Solution By: Deepak Gupta

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Heat Transfer
Solution by
Deepak Gupta
ME (M/C Design) (MU)
BE Mechanical (MU)
Contents:
·May 2013
·Dec 2013
·May 2014
·Dec 2014
·May 2015
·Dec 2015
.May 2016
www.qualitytutorial.in
Module Question number Page number.
I 1-5 1-2
II 6-22 3-20
III 23-50 21-40
IV 51-71 41-53
V 72-95 54-68
VI 96-116 69-84
Module wise summary
Module May 2013 Dec 2013 May 2014 Dec 2014 May 2015 Dec 2015 May 2016
(CBGS) (CBGS) (CBGS) (CBGS)
1 Q1(a)-06m, Q1(d)-05m, Q2 (C)-5m Q(1)(d)-5m
2 Q2(a)-10m, Q1a)-05m, Q6(a)-10m, Q1(b)-05m, Q2(c)-07m Q2(b)-08M Q3(b)-06M

Q3(a)-10m, Q1(e)-05m, Q2(b)-10m, Q1(c)-5m
Q3(b)-10m, Q4(a)-10m, Q5(b)-06m,
Q7(b)-05m, Q4(b)-10m, Q5(c)-06m,
Q6(b)-06m,
3 Q2(b)-10m, Q2(a)-10m, Q4(a)-10m, Q1(d)-05m, Q1(b)-05m Q6 (b)-8m Q1 (e)-8m
Q7(c)-05m, Q3(c)-08m, Q5(a)-10m, Q3(b)-04m, Q2(a)-10m Q1 (a)-5m Q-3(c)-6M
Q7(b)-04m, Q5(b)-06m, Q2(b)-03m Q-6(d)-5M
Q5(c)-04m, Q5(b)-05m Q1 (a)-5m
Q6(a)(i)-04m Q2 (a)-8m
Q6(a)(ii)-04m Q6 (a)(ii)-4m
Q6(c)-07m
4 Q1(c)-08m, Q1(b)-05m, Q1(b)-05m, Q1(c)-05m, Q3(a)-08m Q6(c)-06m Q-6(c)-4M

Q5(a)-10m, Q5(a)-10m, Q2(b)-06m, Q3(a)-10m, Q3(b)-08m Q5(c)-04m Q-3(a)-10M
Q5(b)-10m, Q5(b)-10m, Q2(c)-04m, Q4(a)-10m, Q6(a)(ii)-04m Q-2(b)-08M
Q7(b)-04m, Q3(a)-12m, Q4(b)-06m,
Q1(b)-05m, Q5(a)-08m,
Q6(c)-04m,
Q7(b)-06m
5 Q1(b)-06m, Q1(d)-10m, Q1(c)-05m, Q1(e)-05m, Q1(e)-05m Q1 (e)-5m Q1 (a)-5m

Q4(a)-10m, Q3(a)-04m, Q1(e)-05m, Q4(c)-04m, Q4(a)-04m Q-4(C)-4M Q4 (b)-8m
Q4(b)-10m, Q3(b)-08m, Q3(b)-08m, Q6(a)-10m, Q4(b)-06m Q-4(a)-8M
Q7(a)-05m, Q6(b)-10m, Q4(c)-04m, Q5(c)-05m Q4(b)-8m
Q7(d)-04m, Q7(c)-04m,
6 Q6(a)-10m, Q1(c)-05m, Q1(a)-05m, Q1(c)-05m, Q1(a)-05m

Q6(b)-10m, Q2(b)-10m, Q2(a)-10m, Q2(a)-10m, Q1(C)-05m Q-6(a) (i)-4M Q-1(d)-5M
Q7(d)-05m, Q6(a)-10m, Q4(b)-06m, Q3(c)-06m, Q4(c)-10m Q-5(c)-4M Q-6(b)-6M
Q6(c)-04m, Q5(a)-10m Q-5(a)-8M Q-4(a)-08M
Q6(b)-05m Q-5(b)-8M Q-5(b)-08M
: 50/-
Quality Solutions HT Module 1 Paper solution. www.qualitytutorial.in
Module 1
Theory
Q1. State Fourier’s Law of heat conduction. Why is the negative sign used?
Ans.: Fourier gave a physical law for heat transfer by conduction. [D-03-Q-1(a)-3M]
According to which the rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the direction of heat flow
and to the temperature gradient in that direction.
For one-dimensional or unidirectional heat conduction.
��
��−�
��
�
� = −�� ---------------------------(i)
Where Q is the rate of heat conducted in Watts.

A is the surface area is m2.
The constant of proportionality, k in Equation (i) is called the coefficient of thermal conductivity (W/m K), which is a
physical property of the substance and is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat.
The negative sign is used because heat flows from a high to a low temperature and the slope dT/dx is negative as shown
in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Sign convention for conduction heat flow.

Q2. What are the parameters on which thermal conductivity is depending? What is meant by homogeneous of
material?
[M-13-Q1 (a)-5M]
Ans: Thermal conductivity (K), a property of material.
Thermal Conductivity defined as the amount of heat transfer per unit time, across unit area through unit thickness when
the unit temperature difference is maintained.
Its unit is W/m0C or W/mk.
Thermal conductivity, essentially depends upon the:
i. material structure:Crystalline or amorphous,
ii. Density of material
iii. Moisture content
iv. Pressure and temperature of operation.
Thermal conductivity of materials varies over a wide range, by about 4 to 5 orders of magnitude.
A homogenous material is a material that consists of uniform composition throughout. It is a material that is
characterized by its inability to be separated mechanically into different materials.
A characteristic of homogenous material is that it is made up of only one compound or element. There are several
types of common homogenous materials, which include some types of ceramics, metals, plastics, alloys, paper,
boards, resins or coatings.
1
Q3. Define thermal conductivity. How thermal conductivity is varied with temperature?
D-15-Q2 (C)-5m
Thermal conductivity of the metal decreases with the increase in temperature.
Thermal conductivity of the metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature and mean free path of the
molecules. The mean free path decreases with the increase in temperature so that the thermal conductivity decreases with
the temperature. It should be noted that it is true for the pure metal, and the presence of impurity in the metal may reverse
the trend. It is usually possible to represent the thermal conductivity of a metal by a linear relation k = ko(1 + bT), where
ko is the thermal conductivity of the metal at 0oC, T is the absolute temperature, and b is a constant.
Q4.Why are the metals good thermal conductors while non-metals are poor conductors of heat?
Ans: Thermal energy may be conducted in solids by two modes; lattice vibrations and transport by free electrons. In
metals a large number of free electrons transport' thermal energy from a high temperature region to a low temperature
region Energy is also transported due to lattice vibrations. But this mode of heat transfer is negligible compared to energy
transport by free electrons.
In non metals conduction is solely due to lattice vibrations. As the temperature increases, the particle vibrates with high
frequency resulting in collisions. These collisions are responsible for heat flow. As heat flow in non metals is only due to
lattice vibrations, they are poor conductors of heat.
Q5. Explain physical significance of Thermal Diffusivity.

[D-14-Q-1(a)-5M] [M-15-Q(1)(d)-5m]
Ans:It is defined as ratio of thermal conductivity of body to its heat storage capacity..
�
�=
�. ��
Where, � = thermal conductivity of material, (w/m0C)
� = Density, kg/m3
�� = Specific heat at constant pressure, J/(kg0C)
�2
Unit of thermal diffusivity: �
Physical significance:
 Thermal conductivity (K) of a material is a transport property and denotes its ability to conduct heat; higher the
value of k, better the ability of material to conduct heat.
 The product �. �� is known as volumetric heat capacity, and denotes the ability of the material to store heat.
Higher the value of �. �� ,larger the heat storage capacity.
 Therefore, thermal diffusivity, gives the relative ability of material to conduct heat as compared to its ability to
store heat.
 Larger the value of � , faster the propagation of heat into the material. i.e. � represents the ability of the material
to respond o changes in thermal environment; larger the value of �, quicker the material will come into thermal
equilibrium with its surroundings.
2
Module 2
Q6.Discuss ‘Electrical analogy’ of combined heat conduction and convection in a composite wall.
M-16-Q1(c)-5m
Ans:
It is frequently convient to compare the heat conduction process with the flow of electricity and speak of a quantity
analogous to electrical resistance called thermal resistance.
Corresponding to the current i and the potential difference ∆ � in an electrical circuit the analogous quantities in a
thermal circuit are the heat flow rate q and the temperature difference � − � (note: � > � )
Consider a slab of thickness L and having thermal conductivity K.
Let h be the heat transfer coefficient on right face as shown in fig.
For conduction between point 1 and W,

� −� ∆� ∆� � �
= = = =
� � � � �
� �
For convection between point W and 2,

� −� ∆� ∆� � �
= = = =
� � � � �
� �
For combined conduction and convection:

∆� � −�
= =
� � � + �
Situation Driving force Flow Resistance

Electric Circuit Voltage, ∆� Current, I Electric resistance R =∆�/�
Thermal circuit Temp. difference, ∆� Heat flow rate, Q Thermal resistance, ∆�/�
3
Q7. Derive Fourier’s three dimensional differential equation in the Cartesian co-ordinates and hence deduce
expression for one dimensional steady sate heat conduction.
[D-14-Q-2(a)-10M]
Ans
Consider a small volume element in Cartesian co-ordinates
having small sides dx, dy and dz as shown in fig1.
Let, the temperature at left face is “T” and
is constant through-out surface.
The temperature gradient for small distance ∂� is ∂�/ ∂� in the direction “x”.
Let, the heat flow in “x” direction, heat flux for small time d� is
∂
� = −� A . ∂ . d� ………………………………………………………………………………………….(1)
Now, heat out flux is,

∂
� +∂ = � +∂ � . d� ……………………………………………………………………………(2)
heat stored within control volume when it flows in �-direction.

d� = � − � +∂
∂
d� = � − � − � . d�
∂�
∂
d� = − � . d� ………………………………………………………………………………………(3)
∂
Substituting Equation (i) in Equation (iii)

∂ ∂
d� = − −� A . ∂ . d� . d� A = d�. dz
∂
∂ ∂
d� = � .∂ d�. d�. dz. d� …………………………………………………………………………(4)
∂
Similarly, heat stored in control volume, when it flows in “�” direction.

∂ ∂
d� = � . d�. d�. dz. d� …………………………………………………………………………(5)
∂ ∂
A = d�. dz
Similarly, heat stored in control volume, when it flows in “z” direction.
∂ ∂
d� = � Z . ∂Z d�. d�. dz. d� …………………………………………………………………………(6)
∂Z
A Z = d�. d�
Let, internal heat generated per unit volume is � , then total internal heat � ,
� = � V. d�
� = � d�. d�. dz. . d� ……………………………………………………………………………………………(7)
Also, heat storage capacity of body is,
∂
= �C d�
∂
∂
= d�. d�. dz C
∂
d� ……………………………………………………………………………………..(8)
� = .V
4
For heat balance,

+ + + =
∂
d� + d� + d� + � = d�. d�. dz C d�
∂
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
[∂ � .∂ +∂ � .∂ +∂ � .∂ ] d�. d�. dz. . d� = d�. d�. dz C d�
∂
� = � = � = � ….(conductivity is constant in all direction or uniform thermal conductivity)

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
� [∂ +∂ +∂ + ]= C
∂
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+∂ +∂ + = C
∂ ∂
∂ � ∂ � ∂ � � ∂�
+ + + = ( )
∂� ∂� ∂z � α ∂�
� ∂�
∇ �+ = ( )
� α ∂�
If heat flow is steady state, temperature is not the function of time.
∂�
=
∂�
∂ � ∂ � ∂ � �
+ + + =
∂� ∂� ∂z �
∇ �+ = ……………… Poisson equation.
If there is no internal heat generation in control volume then, � =

∇ �= ………………Newton’s equation or Laplace equation.
If heat flows only in one-direction (Assuming “�” then,
∂ � ∂ �
and =
∂� ∂z
∂
= ……Known as Fourier’s one dimensional steady state heat flow equation without internal heat generation.
∂
Three dimensional conduction equation for constant thermal conductivity,

