992 The Bow and Arrow, the Intrusive Mound Complex, and a Late Woodland Jack’s Reef
Horizon in the Mid-Ohio Valley. In Cultural Variability in Context: Woodland Settlements
in the Mid-Ohio Valley, edited by M.F. Seeman, pp. 40-93. Midcontinental Journal of
Archaeology, Special Paper No. 7.
Service, E.R.
1966 The Hunters. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Sharrock, F.W.
1966 Prehistoric Occupations in Southwest Wyoming and Cultural Relationships with the Great
Basin and Plains Cultural Area. Anthropological Papers of the University of Utah No. 77.
Sheets, P.D.
1975 Behavioral Analysis and the Structure of a Prehistoric Industry. Current Anthropology
16:369-391.
Shelford, V.E.
1963 The Ecology of North America. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Sherwood, S.B.
1978 Foggy Bottom 1800-1976: A Study in the Uses of an Urban Neighborhood. George
Washington University, Washington Studies, Number 7.
Shott, M.J.
1992 Radiocarbon Dating as a Probabilistic Technique: The Childers Site and Late Woodland
Occupation in the Ohio Valley. American Antiquity 57: 202-230.
1994 Size and Form in the Analysis of Flake Debris: Review and Recent Approaches. Journal of
Archaeological Method and Theory 1(1): 69-110.
Siebert, F.T.
1975 Resurrecting Virginia Algonquian from the Dead: The Reconstituted and Historical
Phonology of Powhatan. In Studies in Southeastern Indian Languages, edited by J.M.
Crawford, pp. 285-453. University of Georgia Press, Athens.
Sirkin, L.
1977 Late Pleistocene Vegetation and Environments in the Middle Atlantic Region. In Amerinds
and their Paleoenvironments in Northeastern North America, edited by W.S. Newman and B.
Salwen, pp. 206-217. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 288.
Slattery, R.G., and D.R. Woodward

1992 The Montgomery Focus: A Late Woodland Potomac River Culture. Archeological Society
of Maryland Bulletin Number 2.
274
Smith, G.P.
1971 Protohistoric Sociopolitical Organization of the Nottoway in the Chesapeake Bay-Carolina
Sounds Region. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department ofAnthropology, University of
Missouri, Columbia.
1984 The Hand Site, Southampton County, Virginia. Archeological Society of Virginia, Special
Publication Number 11.
Smith, H.
1976 Soil Survey of the District of Columbia. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation
Service, Washington, D.C.
Smith, J.
1986 A Map of Virginia [1612]. Historical section compiled from various texts by William
Simmond. In The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580-1631), edited by Philip L.
Barbour, Volume 1:119-190. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina.
Smith, K.S.
1988 Washington At Home, An Illustrated History of the Neighborhoods in the Nation's Capital.
Windsor Publications, Inc., Northridge, California.
Snow, D.R.
1978 Late Prehistory of the East Coast. In Northeast, edited by B.G. Trigger, pp. xx-xx, Handbook
of North American Indians, vol. 15. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Spence, M.W., R.H. Phil, and C.R. Murphy

1990 Cultural Complexes of the Early and Middle Woodland Periods. In The Archaeology of
Southern Ontario to A.D. 1650, edited by C.J. Ellis and N. Ferris, pp. 125-157. Occasional
Publication of the London Chapter, OAS Number 5.
Stahle, D.W., and J.E. Dunn

1984 An Experimental Analysis of the Size Distribution of Waste Flakes from Biface Reduction.
Arkansas Archeological Survey Technical Paper No. 2.
Stephenson, R.L., and A.L.L. Ferguson, and H.G. Ferguson

1963 The Accokeek Creek Site: A Middle Atlantic Seaboard Culture Sequence. Anthropological
Papers No. 20, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan.
Steward, J.H.
1955 The Theory of Culture Change. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Stewart, R.M.
1980 Prehistoric Settlement and Subsistence Patterns and the Testing of Predictive Site Location
Models in the Great Valley of Maryland. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic
University, Washington, D.C.
1987 Rhyolite Quarry and Quarry-Related Sites in Maryland and Pennsylvania. Archaeology of
275
1994 Prehistoric Farmers of the Susquehanna Valley: Clemson Island Culture and the St. Anthony
Site. Occasional Publications in Northeastern Anthropology, No. 13. Archaeological
Services, Bethlehem, Connecticut.
1997 Early Archeological Research in the Great Valley of Maryland. Maryland Archeology
33(1&2):1-44.
Stewart, T.D., and W.R. Wedel

1937 The Finding of Two Ossuaries in the Site of the Indian Village of Nacotchtanke (Anacoastia).
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 27(5):213-219.
Stocum, F.L.
1977 An Important Ceramic Discovery at the Robbins Farm Site. Bulletin of the Archaeological
Society of Delaware 40-48.
Stothers, D.M, J.R. Graves, S.K. Bechtel, and T.J. Abel

1994 Current Perspectives on the Late Prehistory of the Western Lake Erie Region: An Alternative
to Murphy and Ferris. Archaeology of Eastern North America 22:135-196.
Strachey, W.
1953 The Historie of Travell into Virginia Britania [1612]. ser. 2, vol. 103, edited by Louis B.
Wright and Virginia Freund. Hakluyt Society, Cambridge.
Strandberg, C.H., and R. Tomlinson

1969 Photoarchaeological Analysis of Potomac River Fish Traps. American Antiquity 34:312-319.
Struever, S., and G.L. Houart

1972 An Analysis of the Hopewell Interaction Sphere. In Social Exchange and Interaction, edited
by E.N. Wilmsen, pp. 47-79. Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Stuckenrath, R.
1977 Radiocarbon: Some Notes from Merlin’s Diary. In Amerinds and Their Paleoenvironments,
edited by W.S. Newman and B. Salwen. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences
288: 181-188.
Stuiver M., and T.F. Braziunas

1993 14C Ages of Marine Samples to 10,000 BC. Radiocarbon 35(1) 137-189.
Swanton, J.R.
1946 The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Reprint of Bureau of American Ethnology
Bulletin 137. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Tankersley, K.B., and C.A. Munson

1992 Comments of the Meadowcroft Rockshelter Radiocarbon Chronology and the Recognition of
Coal Contaminants. American Antiquity 57: 321-326.
Tankersley, K.B., C.A. Munson, and D. Smith

1987 Recognition of Bituminous Coal Contaminants in Radiocarbon Samples. American Antiquity
52: 318-330.
276
Tantaquidgeon, G.
1942 A Study of Delaware Indian Medicinal Practice and Folk Beliefs. Pennsylvania Historical
Thomas, D.H.
1976 Figuring Anthropology. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.
Thomas, R.A., D.R. Griffith, C.L. Wise and R.E. Artusy, Jr.
1975 Environmental Adaptation on Delaware's Coastal Plain. Archaeology of Eastern North
America 3:35-90.
Thomas, R.A., and N. Warren

1970 A Middle Woodland Cemetery in Central Delaware: Excavations at the Island Field Site.
Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Delaware 8:1-31.
Tomka, S.A.
1989 Differentiating Lithic Redustion Techniques: An Experimental Approach. In Experiments in
Lithic Technology, edited by D.S. Amick and R.P. Mauldin,. pp. 137-161. BAR International
Series, No. 528. Oxford.
Toulmin, C, D. Knepper, and E.A. Crowell

1990 Correctional Treatment Facility (51SE29), Washington, D.C., Phase III Archaeological
Investigations. Parsons Engineering Science, Washington, D.C.
Towner, R.H., and M. Warburton

1990 Projectile Point Rejuvenation: A Technological Analysis. Journal of Field Archaeology
17:311-321.
Turner, E.R.
1978 An Intertribal Deer Exploitation Buffer Zone for the Virginia Coastal-Plain-Piedmont
Region. Quarterly Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Virginia 32(3):42-48.
1992 The Virginia Coastal Plain During the Late Woodland Period. In Middle and Late Woodland
Research in Virginia: A Synthesis, edited by T.R. Reinhart and M.E.N. Hodges, pp. 97-136.
Dietz Press, Richmond.
Vento, F.J., and H.B. Rollins

1990 Genetic Stratigraphy, Paleosol Development and the Burial of Archaeological Sties in the
Susquehanna, Delaware, and Upper Ohio Drainage Basins, Pennsylvania. On file,
Pennsylvania Bureau for Historic Preservation, Harrisburg.
Vokes, H.E., and J. Edwards, Jr.

1974 Geography and Geology of Maryland. Maryland Geological Survey Bulletin 19 (revised).
Walker, P.C., and R.T. Hartman

1960 Forest Sequence of the Hartstown Bog Area in Western Pennsylvania. Ecology 41(3):461-
474.
Ward, H.H., and D.C. Bachman

1987 Aeolian Burial of Woodland Sites on the Delaware Coastal Plain. Journal of Middle Atlantic
Archaeology 3: 103-110.
277
Waters, M.R.
1992 Principles of Geoarchaeology: A North American Perspective. University of Arizona Press,
Tucson.
Watrall, C.R.
1968 Virginia Deer and the Buffer Zone in the Late Prehistoric/Early Protohistoric Periods in
Minnesota. Plains Anthropologist 13:81-86.
Watson, S.C., and J.F. Custer