∂ � ∂ � ∂ � � ∂�
+ + + = ( )
∂� ∂� ∂z � α ∂�
Extra ;Assumptions:
i. Conduction of heat takes place under steady –state.
ii. The heat flow is uni-directional.
iii. The temperature gradient is constant and the temperature profile is linear.
iv. There is no internal heat generation.
v. The boundary surfaces are isothermal in character.
vi. The material is homogenous and isotropic (I.e. K = constant in all directions)
5
Q8. Derive the temperature profile equation for a cylindrical system from the general differential equation starting
the assumptions for one dimensional steady state heat transfer.
[D-14-Q-2(b)-10M-CBGS]
Ans:
Consider a long cylinder of length L, inside radius r, and outside radius r0. Inner and outer surfaces are at uniform
temperatures of � � and � respectively, see Fig. 1.
FIGURE 1 Heat transfer through a cylindrical shell

(a) Cylindrical system and the equivalent thermal circuit (b) Variation of temperature along the radius
Assumption
i. Steady state conduction
ii. One-dimensional conduction, in the r direction only
iii. Homogeneous, isotropic material with constant k
iv. No internal heat generation.
Now, this is a cylindrical system; so, it is logical that we start with the general differential equation for one
dimensional conduction, in cylindrical coordinates. So, we have,
∂ ∂� ∂ � ∂ � � ∂�
(� ) + + + = ( )
� ∂� ∂� � ∂∅ ∂z � α ∂�
In this case:
∂�/ ∂τ = , since it is steady state conduction
∂�/ ∂∅ = ∂�/ ∂z = , since it is one-dimensional conduction, in the r direction only.
= ,since there is no internal heat generation.
Therefore, the controlling differential equation for the cylindrical system, under the above mentioned stipulations,
becomes:
∂ ∂
∂
+ = …………………….(A)
∂
[Note : now, it is not partial derivative, since there is only one variable,r.]
We have to solve this differential equation to get the temperature distribution along r and then apply Fourier’s law to
calculate the heat flux at any position
Multiplying eqn.(A) by r , we get
∂ � ∂�
� +( )=
∂� ∂�
6
∂
i.e. �∂ =
integrating,
∂�
(� )=C
∂�
∂� C
��, ( ) = … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . B
∂� �
Integrating again,
� � = C �n � + C … … … … … … … … … … … . C
where, C1 and C2 are constants of integration.
Eq.( C ) gives the temperature distribution as a function of radius.
C1 and C2 are found out by applying the two B.C.'s:
i. a� � = � , � = �
ii. a� � = � , � = �
B. C. � ��e�, � = C �n � + C … … … … … … … … … … … . a
B. C. � ��e�, � = C �n � + C … … … … … … … … … … … . b
Subtracting Equation (b) from Equation (a):
� − � = C �n(� /� , )
� −� � −�
C = =
�n(� /� , ) �n � /�
And, from Equation (a)
� −�
C =� − � �n �
�n �
�ub��u��n� C and C �n E�. C , �e �e�

� −� � −�
� = � �n � + � − � �n �
�n � �n �
� −� �
�e. � =� + � �n (� ) … … … … … … … … … … D
�n �
Equation (D) is the desired equation for temperature distribution along the radius.
Note: Equation (D) can be written in non-dimensional form as follows:
� � −� �n(�/� , )
=
� −� �n � /�
7
Q9. Derive an expression of a temperature profile for infinite plane wall with uniform heat generation. Wall thickness is
“b m” and both surfaces are maintained at constant temperature t w °C. Heat generation in the wall is q W/m3. Thermal
conductivity of the wall material is k W/m °C.
[M-13-Q3 (a)-10M]
Ans:
Consider a plane slab of thickness b =2L as shown in Fig. a. Other dimensions of the slab are comparatively large so that
heat transfer may be considered as one-dimensional in the x-direction, as shown.
The slab has, a constant thermal conductivity k, and
, uniform internal heat generation rate of q g (W/m3). Both the sides of
the slab are maintained at the same, uniform temperature of T w. Then, it
is intuitively clear that maximum temperature will occur at the centre
line, since the heat has to flow from the centre outwards. Therefore, it is
advantageous to select the origin of the rectangular coordinate system
on the centre line, as shown.
Let us analyse this case for temperature distribution within the slab
and the heat-transfer to the sides.
Assumptions:
i. One-dimensional conduction, i.e. thickness L is small compared
FIGURE a to the dimensions in the y and z- directions.
Plane slab with internal heat generation—both ii. Steady state conduction, i.e. temperature at any point within the
slab does not change with time; of course, temperatures at different
sides at the same temperature
points within the slab will be different.
3
iii. Uniform internal heat generation rate, q g (W/m ).
iv. Material of the slab is homogeneous (i.e. constant density) and

isotropic (i.e. value of k is same in all directions).
We, know, Fourier’s one dimensional steady state heat flux flow equation in Cartesian co-ordinates per unit volume per
unit time is,
∂
∂
+ =
∂
=− …………………………………………………………………………………………..(A)
∂
Integrating Eq.(A)
∂ X
=− +C
∂
Integrating again,
�=− + C � + C …………………………………………………………………………….(B)
Two B.C.'s are required to solve this second order differential equation.
B.C.'s:
i. a t � = , � = � �� a , since temperature is maximum at the centre line.
ii. At � = +�, � = �
iii. At � = −�, � = �
Substituting BC. (i) in equation (B)

� = + +C
C = � …………………………………………………………………………(C)
Substituting BC. (iii) and Eq.(C) in equation (B)
� =− + C � + � ……………………………………………………..…..(D)
Substituting BC. (ii) in equation (B)
� =− − C � + � ………………………………………………..………..(E)
Subtracting Eq. (E) from Eq. (D)
C = , C =
8
Substituting values of C and C in Eq. (B)

�=− + � ………………………….(Required Answer)
a� � = � ab��e e�au��n ��,
� �
� =− +�
�
� �
� −� =
�
Above equation gives the maximum temperature difference within the slab.(L is the half-Thickness, and b = 2L.)
Q10. write short note on-

Critical radius and thickness of insulation. [D-14-Q-5(b)(3)-4M]]
Q11.Critical radius –with its applications. [M-13-Q7 (b)-7M]
Q12. Explain the critical thickness of insulation with its significance. [ [D-13-Q1 (e)-5M]
Critical radius of insulation:

Heat loss from an insulated pipe varies as radius of insulation.
Heat loss is minimum at critical radius. The thickness of insulation corresponding to critical radius of insulation is known
as critical insulation thickness. If we insulate beyond this point, heat loss rate increases.
Insulation is applied on metallic wires or pipes to reduce heat transfer to surrounding.

As the insulation thickness increases thermal resistance due to conduction also increases which causes the reduction in
heat flow rate, but at the same time the outer surface area of insulation which is responsible for convection heat transfer
also increases so the net effect of insulation is to increase the heat transfer instead of decrease.
These two opposing effects leads to an optimum insulation thickness.
As we increases the thickness of insulation the heat flow rate increases linearly and its value is maximum at particular
radius of insulation ( rC ).
Critical radius of insulation ( rC ) for a cylinder i.e. pipe
�
� =
�
If we increase insulation radius beyond critical radius then heat flow rate decreases as shown in fig.b.
At certain radius r the heat transfer through insulated pipe is exactly equal to heat transfer through bare pipe.
Radius of insulation is selected based on application(Significance:) as below-

1. In case of electric wire I ∝ Q.
Therefore we have apply critical radius of insulation (we required q = qmax)
2. In case of refrigeration pipe at entry to evaporator the heat transfer to surrounding should be a minimum as possible.
Therefore we have to apply insulation radius greater than r as shown in fig.
9
Q13. A pipe, 2 cm diameter ,at 400C is placed in (i)an air flow at 500C with h = 20 w/m2K or in (ii) water at 300C
with h = 70 w/m2k. Find the heat transfer per unit length of the pipe and comment on the results in both cases.
Ans:
[D-14-Q-1(c)-5M-CBGS]
For air at 500C:
Since we know that,
Heat transfer is given by,
� = �A ∆�
�= × × −
�=− �/�
For water at 300C
Heat transfer is given by,
� = �A ∆�
�= × × −
�=− �/�
Q14. Find the heat flux across a composite slab of width 0.25m and 0.15 m of conductivity 388 W/m-K and 250 W/
m-K respectively when its one surface is at 150°C and the other surface is at 40°C. Also find the temperature at the
joint of two materials of the slab.
Ans: [D-13-Q1 (a)-5M]
Given:
Figure with given data is as shown in fig.
� = . �, � = . �,
� = −�,
� = �/� − �
To find: (i) heat flux (ii) temperature at the joint of two materials of the slab.
Assumption : steady state heat transfer.
Analysis:
Heat transfer to composite wall by conduction is given by,
−
�= …………………………………………………………….(1)
e a o a
−
A��, � = …………………………………………………………(2)
e a
−
A��, � = …………………………………………………………(3)
e a
� −� � −� � −�
�= = =
� a a � a � a
� a a = � a + � a
� �
� a a = + un�� /�
� A � A
.
� a a = +
× ×
− − −
� a a = . × + × = . × �/�
From equation (1),
−
�= −
= . × �/�
. ×
10
Now putting value of � in Eq.(2),

−�
. × =
.
×
� = . °C
Q15. A rectangular slab (k = 10 w/m-k) of thickness 15 cm and inside temperature of 4000C is insulated by a
materials of thickness 10 cm ( K = 30 w/m-k). The ambient air is at 280C and the outside convective heat transfer
coefficient is 15 w/m2K. Determine the steady state heat transfer per init surface area and the temperature of
outside surface of the slab and the insulation.
(D-14-Q1 (a)-5M-CBGS)
Ans:
Given: Figure with given data is as shown in fig.
Referring to fig.
� = c� = . �
� = c� = . �, � = �/� − � ,
� = �/� − �
�a =15 w/m2K
Assumption : steady state heat transfer.
Analysis:
Heat transfer to composite wall by conduction is given by,
− a
�= ………………………………………………………(1)
e a o a
−
A��, � = ……………………………………………………(2)
e a
−
A��, � = ……………………………………………………(3)
e a
A��, � = �A � − �a ………………………………………………..(4)
� − �a � −� � −�
�= = = = �A � − �a
� a a � a � a
� a a = � a + � a + �
� a a = + + un�� /�
− −
× ×
� a a = + +
× × ×
−
� a a = . + . × + . = . �/�
From equation (1),

−
�= = . × �/�
.
Now putting value of � in Eq.(2),
−
. × = .
� = . °C
Now, putting value of � in Eq.(3) or Eq.(4) , we get, � = °C
11
Q16. The composite wall of a furnace is made up with 120 mm of fire clay [K= 0.25(1+0.0009 t)W/m°C] and 600
mm of red brick (k=0.8 W/m°C).The inside surface temperature is 1250 °C and the outside temperature is 40 °C.
Determine:
[M-14-Q4 (a)-10M]
i. The temperature at the layer interface and
2
ii. The heat loss for 1 m of surface wall.
Ans:
Refering to fig.
� = �� = . �
� = �� = . �
� = . [ + . �]
� = . �/�℃;
∆� = � − � a = − = ℃
To find: � �e��e�a�u�e a� �a�e� �n�e�face, � , �� ea� �� f�� f ��e fu�nace �a��,
Assumption: steady state heat transfer.
Analysis:
i. �e��e�a�u�e a� �a�e� �n�e�face, � :
A�e�a�e/�ean ��e��a� c�nduc�� f f��e c�a�,

+
� = . [ + . ]
� = . [ + . +� ]
��e��a� �e��ance �f ��e f��e c�a�,
.
� − = = [ + . ]×
=
. + . + . +
��a��, ��e��a� �e��ance �f �ed b��c�,

.
� − = =
. ×
= .
�ea� �� f�� f fu�nace �a��,

∆� ∆�
�= =
∑� � − +� −
= �
+ .
. + . +�
unde� ��ead� ��a�e c�nd��n� ��e �a�e a��un� �f �ea� f�� u�� eac� �a�e�.
��en c�n��de��n� �ea� f�� u�� e �ed b��c�, �e �a�e
� − � −
�= = ��
� − .
f�� e�ua��n � and �� , �e �b�a�n
−
=
+ . .
. + . +
12
b� ��n�, �e �e�
� = . ℃
��. �ea� ��, �:

�ea� �� f�� f ��e fu�nace �a��,
� − . −
�= = = . �
� − � −
Q17. An electric hot plate is maintained at a temperature of 3500C and is used to keep a solution boiling at 950C.
The solution is contained in a cast iron vessel of wall thickness 25 mm which is enameled inside to a thickness of 0.8
mm. The heat transfer coefficient for the boiling solution is 5.5 kw/m2K and thermal conductivities of cast iron and
enamel are 50 and 1.05 w/m2k respectively.Calculate 1) the overall heat transfer coefficient.2) the rate of the heat
transfer per unit area. [D-14-Q2 (b)-10M]
Ans:
Given:
�. ��e ��e�a�� ea� ��an�fe� c�eff�c�en� , �;
∆� .I ∆� a
= +
� � .I � a �
−
. . × −
= + −
= . × �
� . . ×
�= �/� �
��. ��e �a�e �f �ea� ��an�fe� �e� un�� a�ea, �
� = �A � a −�
= . × × − . = . × /
13
Q18. A standard cast iron pipe (inner diameter = 50mm and outer diameter = 55mm) is insulated with 85
% magnesium insulation ( K=0.02W/m0C). Temperature at the interface between the pipe and insulation
is 3000C. The allowable heat loss through the pipe is 600W/m length of pipe and for the safety, the
temperature of the outside surface of insulation must not exceed 1000C.
Determine minimum thickness of insulation required.
(D-15-Q2(b)-08M)
Given: �efe��n� �� f��u�e.
� = = �� = . �
� = = . �� = . �
� = �⁄� ℃
� = . �⁄� ℃
� = ℃
� = ℃
�ea� �� e� �e�e� �en�� f ��e {�⁄�} = �⁄�
To find: �� − ℎ�� −
Analysis:
F�� ead� − ��a�e �ea� f��,
π� � − � π� � − �
�= =
ℓn � ⁄� ℓn � ⁄�
� �
π � − π −
= =
ℓn . ⁄ . ℓn � ⁄ .
.
� = . �. = . ��, b� e�ua��n� ab��e e� .
��n��u� ��c�ne�� f �n��u��n = � − � = . − .
= .
Q19. A refrigeration suction line having outer diameter 30 mm is required to be thermally insulated. The
outside air film coefficient of heat transfer is 12 �/ �. The thermal conductivity of insulation is 0.3 w/mk.
i) Determine whether the insulation will be effective;
ii) Estimate the maximum value of thermal conductivity of insulating material to reduce heat transfer;
iii) Determine the thickness of cork insulation to reduce the heat transfer to 22 % if the thermal conductivity
of cork is 0.038 W/mk.
M-16-Q3(b)-06M
Given:
� = �� = . �
� = �⁄� �
� = . �⁄��
Objective: �� dec�ea�e �ea� − ��an�fe� �a�e
To find:
� ��e��e� ��e �n�u�a��n �� be effec��e
�� a��u� �a�ue �f ′�′ �� educe �ea� − ��an�fe�
�� c�ne�� f c�� n�u�a��n, �f � = . �⁄�� and � = . �
14
Analysis:
� .
� C��ca� �ad�u�, � = =
�
� = . �
� <� ,
��e ��en �n�u�a��n ��n� be effec��e
�. e. �� n� �e��e ��e �u��e �f �. �. �. �

�� F�� n�u�a��n �� be effec��e: � �
�
.
� . �⁄� ℃
� . �⁄� ℃
�ence, ��e �a��u� �a�ue �f � , �e can u�e �� educe �ea� ��an�fe� �� . �⁄� ℃
iii)
��nce n��n� �� en ab�u� �

ne��ec��n� �n��de c�nn�ec��e f�� = �ad�u� �f c�� − �n�u�a��n �a�e��
− �e��ance � = . �
� = . �⁄� ℃
� and � �� be �a�e
��e��a� c��cu�� e��a� c��cu��
� −�
� = ……… � −�
� = ………
� .A �
ℓn +
A = � .� �. � � � .A
A = � .�
15
Given: � = . �
� −� � −�
= .
�
π�. � ℓn +
� � .A � . π � .�
� −� � −�
= = .
�
ℓn � +
π× . ×� ×A × π � .�
� = . �= ��
��c�ne�� f c�� − �n�u�a��n = � − � = −
= ��
Q20. The inner and outer radii of a hollow cylinder are 50mm and 100mm respectively. The inside surface is
maintained at 300°C and the outer surface at 100°C. The thermal conductivity varies with the temperature over
this temperature range as k(T) =0.5 +0.5X10-3T, where T is in °C and k(T) is in W/m°C. Determine
(i) heat flow rate per meter length of cylinder
(ii) Temperature at mid thickness of the shell. [D-13-Q4 (b)-10m]
Given: Referring to figure.
� = c� = . �
� = c� = . �
�= �
� = ℃
� = ℃
� � = [ . + . × − �]
To find:
I. Heat flow rate per meter length of cylinder.
II. Temperature at mid thickness of the shell.
Assumption: steady state heat transfer.
Analysis:
−
� � =[ . + . × �]
−
��, � � = . [ + �]
c��a��n� �� = � [ + β�]
−
�e can ��e, � = .
℃
and β = /℃
�. �ea� ��an�fe� �a�e, �

F�� f�nd�n� � and ��en �
� +�
� = ℃ � = �ean �e��e�a�u�e
+
� = = ℃
��e�ef��e, � = � [ + β� ] � = �ean �e��e�a�u�e
−
� = . [ + ]= .
16
��e��a� �e��ance f�� c��nd��ca� �a��,

�
�n ℃
�
� = … … … … … … . . un��:
π� � �
�n . .
� = = . ℃/�
π� �
� −�
�= … … … … … … … … un��: �
�
−
�= = . �
.
��. �e��e�a�u�e a� ��d − ��c�ne�� f ��e��, �. e a� � = . �

From Fourier’s equation, we have
� = −� � . A
� = −� � . π �. �
� = −�� + β. � . π �. �
�e�a��n� ��e �a��u� and �n�e��a��n� f�� = �� = � and � = � �� = �

� � �, �
.
�∫ d� = − π� � ∫ + β� d�
.
∫ d� = − ∫ + β� d�
π o
β
�n =[ � −� (� − � )]
π o
β β
=[ � + � − �+ � ]
β β
� +�+{ �n − � + � }=
π o
− . . .
� +�+{ �n − + }=
π× . × .
�= .
17
Q21. An insulated heat pipe of 16 cm diameter is covered with 4 cm thick layer of insulation (k = 0.9 W/m °C) and
carries process steam. Determine the percentage change in the rate of heat loss if an extra 2 cm thick layer of
lagging (k = 1.25 W/m °C) is provided. Given that surrounding temperature remains constant and the outer
surface heat transfer coefficient for both the configurations is 12 W/m2 °C.
[M-13-Q2 (a)-10M]
Given: Figure with given data is as shown in figure.
FIGURE Example (a) Pipe with one

layer of lagging FIGURE Example (b) Pipe with two layer of lagging
Data:
� = . �
� := . �
� = . �
� = . = .
ℎ� =
�: = ��
Since this is a case of steady state, one-dimensional conduction with no internal heat generation, thermal resistance
concept is applicable.
To find: % change in heat loss.
Analysis:
In case (i): Thermal resistance is the sum of conduction resistance in lagging layer number 1 and convective resistance
over its surface. Conduction resistance of the pipe material and the convective resistance between steam and inner surface
of pipe are neglected, since no data is given. See Fig. Example. a.
In case (ii): Thermal resistance is the sum of conduction resistances in lagging layers number 1 and number 2 and the
convective resistance over the surface of lagging layer number 2.
Obviously, Rtotal for case (ii) is more than that for case (i); accordingly, heat transfer rate for the second case, Q2 is
less than that for first case, Q1
F�� ana�� O��′� �a�, �e ��e:
∆
� =
o
∆
and � =
o
��e�e ∆� �� e ��e�a�� e��e�a�u�e d�ffe�ence, ��c� �� e �a�e f�� b�� ca�e�.
��e�ef��e, � /� = � /� .
18
And, % c�an�e �n �ea� f�� a�e = (� – � ) × = [ − ]�
� � � :
�
�n
�
� = un��: ℃/�
. .� .�
� � � ��
� = . ℃/�
�
�n �
� = un��: ℃/�
. .� .�
� � � ��
� = . ℃/�
�a = un��: ℃/�
a .π. .
� � �
Q22. A slab of 12 cm thickness and generating heat uniformly at 106 W/m3 has thermal conductivity of 200
W/m°C. Both surfaces of the slab are maintained at 150°C. Determine i) the temperature, temperature gradients
and heat flow rate at planes 3 cm and 9 cm from one of the two planes, ii) maximum temperature and its location.
� : A figure with given data is as shown in figure.

�efe� �� f��.
��c�ne�� f ��ab, � = �� = . � [M-13-Q 3(b)-10M]
��e �a�e �f �ea� ��an�fe�,
� = . × �/�
��e��a� c�nduc�� f ��ab�,
�= �/�℃
��e �e��e�a�u�e �f eac� �u�face
� =� = � = ℃
��e�e � = �e��e�a�u�e �f ��e �a�� u�face
To find:
��e �e��e�a�u�e a� ��e ��d and �ua��e� ��ane�:
Analysis:
��e �e��e�a�u�e a� ��e ��d and �ua��e� ��ane�:

��e �e��e�a�u�e d��bu��n �� e b�:
�= �−� �+�
�
A� ��d ��ane: � =
. × � �
� = (� − ) × +
×
. × . .
��. � = ( . − )× + = . ℃ An�.
×
A� �ua��e� ��ane� � = �/ and � = �/
. ×
� L
=
= �− × +
×
19
. × . .
��. � = ( . − )× + = ℃ An�.
×
. × � �
��a��, � = (� − )× + = ℃ An�.
= ×
�� e �ea� f�� a�e and �e��e�a�u�e ��ad�en�� a� ��e ��d and �ua��e� ��ane�:
F�� un�� a�ea, �. e. �
�ea� f�� = / =� ×A×�
= × × × . / = �⁄� An�.
� = / = . × × × . / = �⁄� An�.
d� d� �
�e��e�a�u�e ��ad�en�� = �A �� =
d� d� �A
℃
=− ×
=− . An�.
= /
=− ×
=− . ℃/� An�.
= /
20
Module 3
Extended surface (M-13-Q7 (C)-6M)
Q24. what is Fin? What are the various types of fins? [M-15-Q1 (b)-5m]
Q25. Why extended fins are used? [M-16-Q6 (a)(ii)-4m]
Ans: a fin is a surface that extends from an object to increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the environment by
increasing convection.
� � � � � −
a. uniform�straight�fins
b. tapered�straight�fins.
c. �ins�fins.
d. �nnular�fins.
e. Disc�fins.
f. �pline�type�fins.
:
Fins are most commonly used in heat exchanging devices such as radiators in cars, computer CPU heat-sinks, and heat
exchangers in power plants.
They are also used in newer technology such as hydrogen fuel cells.
21
Q26.Derive expression for temperature distribution and heat dissipation in a straight fin of rectangular profile for
infinitely long fin.
M-16-Q2 (a)-8m
�he�various�assumptions�made�to�analyses�the�fins�are:
a. �teady�state�heat�conduction�is�along�uni − direction�only.
b. �o�heat�generation�within�fin.
c. �niform�heat�transfer�coefficient�over�the�entire�surface�of�the�fin.
d. �omogeneous�and�isotropic�material.
e. �egligible�contact�resistance�between�fins�and�base�material.
f. �egligible�radiation.
Diagram
Image source: RK Rajput heat and mass transfer
Consider rectangular fin as shown in figure of length “L” and temperature of the surface over which the fins is attached is
“� ” and ambient temperature is “�a ”
Consider an elemental layer at a distance of “x” having thickness “ ∂x”.
The temperature at the start of elemental layer is “�”, while temperature at a distance of ′x + ∂x′ is � + ∂x
Heat influx through elemental area due to conduction ,
� = −�� ∂x ……………………………………………………………………………………(1)
Heat out-flux through elemental area due to conduction ,
� + = −�� + ∂x ……………………………………………………………………………………(2)
Heat loss from elemental due to convection,