1989 Phase III Excavations at the Caryatid Site (28-BU-271) and Eckert Farm Site (28-BU-115),
Burlington County, New Jersey. New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton.
Wentworth, C.K.
1930 Sand and Gravel Resources of the Coastal Plain of Virginia. Virginia Geological Survey
Bulletin 32. Richmond.
Werner, C.
1968 Georgetown Historic Waterfront, Washington, D.C. A Review of Canal and Riverside
Architecture. U.S. Commission of Fine Arts and Office of Archeology and Historic
Preservation, National Park Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Weslager, C. A.
1972 The Delaware Indians: A History. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick.
Wesler, K.W., D.J. Pogue, A.H. Luckenbach, G.J. Fine, P.A. Sternheimer, and E.G. Furguson
1981 The M/DOT Archaeological Resources Survey. Volume 2: Western Shore. Maryland
Historical Trust Monograph Series, No. 6.
White, L.
1949 The Science of Culture. Grove Press, New York.
Whitehead, D.R.
1973 Late-Wisconsin Vegetational Changes in Unglaciated Eastern North America. Quaternary
Research 3:621-631.
Williams, G.P.
1989 Washington D.C.’s Vanishing Springs and Waterways. In Geology, Hydrology, and History
of the Washington, D.C. Area, edited by J.E. Moore and J.A. Jackson, pp. 76-94. American
Geological Insti9tute, Alexandria, Virginia.
Witthoft, J.
1953 Broad Spearpoints and the Transitional Period Cultures in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania
Archaeologist 23(1).
Wright, H.E., Jr.

1981 Vegetation East of the Rocky Mountains 18,000 Years Ago. Quaternary Research
15(2):113-125.
278
Yesner, D.R.
1985 Cultural Boundaries and Ecological; Frontiers in Coastal Regions: An Example from Alaska,
In The Archaeology of Frontiers and Boundaries, edited by S.W. Green and S.M. Perlman,
pp. 51-91. Academic Press, New York.
279
280

The Archaeology of An Urban Landscape, The Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Project PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

The Archaeology of An Urban Landscape, The Whitehurst Freeway Archaeological Project PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

The Archaeology of an Urban Landscape,

The Whitehurst Freeway

Volume I: Prehistoric Sites

51NW103 (Peter House), 51NW117 (Ramp 3),

Prepared for the

51NW103 (Peter House), 51NW117 (Ramp 3),

Dennis Knepper, John M. Rutherford, Daniel R. Hayes,

The District of Columbia Department of Transportation conducted an extensive

We wish to thank Mr. Tom Burke of District of Columbia Department of Public

We are indebted to Dr. Stephen Potter, Regional Archaeologist of the National

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF AN URBAN LANDSCAPE

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................i

2.0 Background Research................................................................................................ 5

4.0 Peter House Prehistoric Site (51NW103): Archaeological Findings .................. 47

5.0 Ramp 3 Prehistoric Site (51NW117): Archaeological Findings ......................... 99

6.0 Whitehurst West (51NW117W) ): Archaeological Findings............................. 145

6.3 General Site Description .............................................................................. 149

7.0 Synthesis and Conclusions

8.0 References Cited..................................................................................................... 255

Appendix A List of Personnel

Figure 1-1 Project Corridor Showing the Locations of Significant Archaeological

Table 7-1 Radiocarbon Dates from Whitehurst Sites in Approximate Chronological

1.1 Description of the Project

This report is the culmination of a series of archaeological investigations conducted

Survey and evaluation investigations, referred to in cultural resource management

1.2 General Description and the Modern Physical Setting

The eastern or Foggy Bottom section of the Whitehurst Freeway Improvement

The Ramp 3 site (51NW117) consisted of a very gently sloping, grass-covered

1.3 Report Organization

A series of appendices contain additional documentation. The qualifications of

2.0 BACKGROUND RESEARCH

2.1 Physical Setting

Physiography and Geology

The Coastal Plain physiographic province is composed of a variety of unconsolidated

The adjacent Piedmont region is underlain by crystalline, metamorphosed bedrock of

Climate and Ecology

Understanding long-term variation in the natural environment is an essential part of

Climatic changes during the Holocene occurred as a series of short-term variations

Late Glacial ca. 15,000-13,000 BP

Pre-Boreal ca. 13,000-10,700 BP

Boreal ca. 10,700-9200 BP

Atlantic ca. 9200-6600 BP

Sub-Boreal ca. 6600 2000 BP

Sub-Atlantic ca. 2000 BP -present

2.3 Prehistory of the Region

While increasingly persuasive arguments have been advanced for occupation of

A break in cultural patterns is traditionally described in Middle Atlantic chronology at

Most archaeologists agree that in cultural terms a considerable degree of continuity is

By the Late Woodland period (AD 900–1600), horticulture began to achieve a

2.4 Relevant Historic Period Events

In 1765, Jacob Funk, a German immigrant who resided in Frederick, Maryland,

In contrast, the rapid growth of Georgetown influenced development on both sides of

2.5 Previous Research in the Area

Early Regional Investigations

Relics and remains of aboriginal occupation here have been described

This statement, from a 1906 presentation by Otis Mason to the Anthropological

Holmes' investigations became part of a larger, extensive survey of the Chesapeake-

demonstrated a reduction sequence showing a progression from cobble to turtleback to

Modern Archaeological Investigations in the Whitehurst Vicinity

Department of Public Works (DCDPW), identified historical structures and archaeological

Areas to be affected by the Whitehurst Freeway Temporary Connector and Key

Limited archaeological subsurface testing was conducted on the Georgetown