� = h. � . � − �a ……………………………………………………………………………………(3)
Now, balancing heat transfer through fins,
� =� + +�
−�. � ∂x = −�. � . �+ ∂x + h. � . � − �a �� = �. ∂x,��where�� = perimeter.
−�� ∂x = −�� − �� ∂x + h. �. ∂x � − �a � �� . ∂x = �rea�for�convection �
�� ∂x = h. �. ∂x � − �a � ��
P
= � − �a �
c
P
Assuming, =m
c
22
= m � � − �a � ………………………………………………………………………………………………..(4)
Let � = − �
θ
=
θ
=
eqaution� �will�becomes,
θ
− m θ …………………………………………………………………………………………………….(5)
Equation (5) is second order homogeneous differential equation, solution for which is given by,
C e + C e− = �θ ………………………………………………………………………………..(6)
Where C �and C are constant can be determined by boundary condition as below,
i. at�x = ∞, � = �a ��i. e� = �a − �a =
ii. at�x = �� = � ��i. e�θ = � − �a �
Substituting conditions (i) in equation (6)

C e∞ + C e−∞ = �
Note : e−∞ = , but�e∞ ≠
C = …………………………………….. (a)
Substituting conditions (ii) in equation (6)
C + C = � � − �a �
C = � � − �a � ………………………………………………………………….. (b)
Substituting equation (a) & (b) in (7), we get,
�e∞ + � − �a �e− = �θ
� − �a �e− = � � − �a �
−
�� = + − ……………………………………………………………(7)
Equation number (7) is called temperature distribution equation.
Now, the heat transfer equation through fin is given by
θ∕ = = −�. �
∕
−
θ∕ = = −�. � {�a + � − �a [ �]}
−
θ∕ = = −�. � {−m � − �a [ �]}
P
θ = �. � √ . � − �a
. c
� =√ � . . −
23
Q27.Derive the relation for heat transfer through fin with insulated tip. State the assumptions clearly.
Ans:
�he�various�assumptions�made�to�analyses�the�fins�are: [M-15-Q2(a)-10m]
g. �teady�state�heat�conduction�is�along�uni − direction�only.
h. �o�heat�generation�within�fin.
i. �niform�heat�transfer�coefficient�over�the�entire�surface�of�the�fin.
j. �omogeneous�and�isotropic�material.
k. �egligible�contact�resistance�between�fins�and�base�material.
l. �egligible�radiation.
Diagram
Image source: RK Rajput heat and mass transfer
Consider rectangular fin as shown in figure of length “L” and temperature of the surface over which the fins is attached is
“� ” and ambient temperature is “�a ”
Consider an elemental layer at a distance of “x” having thickness “ ∂x”.
The temperature at the start of elemental layer is “�”, while temperature at a distance of ′x + ∂x′ is � + ∂x
Heat influx through elemental area due to conduction ,
� = −�� ∂x ……………………………………………………………………………………(1)
Heat out-flux through elemental area due to conduction ,
� + = −�� + ∂x ……………………………………………………………………………………(2)
Heat loss from elemental due to convection,

� = h. � . � − �a ……………………………………………………………………………………(3)
Now, balancing heat transfer through fins,
� =� + +�
−�. � ∂x = −�. � . �+ ∂x + h. � . � − �a �� = �. ∂x,��where�� = perimeter.
−�� ∂x = −�� − �� ∂x + h. �. ∂x � − �a � �� . ∂x = �rea�for�convection �
�� ∂x = h. �. ∂x � − �a � ��
P
= � − �a �
c
P
Assuming, =m
c
= m � � − �a � ………………………………………………………………………………………………..(4)
24
Let θ = � − �a �
θ
=
θ
=
eqaution� �will�becomes,
θ
− m θ …………………………………………………………………………………………………….(5)
Equation (5) is second order homogeneous differential equation, solution for which is given by,
C e + C e− = �θ
Where C �and C are constant can be determined by boundary condition as below,
iii. at�x = , � = � ��i. e�θ = � − �a �
θ
iv. at�x = l,�� = �� = tip�insulated, =
Substituting conditions (i) in equation (6)

C + C = � θ ………………………………………………………………..(7)
Substituting conditions (ii) in equation (6)
θ
= mC e − mC e−
= mC e − mC e−
−
C = …………………………………………………………………..(8)
Substituting equation (8) in (7)
−
+C =θ
θ ��
C =
�+ −
Substituting C in equation (7)

θ �� −
C =
�+ −
Substituting values of C and C in equation(6)

θ �� − θ ��
�e + � e− = �θ
�+ − �+ −
�� − −x �� − −x
θ=θ [ + ]
�+ − �+ −
�� − −x +�� − −x �+ −
θ=θ [ �+ −
] cosh ml = �
{ − }
θ=θ [ ]
{ − }
� − �a �� = � − �a [ ]
{ − }
�� = + − [ ]
…………………… temperature�distribution�eqaution
25
Now, the heat transfer equation through fin is given by
θ∕ = = −�. �
∕=
{ − }
θ∕ = = �. � {�a + � − �a [ ]}
{ − }
θ∕ = = �. � {−m � − �a [ ]}
P
θ∕ = = �. � √ . � − �a tanh ml
. c
�∕ = =√ � . . −
Q28. Write the second boundary condition for finite fin with insulated end, and fin of infinite length.
Ans:
Where � �and � are constant can be determined by boundary condition as below, [D-14-Q-1(b)-5M]
I. at�x = ∞, � = �∞ = �a ��i. e� = �
II. at�x = �, � = � � �� = � − �a �
Q29. Develop an expression for the efficiency of a fin of uniform cross section when heat loss from the fin tip is
considered negligible.
[M-14-Q-5(b)-6M]
Q30. Define Fin efficiency and Fin effectiveness. Explain in brief factors affecting fin effectiveness.
(D-14-Q-1(d)-5M-CBGS)
Q31. Define effectiveness and efficiency of fins.
Ans: [D-13-Q-7(b)-4M]
It is defined as ratio of actual heat transfer from fin to heat that would be dissipated, if whole surface of fin is maintained
at bare temperature.
According to definition,
i. efficiency for the fin of infinite length is given as below
√ P . c. S− a �
=
S. S− a �
√h��. � .
=
h� .
ii. efficiency for the fin with finite length & tip insulated (i.e. heat loss from the fins is negligible) is given as
below
√h��. � . � − �a tanh ml ��
=
h� . � − �a �
√h��. � . tanh ml ��
=
h� .
26
Effectiveness of fin �
It is the ratio of actual heat transfers that taken place from fin to the heat that would be despite from same surface area
without fin.
By above definition,
i. efficiency for the fin of infinite length is given as below
√h��. � . � − �a �
ϵ =
h� . � − �a �
�� = ��
�. �
ϵ =√
h�
ii. efficiency for the fin with finite length & tip insulated is given as below
√ P . c. S− a a ��
ϵ =
S. S− a �
�. �
ϵ =√ tanh ml
h�
�� = ��
We can draw several important conclusions from the fin effectiveness relation above for consideration in the design and
selection of the fins
• The thermal conductivity k of the fin material should be as high as possible. Thus it is no coincidence that fins are made
from metals, with copper, aluminum, and iron being the most common ones. Perhaps the most widely used fins are made
of aluminum because of its low cost and weight and its resistance to corrosion.
• The ratio of the perimeter to the cross sectional area of the fin P/Ac should be as high as possible. This criterion is
satisfied by thin plate fins or slender pin fins.
Q32. Two pin fins are identical except that the diameter of one is twice of other. For which fin will (i) Fin
effectiveness (ii) Fin efficiency be higher?
D-15-Q1 (a)-5m
Ans:
The thicker fin will have higher efficiency and thinner will have higher effectiveness.
Use formula of Efficiency and Effectiveness to justify your answer.
27
Q33. Explain the term “Time Constant” of thermocouple. [ [M-15-Q2(b)-03m].

Q34. Explain the significance of “Time constant” related to transient heat conduction.
(D-14-Q-1(d)-5M)
Ans
Response time of a temperature measuring instrument:
The measurement of temperature by a thermocouple or a mercury thermometer is an important application of the lumped
heat capacity analysis. A temperature measuring instrument (exposed to a source) should attain the temperature of the
source as early as possible. The response time of a temperature measuring instrument is the time taken by it to reach the
source temperature.
The time constant of a thermocouple (temperature measuring instrument) is defined as:
� = �pCpV/h�
− a /τ
−
= e
a
when�t = τ, we�have
− a
= e− = .
− a
Hence, the temperature difference between the body and the source � − �a would be 36.8 percent of the initial
temperature difference � − �a at the end of a time period equal to x. In other words, the temperature difference is
reduced by 63.2 percent
The lower the value of x, the better the response of the thermocouple.
For all practical purpose, a reading of the thermocouple should be taken when time lapsed is equal to 4x.
Sensitivity of a thermocouple is the time required to reach 63.2 percent of the initial temperature difference. The time
constant of the thermocouples used in practice lies between 0.04 to 2.5 s.
Or in short,
Time constant is defined as the time required to make the exponent term unity in temperature distribution equation for the
lump mass parameter analysis.
It means – �i. �o =
− s
=
V P
Q35. what is lumped system analysis? When is it applicable?

(D-14-Q-3(b)-5M-CBGS)
(M-16-Q-6(d)-5M-CBGS)
Ans:
An analysis, where the internal resistance of the body for the heat conduction is negligible and the whole body may be
treated as a lump as far as temperature increase decrease is concerned, is known as lumped mass analysis.
Criteria for Lumped system analysis:
.
�i = C � < � .
It means, if the conduction resistance of the body is less than 10% of the convective resistance at its surface, the
temperature distribution within the body will be uniform within an error of 5%, during transient conditions.
Q36. In what medium is the lumped system analysis more likely to be applicable water or in air? Why?
[D-04-02m]
Ans;
In lumped system analysis of unsteady problem internal resistance to heat flow is considered negligible.
It happens when Biot number (Bi), which is the ratio of convection at the surface to the conduction within the body, is as
small as possible.
Therefore, small bodies with high thermal conductivity are placed in a medium which is poor conductor of heat, such
as air or gas are good candidates for lumped system analysis.
28
Q37.What are Fourier and Biot numbers? What is the physical significance of these numbers?
Ans: (D-14-Q-6(b)-8M)
. C (M-16-Q-3(c)-6M-CBGS)
i. The non-dimensional factor�� is called the Biot member ′�i′
.
i. e.��i = �� C�
It gives an indication of the ratio of internal {conduction) resistance to surface (convection) resistance. When the value of
‘�i’ is small, it indicates that the system has a small internal (conduction) resistance, i.e.. relatively small temperature
gradient or the existence of practically uniform temperature within the system.
The convective resistance then predominates and the transient phenomenon is controlled by the convective heat
exchange.
If �i� < . , the lumped heat capacity approach can he used to advantage with simple shapes such as plates, cylinders,
spheres and cubes. The error associated is around 5%.
α
ii. The non-dimensional factor�� is called the Fourier number ′�o′
C
α
i. e.��o =
C
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through a solid.
Q38. for Transient heat transfer heat conduction, with negligible internal resistance with usual notations show that
�
= − .�
� (M-14-Q-5(a)-10M)
Ans:
Consider a hot metal ingot taken out from the furnace and immersed immediately in quenching bath having temperature
"� ".
Let initial temperature of lump mass is "�� ".
Let,
�eat�transfer�rate�of�lump�mass = heat�interaction�due�to�convection.
d�
−mCP = h. �. � − �a ��….��− ve�sign�for�heat�loss.
dt
d� m
− . V. CP = h. �. � − �a ��note:�� = �� m = . V.
dt v
h�
∫ d� = − ∫ dt
� − �a . V. CP
h�
ln � − �a = − t� + � C �� … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
. V. CP
condition�at�t = , � = �
h�
ln � − �a = − × � + � C �� … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
. V. CP
� C � = ln � − �a
substituting��eqaution� �in�eqaution� ��
ln � − �a = − + �ln � − �a
.V. P
� − �a . .
−
= e .V. P
� − �a
converting�exponent�into�non − dimensional�terms,
h� h. � � �
=( )× × .t
. V. CP �. � . CP V
h� h. � αt
=( )×
. V. CP �. �
29
h�
= �i × �o
. V. CP
where,��
h. �
�i = �� = �iot�number
�
αt
�o = = �ourier�number
�
volume�of�lump�mass
� = characteristic�lenght. = �
surface�area
� − �a
= e− .
� − �a
θ
= e− . ��
where, = � − �a , and� = � − �a
θi
Q39.Explain Heisler charts.

[M-14-Q-5(c)-4M]
Ans:
We know, temperature variation w.r.t. time for bodies with negligible internal resistance (lumped bodies) is given by;
Using above equation, which is valid only if 0 < Bi < 0.1, temperature of the body at any instant “t ”can be calculated.
But, if Bi > 0.1, no correction is available for producing correct results. In such situation, we make use of Heisler’s
charts.
Heisler’s charts are set of two charts. They are used to provide a graphical analysis tool for the evaluation the central
temperature for transient heat conduction through an infinitely long plane wall thickness 2L, an infinitely long cylinder of
radius ‘r’ and a sphere of radius ‘r’.
Though the Heisler’s charts are faster and simpler alternative the exact solutions of these problems, there are some
limitation first, the body must be at uniform temperature initially. Additionally, the temperature of the surrounding and the
convective heat transfer coefficient must remain constant and uniform. Also, therefore no heat generation from the body
itself.
�� −��
For various values of 1/Bi, graph of vs ‘F0’ are plotted for different geometrical shapes like plate, cylindrical &
�� −��
sphere as shown below,
Where ;
Tc – temperature at the core or mid-plane of the body.
Ts - surrounding fliud temperature.
Ti -initial temperature at the core.
Lc - characteristic length
α – thermal diffusivity.
Using the above charts, history of temperature at the core or mid-plane can be found.
The temperature at any location other than the core can be determined by using correction charts as shown below;
30
Hence; for lumped bodies ( i.e. Bi > 0.1), wherein both conductive and convective resistance are of equal importance,
Heisler’s charts are extensively used.
Q40.A longitudinal copper fin ( k = 380 w/m-k) 600 mm long and 5 mm diameter is exposed to an air stream at
200C. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 20 w/m2K. If the fin base temperature is 1500C, determine the rate
of heat transfer and fin efficiency.
[D-14-Q4(b)-6m-CBGS][(M-13-Q2 (b)-10M]
Ans :
�iven:
Referring to figure.
k = 380 w/m-k
��ength�of�the�fin, � = �mm = . �m
�Diameter�of�the�fin, d = mm = . m
��he�fin�base�temperature, t = °C
�ir�steram�temperature, t a = °C�
�hermal�conductivity�of�fin�material, k = �/ m℃
�
Convective�heat�transfer�coefficient�h =
m ℃
To find:� i ��he�heat�transferred, �
ii ��he�efficiency�of�the�fin, :
Solution:
i ��he�heat�transferred, �:
�eglecting�the�heat�loss�from�the�end�surface, the�heat�transfer�from�the�fin�is�given�by�
= √h��. � . � − �a tanh ml … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .
where,
h�
m=√ �� = d, � = d
k. �
m= .
�� = √ × × . × . × − tanh . × . = . �
31
= . × = �⁄h or� . k�⁄h �ns.
ii ��he�efficiency�of�the�fin, :
tanh(ml)
�or�a�fin�which�is�insulated�at�the�tip�is�given�by =�
ml
tanh . × .
= . �or� . %
. × .
Q41. One end of a copper rod 15cm long and 0.6 cm in diameter is connected to a wall maintained at 300°C and
the other end protrudes into a room whose air temperature is 20°C. If tip of the rod is insulated, estimate heat loss
by the rod.
Take h= 28W/m2-K, k =370W/m-K. Also find the efficiency of heat transfer.
[D-13-Q-3(c)-8M]
Ans:
Given:
lenght�of�rod�, l = �cm = . m
Diameter�of�the�fin, d = . �cm = .
�in�base�temperature, t = ℃
�ir�stream�temp, t a = ℃
h = � �/m − �, k� = �/m − �.
to find:
i ��he�heat�transferred, �
ii ��he�efficiency�of�the�fin,
Solution:
i ��he�heat�transferred, �:
= √h��. � . � − �a tanh ml … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .
where,
h�
m=√ �� = d = . ��
k. �
−
�� = d = . × �m
m= .
�� = . ��
ii ��he�efficiency�of�the�fin, n :
tanh(ml)
�or�a�fin�which�is�insulated�at�the�tip�is�given�by =�
ml
tanh . × .
= . �or� . %��
. × .
32
Q42. Two long rods of same diameter, one made up of brass (k= 85 W/ m°C) and other made of copper (k=375
W/m°C) have one of their ends inserted into the furnace. Both of the rods are exposed to the same environment. Ac
a distance 105 mm away from the furnace end, the temperature of the brass rod is 120 °C. At what distance from
the furnace end the same temperature would be reached in the copper rod?
Ans: [M-14-Q-6(a)-10M]
�he�general�differential�equation�for�the�heat�flow�in�the�rod�is�given�by
θ
− m θ……………………………………………………………………………
�bove�equation�issecond�order�homogeneous�differential�equation
��solution�for�which�is�given�by,
C e + C e− = �θ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
�here�C �andC �are�constant�can�be�determined�by�boundary�condition�as�below,

i. at�x = ∞, � = �∞ = �a ��i. e�θ = �
ii. at�x = �, � = � � ��θ = � − �a �
�ubstituting�conditions� i �in�equation�
C e∞ + C e−∞ = �
C e∞ = �
e∞ �cannot�be�zero, � C =
�ubstituting�conditions� ii �in�equation�
C + C = � − �a
C = � − �a
Substituting values of C and C in equation(6)
e + � − �a e− = �θ
θ = � − �a e−
� − �a �� = � − �a e−
�� = �a + � − �a e− ………………………………………………………………………
�ow�using�equ. for�brass�rod, when�t� = ℃�at�x = �mm = . �m�, we�have��
− × .
= �a + � − �a e …………………………………………………………….
�ow�using�equ. for�copper�rod, when�t� = ℃�at�x = l, we�have��
− ×
= �a + � − �a e …………………………………………………………………..
equating�eq. and� , we�get,
− × . − ×
e =e
. m =m l
l= × . ………………………………………………………………………………………….
P P
�m = √ �and�m = √ �
cs cs
P P
=√ �/√ �=√ =√ = .
cs cs
now, putimg�the�value�of� �in�equ. , we�get,

= . × . = . =
33
Q43. An 8 cm diameter Orange, approximately spherical in sphere, undergoes ripening process and generates 5000
w/m3 of energy. If the external surface of the orange is at 6.50C. Calculate the temperature at the centre and also
find the heat flow from the outer surface.
Take K = 0.22 w/mk for the orange. Assume steady state heat transfer.
[D-14-Q5 (b)-6m-CBGS]
Ans:
Given:
Reffering to fig.
d = �cm = . �m
q = �
� = . ℃
k = . �w/m�k
to find: i. �emperature�at�the�centre�of�the�orange.
ii. �eat�flow
i. �emperature�at�the�centre�of�the�orange.
� a = � + g.�
−
� a = . + . ×
× .
� a = . �℃
ii. �eat�flow
� = q × .�
−
�= × . ×
�= . �watt
Q44. A hollow cylinder 60mm ID, 90mm OD has a heat generation rate of × ��/� . Inner surface is
maintained at 450°C and outer surface at 350°C. K of the material is 3 W/m-K.
(i) Determine location and value of maximum temperature
(ii) What is the temperature at mid thickness of the cylindrical shell?
(iii) Determine the fraction of heat generated going to the inner surface.
(D-13-Q4 (a)-6m-CBGS)
Note:
{Hollow cylinder of raius � ,�� with � and � specified. The boundary conditions are
i .��r = � , � = � � i .��r = � , � = � �
After somewhat long arithmetic work the equation that can be obtained is
r
q q ln
�
� −� = � −� +[ � −� + � − � ][ ]…………………… a
k k �
ln
�
r
q q ln
�
� −� = (� − r ) + [ � − � + � − � ][ ]…………………… b
k k �
ln �
The radius at which the maximum temperature occurs is obtained by differentiating the expression (a) and equating to
zero.
� q
�� a = [ � −� + � − � ]………………………….… c
� k
qln �
34
}
Solution:�� = . m,�� = . �m � = ℃ and � = ℃

The radius at which the maximum temperature
� q
�� a = [ � −� + � −� ]
� k
qln
�
× ×
� a = [ − + . − . ]
. ×
× ln .
� a = . .
� a = . m
And maximum temperature,
.
× × ln
� − = . − . +[ − + . − . ][ . ]
× × .
ln .
� = . ℃
� a = . ℃
Q45. A 3.2 mm stainless steel wire, 30 cm long has a voltage of 10 volt impressed on it. The outer surface
temperature of the wire is maintained at 930C. Calculate the centre temperature of the wire. Take resistivity � of
the wire as 70 x 10-8 ohm-m and thermal conductivity as 22.5 w/mk.
Ans: [D-14-Q5(c)-6m-CBGS]
Data:
d = . �m � = = . × − m � = . �m
ρ= × − Ωm k = . �w/ m℃ �� = ℃
�a = ℃
h= �w/ m ℃
E = �V�
π
�= d
Solution:
�esistance = ρ
�esistance = . �Ω
power�generated�due�to�current�flow, � = �, w
a
�= . × �w
q = . × �w/m
case� a : wire�surface�temperature�is�given;
�o�calculate�centre�temperature� i. e. maximum�temperature
�e�have,
� a = � + q .� .
.
� a = . ℃
case b : wire�submerged�in�a�fluid;
to�calculate�the�centre�temperature� i. e. maximum�temperature ;
g. g
� a = �a + + .�
. .
� a = . ℃
35
Q46. A solid copper sphere of 10 cm diameter (ρ= 8954 Kg/m3, CP =383 J/Kg K,K=386 W/mK), initially at a
uniform temperature Ti =2500 C, is suddenly immersed in a well –stirred fluid which is maintained at a uniform
temperature Ta =500 C. The heat transfer coefficient between the sphere and the fluid is h = 200W/m 2K.Determine
the temperature of the copper block at t = 5 min after the immersion.
M-16-Q1 (e)-8m
Given:
D= �cm = . �m
ρ= � kg⁄m
C = � �⁄kgk
k= � w⁄mk
t = ℃
ta = ℃
h= w⁄m k
� :��emperature�of�copper�block�after� �min.
Solution:
�o�apply�lump�capacitance�method,
� ≤ .
h. �
β =
k
� = characteristic�lenght�of�sphere�is,�
Volume V π�
� = =
surface �s π�
� . ⁄
= =
� = . �m
�iot�number, β
h. � × .
β = =
k
−
= . ×
β < . , hence�lump�capacitance�method, can�applied.
θ t − ta −h. � . t �
= =e �� =
θ t − ta ρ. V. C V �
t− −h × × t
=e
− ×�×C
t− − × × ×
=e
− .
× ×
t−
= .
t= . ℃
36
Q47. An Egg with mean diameter of 4 cm and initially at 200C is placed in a boiling water pan for 4 min and found
to be boiled to the consumers taste. For how long should a similar egg for same consumer be boiled when taken
from refrigerator at 50C? Take the following properties for egg: k = 10 W/mk, = , = � � =
. � � .
D-15-Q6 (b)-8m
Given: Lump theory analysis.
r = �cm = . �m
� = �℃
t = �min = �sec
Assumption: � = ℃, as�assuming�the�pressure�to�be�atmospheric
�roperties:�ρ = � kg⁄m , C = � k�⁄kgk , k = w⁄mk &�฀ = w⁄m k
To find: �oiling�time�for�egg�if�taken�at� ℃
Analysis:
Note: As in question it is given to use lump theory, so we can use it directly without checking for Biot number, if it is not
given, use β_i≤0.1
�et′� ′be�te�temperature�to�which�the�egg�should�be�boiled�to�satisfy�the�consumer ′s�taste.
i. e. after� °�sec, let�the�temperature�of�egg�be��.
�−� h. � . t
= e( )
� −� . V. C
−
where, V = r = . × m
−
�s = � = . × m
�−� × . × − ×
−{ }
=e × . × −5 ×
� −�
�− × . × − ×
−{ }
=e × . × −5 ×
−
�= ℃
Calculating, time�taken�by�a�similar�egg�a�same�consumer�is�boiled, where�its�initial�
temperature�is� ℃
. s.
�−� −{
δ.V. p
}
=e
� −�
. s.
− −{
δ.V. p
}
=e
℃−
− × . × − ×
−{ }
=e × . × −5 ×
−
t= . �sec
= . �min
37
0
Q48. A hot cylinder ingot of 60 mm diameter and 200 mm long is taken out from the furnace at 900 C and
0
dipped in water till its temperature falls to 500 C. Then it is directly exposed to air till temperature falls
to 1000C. Find the total time required for the ingot to reach the temperature from 900 to 1000C.
Take the following;
K of ingot = 50W/m0C, C of ingot = 200J/m0C, ρ of ingot = 800 Kg/m3,
h (water)w = 200W/m2 0C,h(air)a =20W/m2 0C,
Temperature of air or water =300C. [D-14-Q5 (a)-08M]
Ans:
�iven � = = mm = . m; � = mm�or� . m
To find: time required for the ingot to reach the temperature from 900 to 1000C.
Solution:
Checking for condition.
� ,
h� h V h � h � .
�= = ( )×( )= ( ) = ( )( ) = ( )( )= .
k k � k �� k
�s��, is�less�than� . , internal�thermal�resistance�can�be�neglected�and�lump�theory�can�be�used.
�he�total�time� t �can�be�calculate�by�calculating�t time�required�in�water and�t time�required�in�air
and�adding�such�that�t = t + t
� �urface�area�of�ingot = �� = × . × . = . m
V volume�if�ingot = � � = × . × . = . × m
a �he�temperature�variation�with�respect
�to�time�when�cooled�in�water�is�given�by� �ee��ig. a
t−t h�
= exp ( t )
t −t pV
h � × .
= = .
pV × . × ×
−
�� =e . t = .
− e t
�� . = .
e
.
or.��e = .
or,�� . t = .
.
.
or,��t = = . �s
.
b ��he�temperature�variation�with�respect�to�time�when�cooled�in�air�is�given�by� see��ig. b .
−a
−a
= exp. V s t
ha � × .
�here,�� = = .
pVC × . × ×
−
= e− . = .
− e
.
or, . t = . ��or��t = = . �s
.
��otal�time� t is�given�by
t=t +t = . + . = . �s�or� . �minutes. �ns.
38
Q49. A thermocouple junction is in the form of 8 mm diameter sphere. Properties of materials are Cp = 420
J/kg°C, p = 8000Kg/m3, k = 40 W/m°C and h = 40W/ m2°C.This junction is initially at 40 °C and inserted in a
stream of hot air at 300 °C. Find (i) Time constant of the thermocouple.(ii) The thermocouple is taken out from the
hot air after 10 seconds and kept in still air at 30°C. Assuming the heat transfer coefficient in air 10 W/m 2°C, find
the temperature attained by the junction 20 seconds after removing from hot air.
Ans: [D-13-Q-2(a)-10M]
� �g
�iven: � = = �mm, C= °C, = ,,k =
kg m
w w w
k= ℃, h = ℃, gas , h = ℃, air
m m m
i. Time constant of the thermocouple, τ∗

�V. C × � �
τ∗ = = =
h. � h× � h
× . ×
τ∗ = = �sec.
×
ii. The temperature attained by the junction, t
Given:�t = ℃; t a = ℃; τ = �sec.
The temperature variation with respect to time during heating (when dipped in gas steam) is given by
t − ta (− s τ)
=e V
t − ta
t− τ
− ∗ −
=e τ =e = .
−
�= + . − = . ℃
The temperature variation with respect to time during cooling (when exposed to air) is given by
t − ta (− s τ)
=e V
t − ta
τ
−a − ∗
=e τ
−a
� . ×
Where �∗ = = =
. ×
× . ×
τ∗ = = �sec
×
t− −
=e = .
. −
�= + . . −
�= . ℃
39
Q50. A steel ball 50 mm in diameter and 900 °C is placed in still atmosphere of 30 °C .Calculate the initial rate of
cooling of the ball in °C/min.
Take: p= 7800 kJ/kg °C(for steel); h= 30 W/m2 0C.
Neglect internal thermal resistance. [M-14-Q-7(a)-10M]
�olution
��iven � = = mm = . m; t = ℃; t a = ℃, � = kg/m
� = k�/�g℃; h = �/m ℃; �t = min = �s.
To find: the initial rate of cooling of the ball in °C/min.
�he�tempearture�variation�in�the�ball with�respect�to�time , neglecting�internal�thermal�resistance.

�is�given�by
t − ta h�
= exp [− t]
t −a �V
h� h× � h × ×
where,�� t= t= = = .
�V × � ×C � × . × ×
�ubstiuting�the�values�in�the�above�equation, we�get
t− .
=e = .
= .
− e
or,��t = + . = ℃
��ate�of�cooling = − = ℃/ min �ns
40
Module 4
Q51.Explain hydrodynamic and Thermal Boundary Layer. (D-14-Q-4(a)-5M)
Q52. Thermal boundary layer. (M-14-Q-1(b)-5M)
Q53.Explain velocity and thermal boundary layer thickness. [M-14-Q-7(b)-6M]
Q54. What do you understand by the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers? Illustrate with reference to
flow over a flat heated plate. (M-13-Q-1(c)-8M))
Ans: The hydrodynamic boundary layer over flat plate is shown in figure 1.
As shown in figure, the nature of hydrodynamic boundary layer in laminar, transition and turbulent layer is different.
Fig.1
The salient features:
 The thickness of boundary layer is variable along the direction of flow.
 It zero at leading edge of the plate and increase as the x direction increases from the leading edge is increased.
 Usually the boundary layer thickness δ is taken to be the distance from the plate surface to a point at which the
velocity is within 1 percent of the asymptotic limit i.e.u =0.99 U.
 The turbulent boundary layer does not extend to the solid surface. Underlying it, an extremely thin layer called
laminar sub layer, is formed where in flow is essentially of laminar character. Outside the boundary layer, the
main flow may be layer or turbulent.
 When a fluid flows past a heated or cold surface a temperature field is set up in the field next to surface. If the
plate surface is hotter than the fluid the temperature distribution will be as shown in fig. 2.
Fig.2
 This zone of or thin layer wherein the temperature field exits is called the thermal boundary layer.
 The temperature gradient results due to heat exchange between the plate and fluid.
 The thickness δ of thermal boundary layer is arbitrarily defined as the distance y from the plate surface at which,
s−
= .
s−
41
 The concept of thermal boundary layer is analogous to that of the hydrodynamic boundary layer, the parameters
affecting their growth are however different.
 The thermo-physical properties of the fluid affect the relative magnitude of δ and δ and the non dimensional
Prandtl number constitutes the govering parameter.
I. �hen �� = δ =δ
II. �hen �� > δ < δ
III. �hen �� < δ >�
Q55.Differentiate between free and forced convection. [M-14-Q-2(c)-6M]
No. Free convection forced convection

1 Natural(free) convection is a mechanism, or type Forced convection is a mechanism, or type of heat
of heat transport, in which the fluid motion is not transport in which fluid motion is generated by an
generated by any external source (like a pump, fan, external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.).
suction device, etc.) but only by density differences
in the fluid occurring due to temperature gradients
2 Rate of heat transfer is slow. Rate of heat transfer is fast.
3 Critical value of Rayleigh number decides whether Critical value of Reynolds number decides whether the
the flow is laminar or turbulent. flow is laminar or turbulent.
4 Velocity of fluid in boundary layer is less compared Velocity of fluid in boundary layer is more compared to
to forced convection. free convection.
5 This mechanism is found very commonly in This mechanism is found very commonly in everyday
everyday life like cooling of tea, melting of ice. life, including central heating, air conditioning, steam
turbines and in many other machines.
6 Mathematical relation, Mathematical relation,
�u = con�tant × �� × �� u = con�tant × �e × ��
Q56. Define the natural convection and state few practical examples of it. (M-16-Q2(c)-04m)
Ans:
Natural(free) convection is a mechanism, or type of heat transport, in which the fluid motion is not generated by any
external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.) but only by density differences in the fluid occurring due
to temperature gradients
Practical examples of natural convection:
a. Cooling of transformers, transmission lines and rectifiers.

b. Heating of houses by steam or electrical radiators.
c. Heat loss from steam pipe lines in power plants and heat gain in refrigerant pipe lines in air conditioning
applications.
d. Cooling of reactor core in nuclear power plants.
e. Cooling of electronic devices by finned heat sinks.
42
Q57. Significance of dimensionless numbers used in heat transfer by convection. (M-16-Q6(c)-06m)
Ans: There are three dimensionless numbers used in heat transfer by convection are as follows:
a) Reynolds number (Re)
b) Grashoff number (Gr)
c) Prandtl Number
Q58. Explain significance of (i) Reynolds Number(iii) Grashoff Number.

[D-13-Q-7(c)-4M]
Ans:
1. Reynolds number (Re):
It is defined as the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force.
�ne�tia fo�ce ρ � � ρ��
� = = = =
Vi�cou� fo�ce ��
 Reynolds number signifies the relative predominance of the inertia to the viscous force occurring in the
flow systems.
 The higher the value of Re the greater will be the relative contribution of inertia effect. The smaller the
value of Re, the greater will be the relative magnitude of the viscous stresses.
 Reynolds number is taken as an important criterion of kinematic and dynamic similarities in forced
convection heat transfer.
2. Grashoff number (Gr):
 Grashoff number is related with natural convection heat transfer.
 It is defined as the ratio of the product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of viscous force.
Thus,
�ne�tia fo�ce × Buo�anc� fo�ce ρ � � × ρβg. ∆t �
�� = =
Vi�cou� fo�ce ��
ρ βg ∆t �
�� =
 Grashoff number has role in free convection similar to that by Reynolds number in forced convection.
 Free convection is usually suppressed at sufficiently small Gr, begins at some critical value of Gr
depending upon the arrangement and then becomes more and more effective with increasing Gr.
Q59. Explain significance of (i) Reynolds Number(iii) Prandtl Number.

Ans: [D-15-Q-6(c)-4M]
3. Prandtl Number
�
 It is the ratio of kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity. �� =
�
 Kinematic viscosity indicates the impulse transport through molecular friction whereas thermal diffusivity
indicates the heat energy transport by conduction process.
 Prandtl number provides a measure of the relative effectiveness of the momentum and energy transport by
diffusions.
 Prandtl number is a connecting link between the velocity field and temperature field, and its value strongly
influences relative growth of velocity and thermal boundary layers.
43
Q60. Explain theorem for dimensional analysis.

Ans: [M-14-Q-2(b)-6M]
 In engineering, applied mathematics, and physics, the Buckingham π theorem is a key theorem in dimensional
analysis.
 It is a formalization of Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis.
The Buckingham's Jt-theorem states as follows:

"If there are n variables (dependent and independent variables) in a dimensionally homogeneous equation and if these
contain m fundamental dimensions (such as M. L, T. etc.), then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms.
These dimensionless terms are called π terms".
Mathematically, if any variable � , depends on independent variables, � , � , � … … … . � ; the functional equation may
be written as
� = f � ,� ,� ……….� ...(1)
Equation (1) can also be written as
f � ,� ,� ……….� = ...(2)
It is a dimensionally homogeneous equation and contains n variables.
If there are m fundamental dimensions, then according to Buckingham's π –theorem , eqn(2) can be written in terms of
number of π -tems (dimensionless groups) in which number of π -terms is equal to (n - m). Hence Eqn. (2) becomes as
f π ,π ,π ……….π − = ...(3)
Each dimensionless π -term is formed by combining m variables out of the total n variables with one of the remaining
n − m variables i.e. each π term contains (m + 1) variables. These m variables which appear repeatedly in each of π -
terms are consequently called repeating variables and are chosen from among the variables such that they together involve
all the fundamental dimensions and they themselves do not farm a dimensionless parameter.
Let in the above case � , � and � X, are the repeating variables if the fundamental dimensions m �, �, � = .Then
each term is written as
π =� .� .� .�
π =� .� .� .�
: ….(4)
:
π − =� − .� − .� − .�
Where a , b c ; a , b , c etc. are the constants, which are determined, by considering dimensional homogeneity.
These values are substituted in eqn.(4) and values of π , π , π , … … … π − are obtained.
These values of π′� are substituted in eqn.(2). The final general equation for the phenomenon may then by
obtained by expressing anyone of the π-terms as a function of the other as
π = ∅(π , π , π … … … . π − )
π = ∅(π , π , π … … … . π − ) (5)
44
Q61. With the help of Buckingham π-theorerm show that for a forced convection 8 Nu = C Rem Prn.
(D-14-Q-5(a)-08M-CBGS)
Q62. Using dimensional analysis, derive an expression for heat transfer coefficient in forced convection in terms of
Nusselt number, Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
(D-13-Q-5(b)-10M)
Q63. With the help of dimensional analysis method, prove that for convection:-
(D-14-Q-4(b)-8M)
Nu=constant x (Re)m x (Pr)n .
Q64. Using dimensional analysis, derive an expression for heat transfer coefficient in forced convection :
� =� � × �� × � [M-15-16-Q3 (a)-08m]
Ans
Step 1: Determination of dimensions of all variables
Variables Unit Dimensions
�luid Den�it� kg m�−

m
̅ Velocit�
V m �� −
�
�luid Vi�co�it� � − � kg. m � kg ��− � −
= =
m � m �. m
h heat t�an�fe� coefficient �att � − m a �� − θ−
= .
m k � m k
kg. m m
= .
� �. m . k
� the�mal Conducti�it� �att � − m a �� − θ−
= .
mk � mk
kg. m m
= .
� �. m. k
CP �pecific �eat � �m kg. m m � � − θ−
= = .
kg. k kg. k � kg. k
Step2: Number of Variables (m)

m=7
Step3: Number of basic dimension (n)
n=4
Step 4: Non-dimensional number that can be obtained.
=m−n= − =
Step 5: Selecting the reference variables as below:
, �, V ̅, �
� ’ ��
� m � θ =l � k
=� m�− � − �� − (m�� − θ− ) m�−
=� − + + − . m + + . � − − θ−
−d − = , → d =
b + d + = ,→ b =
−b − c − d = , → c =
a − b +c + d − = ,→ a =
�i��t non − dimen�ional numbe�
π =l V k ρ
45
−
= l k ρ
ρ
� = = Re
This number is known as Reynold’s Number
�
� m � θ =l � k h
=� m�− � − �� − (m�� − θ− ) �� − θ−
=� − + + m + + �− − − −
θ− −
−d − = → d = −
b+d+ = →b =
−b − c − d − = → c =
a−b+c+d→ a =
π =l V k ℎ
l V k− ℎ
−
�= → �u��elt �umbe�
� �
� m � θ =l � k CP
=� m� � − −
�� − (m�� − θ− ) � � − θ−
� − + + . m + . � − − − − θ− −
−d − = , d = −
b + d = → b =1
−b − c − d − = → c =
a−b+c+d− = → a =
�hi�d non dimen�ional numbe�
�hi�d non − dimen�ional numbe�
π = . .� . . CP
−
= l � k − CP
CP
� = → ��andtl numbe�
� � ��andtl �
�o� b� Buckingham� π theo�em

f π, π , π =
f (� , p . �e) =
� = .� �
�n the abo�e anal��i� " " i� the cha�acte�i�tic length and i� diffet�ent condition
46
Q65. Explain Reynolds’s Analogy. (M-16-Q5(c)-04m)
Reynolds analogy is popularly known to relate turbulent momentum and heat transfer.
The main assumption is that heat flux q/A in a turbulent system is analogous to momentum flux τ, which suggests that the
ratio τ/(q/A) must be constant for all radial positions.
The complete Reynolds analogy.
f h �′c
= =
Cp × � V
Experimental data for gas streams agree approximately with above equation if the Schmidt and Prandtl numbers are near
1.0 and only skin friction is present in flow past a flat plate or inside a pipe. When liquids are present and/or form drag is
present, the analogy is conventionally known to be invalid.
47
Q66. A vertical plate 2.2 m high and 1.4 m wide has been designed on free convection heating of a liquid. The
temperature of the plate surface is maintained at 960°C while the temperature of liquid is 340°C. Calculate the
heat dissipation from both sides of the plate. For convection coefficient, use the co-relation Nu = 0.13[Gr.Pr] 0.333
.The parameters of the liquid at 650°C are = 104 kg/m3; k = 13.02 W/m °C; Cp= 150.7 J/kg °C; µ = 3.12 kg/m h
Solution:
[M-13-Q-5(a)-10M]
Given:
Height of plate (h) = 2.2 m
Width of plate (w) = 1.4 m
� = ℃,� = ℃
Nu = 0.13[Gr.Pr] 0.333
To find: heat dissipation from both sides of the plate.
Properties:
+
the mean film tempe�atu�e, t = = ℃
the the�moph��ical p�ope�tie� a�e;

ρ= , = . kg/mh; CP = . ℃, k = . �/m℃
−
β= = . × /�
+
.CP . / × .
�� = = = .
.
.ρ . .β.∆ . ×( ) × −
�� = = . /
= . ×
��. �� = . × × . = . ×
. .
�u = = . ��. ��
.
o�, h = = . ��. ��
.
h= = . . × = �/m ℃
heat di��ipation f�om both �ide� of each plate,
� = . h. A . ∆t
� = .× × . × . × − = . × �
Q67. A furnace door, 1.5m high and 1m wide is insulated from inside and has an outer surface temperature of
700C. If the surrounding ambient air is at 300C calculate steady state heat loss from the door. Take the properties
from at film temperature 500C are = 1.093 kg-m3,
� = 17.95 x 10-6 m2/s, k = 0.02826 w/mk, Pr = 0.698 CP = 1.005 J/kg-k,
Use the correlation Nu = 0.13(Ra)1/3.
Ans: (D-14-Q-4(a)-10M-CBGS)
Given:
� =�= . m Note: Ra = Gr.Pr
Width w = 1 m.
� = ℃,� = ℃
To find: Heat transfer rate.

Solution:
/
� = . × �
/
� = . × � .� ……………………………………………………………(a)
�C . g. β. ∆t
� =
48
. × . × ×
� = −
. ×
� = . ×
� .� = . × × . = . × …………………………………………………..(b)
Put equation (b) in equation (a), we get,
/
� = . × . ×
� = .
. C
Also, � =
. C × .
. = =
.
h= . �/m �
� = h. A . ∆t
�= . × . × ×
�= . �
Q68. Air at 20°C is flowing over a flat plate which is 20 cm wide and 50cm long .The plate is maintained at
100°C.Find heat loss from the plate if air is flowing parallel to 50cm side with a velocity of 2m/s. What will be the
effect on heat transfer if the flow is parallel to 20cm side? Take the following properties of air at 60°C , � =18.97 X
10-6 m2/s, k=0.029W/m°C and Pr=0.7. Use Nux=0.664(Rex) 0.5 (Prx) 0.33
Solution: [M-14-Q-3(a)-12M]
�i�en
� = m/�
= . × − m /�
k= . �/m℃
� = .
heat lo�� pe� hou� f�om the plate, �;
− �. � ;
. / /
� = = . �e ��
. × . −
�he�e, �e = �
= . × −6
= . ×
/ /
h= × . �e ��
. − / /
h= × . . × . = . �/m ℃
.
� = h. A . t − t
�= . × . × . − = . �
− ��. � ;
. / /
� = = . �e ��
. × .
�he�e, �e = = = . ×
� . × −6
/ /
h= × . �e ��
. / /
h= × . . × . = . �/m ℃
.
� = h. A . t − t
�= . × . × . − = . �
49
Q69. A flat plate lm wide and 1.5 m long is to be maintained at 90°C in air with a free stream temperature of 10°C.
Determine the velocity with which the air must flow over flat plate along the 1.5 m side so that the rate of energy
dissipation from the plate is 3.75KW. Use the correlation (i) Nu = 0.664ReL1/2 Pr1/3(for Laminar flow)
(ii) Nu = (0.036 ReL08 - 836) Pr1/3 (for turbulent flow).
Properties of air at mean temperature ( 50°C ) are = 1.09Kg/m3, k = 0.028W/m°C, Cp=1.007KJ/Kg°C,
µ =2.03xl0-5Kg/m-s, Pr = 0.7.
Solution: (D-13-Q-5(a)-10M)
Given:
� = . m, B = m, t = ℃, t ∞ = ℃, � = . k�
+ −
at = ℃: = . ,k = . ℃, Cp = . ℃, = . × kg/m − �
Solution:
��ee �t�eam �elocit�, �:
� = h. A . t − t ∞ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … �
For laminar flow,
Nu = 0.664ReL1/2 Pr1/3
As
h. �
al�o, �u =
k
k / /
h= × . �e ��
�
.
h= × . �e ��
.
. �. � . × . ×�
�he�e, �e = =
. × −
. . × . ×�
h= × . ( ) . = . √�
. . × −
no� putting in e�n � ,
. × = . √� × . × −
. ×
√� = =
. × . ×
�= m/�
50
Q70. In a straight tube of 60 mm diameter, water is flowing at a velocity of 12 m/s. The tube surface temperature is
maintained at 70 ℃ and the flowing water is heated from the inlet temperature 15 ℃ to an outlet temperature of
45℃. Calculate the following;
I. The heat transfer coefficient from the tube surface the water,
II. The heat transferred and
III. The length of the tube.
Take the physical Properties of water at its mean temperature of 30°C are = 95.7 Kg/m3, k = 61.78 ×
−
W/m°C, Cp=4.174 KJ/Kg°C,
�= . × − / , Pr = 5.42
.
Nu = 0.023 �� 0.333 (for turbulent flow).
Given: [M-16-Q-2(b)-08M]
Figure with given data is as shown in fig (a)

D= mm = . m
̅=
V m⁄�
� = ℃
� = ℃
� = ℃
. .
� = . �e �� … tu�bulent − flo�
To find
� �eat − t�an�fe� coefficient f�om tube �u�face to �ate� hi
ii �eat − t�an�fe� (�̇).
iii �enght of tube ℓ .
Solution:
�� +�
The fluid mean bulk-temperature, � = = ℃
Thermo-physical properties of water at ℃

−
= . kg⁄m , Cp = . ��⁄kgk , k = . × �⁄mk
−
ϑ= . × m ⁄� , � = .
i �eat − t�an�fe� co efficient f�om tube �u�face to �ate� hi
̅D
V ̅. D
V × .
�e�nold� numbe�, �e = = = −
ϑ . ×
= . ×
�e > ,ℎ � � � tu�bulent
. .
� = . �e ��
hD . .
= . �e ��
k
� . .
h= × . �e ��
D
−
. × − . .
= × . × . × × .
.
h= . �⁄m ℃
51
ii �he �eat − t�an�fe��ed, �

�eat − t�an�fe��ed, � = m. Cp � − �
�̇ = × D × V
̅ × Cp � − �
= . × × . × × . × −
= �att
iii �he lenght of tube, �
�̇ = h. A � − �
= . × . D. � � − �
= . × × . ×� ×
�= . m
Q71. Air at 200 ℃ and at atmospheric pressure flows at a velocity of 2 m/s over a plate maintained at 1000 ℃. The
length and width of the plate are 800 mm and 400 mm respectively. Using exact solution; calculate the heat
transfer rate from.
i) First half of the plate ii) Full plate and iii) Next half of the plate.
Nu = 0.023 �� . � 0.333 Properties of air at 600°C are = 1.06 Kg/m3, k = 0.028W/m°C, Cp=1.007KJ/Kg°C,
�= . × − /
µ =7.211 Kg/m-h, Pr = 0.696 D-15-Q-3(a)-10M]
Ans:
Given:
� = ℃
̅=
V m⁄�
� = ℃
�= mm = . m
�= mm = . m
. .
� = . � .�
p�ope�tie� at ℃
−
ρ= . kg⁄m , = . kg⁄m. h = × kg⁄m − �
−
ϑ= . × m ⁄� , �� = . k= . �⁄m ℃
To find:
�eat − t�an�fe� �ate fo�
i �i��t − half of the plate, ii �ull − plate, iii �e�t half of plate
Solution:
i �eat − t�an�fe� �ate f�om the fi��t half of plate:
�o�, cha�acte�i�tic dimen�ion to calculate �e�old� numbe� id half the lenght of plate
= .
̅. �
ρ. V . × × .
�e = = =
.
�hi� �alue i� le�� than × , �o, the bounda�� la�e� i� lamina�
52
�e ha�e,
. .
� = . . �e . ��
. .
� = . . . .
� = .
h �
but, � = = .
k
h .
� = = .
.
h = . �⁄m ℃
�he�e fo�e a�e�age heat − t�an�fe� coefficient bet�een � = and � = . m
ha = h� = . �⁄m ℃
a�ea = � × � = . × . = . m
�eat − t�an�fe��ed f�om fi��t half of plate,
�̇ = h . A . � − �
= . × . −
= �att�
ii �eat − t�an�fe� �ate f�om the enti�e − plate
�o� the full − lenght, � = � = .
̅. �
ρ. V . × × .
�e = = =
× −
again lamina� flo�,
. .
� = . �e ��
. .
� = . .
� = .
h. �
but, � = = .
k
h× .
� = = .
.
h= . �⁄m ℃
A�e�age heat − t�an�fe� coefficient bet�een � = and � = . m
h = . h� = . �⁄m ℃
A�ea = � × � = . × . = . m
�eat − t�an�fe��ed fo� enti�e − plate,
� = h .A . � − �
= . × . −
= . �att
iii �eat − t�an�fe� �ate f�om neat half of plate,
This is equal to heat-transferred from from the entire plate minus the heat-transferred from the first-half of the plate
=� −� = . �att�
53
Module 5
Q72. What is the mode of heat transfer in Vacuum? Define absorptive, reflectivity and transmissivity.
Ans: (D-14-Q-1(e)-5M-CBGS) (D-15-Q-4(C)-4M-CBGS)
Radiation is only mode of heat transfer when no medium is present Thus radiation heat transfer occurs in vaccum.
When incident radiation (Q) also called irradiation [defined as the total incident radiation on a surface from all-directions
per unit time and per unit area of surface; expressed in w/m2 and denoted by (Q)] impinges on a surface, three things
happens; a part reflected back (Qr), a part is transmitted through (QT) and remainder is absorbed (Qa), depending upon the
characteristics of the body, as shown in fig.
Mathematically, Reflection + Transmission + Absorption = Incident radiation.
Q +Q +Q =Q
Dividing both sides by Q, we get,
Q Q Q Q
+ + =Q=
Q Q Q
α+ρ+ =
Where,
Q
α= �s t�e fract�on of �nc�dent rad�at�on absorbed and �s ca��ed t�e ref�ect�v�ty.
Q
Q
ρ= �s t�e fract�on of �nc�dent rad�at�on ref�ected and �s ca��ed t�e ref�ect�v�ty
Q
Q
= �s t�e fract�on of �nc�dent rad�at�on trans��tted and �s ca��ed t�e ref�ect�v�ty
Q
Module 5
Fig. : Absorption, reflection and transmission of radiation
Q73. What is a black body? How does it differ from a gray body?
Ans: [M-14-Q-1(e)-5M]
A black body is an object that absorbs all the radiant energy reaching its surface. No actual body is perfectly black;the
concept of a black body is an idealization with which the radiation characteristics of real bodies can be conveniently
compared.
Grey body is one whose absorptivity of a surface does not vary with temperature and wave-length of the incident.
54
Q74.Distinguish between Specular and diffuse radiation.

[D-14-Q-6(c)-6M]
No. Diffuse Specular

1.
2. The reflected radiation get uniformly The reflected radiation from this type of surface makes
distributed in all directions. the same angle as incident radiation.
Thus, Specular reflection gives a mirror image of the
incident ray.
3. A rough surface gives diffuse reflection. A smooth and highly polished surfaces approaches
specular reflection.
4. No real surface gives perfectly specular or diffuse reflections.
Q75. Define: Radiosity and Irradiation.

[M-13-Q-1(b)-4M]
Ans:
Radiosity is the total amount of energy emitted from a surface per unit time and per unit area.
It is denoted by the symbol J.
J/
Unit:
Irradiation is the total radiant energy received per unit time per unit area from all directions and wavelenghts.
It is denoted by the symbol G.
Unit:
Q76. State and prove Kirchhoff’s law of radiation. [D-14-Q-1(c)-5M]

Q77. State and explain Kirchoff's law.
[D-13-Q-7(d)-5M]
Ans:
It states that,” the ratio of total emissive power ‘E’ to the abosptivity ′α′ is same for all bodies at any given temperature, if
they are in thermal equilibrium with surroundings.
Consider a large, isothermal enclosure of surface temperature ‘TS’, within which several small bodies are confined as
shown in fig.
Since these bodies are small relative to the enclosure, they have a negligible influence on the radiation field, which is due
to the cumulative effect of emission and reflection by the enclosure surface.
We know that, regardless of its radiative properties, such a surface forms a black body cavity.
Accordingly, regardless of its orientation, the irradiation experienced by any body in the cavity is diffuse and eqaul to
emission from a black body at T
G = E T ……………………….. a
Under steady state conditions, the thermal equilibrium must exist between the bodies and the enclosure.
Hence, T = T = ⋯ … … … … … … T , and the net rate of energy transfer to each surface must be zero.
Applying an energy balance to a control surface about body 1, it follows that,
α GA − E T A =
55
And from equation (a)

E α
=E T
α
this result must apply to each of the confined bodies, we then obtain.
E T E T
= = ………….E T
α α
This relation is known as Kirchhoff’s law.
Q78. write short note on- [D-14-Q-5(2)-4M]

Shape Factor Algebra
[M-14-Q-1(c)-5M) (M-13-Q-7(a)-6M]
Q79.Shape factor and its properties.
[D-13-Q-3(a)-4M]
Q80. Define "shape factor" and explain its properties.
Ans:
Shape factor of one surface with respect to another is the fraction of the radiation leaving the surface which intercepted by
the other.
Or,
It is defined as a fraction of energy emitted by one surface and directly intercepted by the other surface.
It is also called as view factor, angle factor or configuration factor.
It is denoted by F − , which represents fraction of heat emitted by surface “a” that strikes surface “J”. Its value varies
from 0 to 1.
�. . ≤ F − ≤
Remarks or Properties of shape factor.
i. Reciprocal theorem,
When two bodies are exchanging radiant energy with each other, then shape factor relationship is given by:
A F − =A F −
In general, A F − = A F −
ii. Value of the shape depends only on geometrical orientation of two surfaces.
iii. When all radiation emanating from entirely convex surface 1 is intercepted by the enclosing surface 2, then the
shape factor of convex surface w.r.to enclosure F − is unity.
iv. If surface is flat or convex, the shape factor w. r. t itself is zero. i.e.
56
v. If two flat surfaces are parallel and infinite , all radiation emitted by one will fall on another, hence F 1-2 = F2-1 = 0.
vi. n surfaces make –up an enclosure, then
F − +F − +F − + … … … . +F − =
F − +F − +F − + … … … . +F − =
F − +F − +F − + … … … . +F − =
vii. Additive relation
If the two area A and A make up the area A .
F − ≠F − +F −
Q81. Explain shape factor and its properties. Find the shape factor of a cylindrical cavityof diameter D and depth
H w.r.t. itself.
Ans: [D-14-Q-4(c)-7M]
View factor of a general cavity w.r.t. itself;

From fig.1.(a).
We desire to find F . It is obvious from the fig. 1 that part of the radiation emitted by the cavity surface 1, falls on itself
and therefore, F exists.
Close the opening of the cavity by a hypothetical flat surface 2. Then, surface 1 and 2 together from an enclosure. We can
write;
For surface1; F + F = … … … … … … … … … … … [ a … . . by su��at�on ru�e]
For surface2; F + F = … … … … … … … … … … … [… . . by su��at�on ru�e]
But, F … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … [s�nce surface �s f�at and cannot see �tse�f]
Therefore, F =
Further, A . F = A . F … … … … … … … … … … … … [by rec�pr�ca� t�eore�]
A
i.e. F =A
Now, F = −F
A
i.e. F = − A … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . [eqn b ]
Eqn.(b) is gives the shape factor of any general cavity w.r.t. itself.
Now applying eq.(b) to cylindrical cavity of diameter D and depth H; refer fig(b)
A
We have; F = −A
57
i.e.
π. d
F = −
π. d
+ π. d. �
Note: A cons�ts of t�e area of botto� c�rcu�ar surfcae and t�e cy��ndr�ca� s�de surface
d
F = −
d + π. d. �
.�
F =
.� + d
Q82. Find the shape factor of a hemispherical hole of diameter 10 cm w.r.t. itself.
Ans:
A [M-14-Q-4(c)-4M]
We have; F = − A
CaseI if entire hole is considered.
π.
i.e. F = − π.
F =
Case2: If half hemispherical hole is considered.
π.
i.e. F = − π.
F = .
Q83. How radiation network is constructed between two grey surfaces exchanging radiant heat energy?
(D-14-Q-4(c)-4M-CBGS)
Q84. Show that the radiant heat transfer between two infinitely large parallel plates by n-shields is
�� − � �
��−� � � =
� + [∈ − ]
T1 and T2 are the temperatures of plates 1 plate 2 respectively. Emissivity of each plate is ∈, � − Stefan Boltzmann
constant. (M-13-Q-4(b)-10M)
(D-15-Q-4(a)-8M-CBGS)
Ans:
Consider two grey surfaces A and A having radiant heat exchange as shown in fig. a
Let surfaces A and A are maintained at uniform temperature T and T having emissivity as ε and ε respectively with
radiosity as J and J .
58
a) Fraction of energy leaving the surface 1 and reaching to surface2, Q = A . F . J … �

b) Fraction of energy leaving the surface 2 and reaching to surface 1, Q = A . F J … ��
Net rad�at�on energy exc�ange between t�e surface
Q −
=A F .J − A .F .J
�ence equat�on �� can be reduce to,
By reciprocal relation,
J −J � .F = � .F
Q =A F J −J = … A
⁄A . F
The equation (A) can be represented in the form of electrical network as shown in fig (b)
T�e quant�ty [ ] �s ca��ed as space res�stance or s�ape res�stance

A .F −
If the surface resistance of the two bodies and space resistance between them is considered, the net heat exchange between
two grey bodies can be analysed with the help of electrical network shown below
e −e
Q =
− −ε −ε
A .ε + A .F − + A .C
σ[T − T ]
Q =
−
R +R +R
Radiation shields
In certain situations it is required to reduce the heat-exchange between two raditing surfaces, which is done by employing
raditation shields which are usually thin sheets of plastic coated with highly reflected metallic films (usually aluminium or
copper)
If t�ere �s one rad�t�on s��e�d − present:

Fro� c�rcu�t, we can wr�te
e −
[Q ] =
− −ε −ε −ε −ε
+ A .F .s + A .ε + A .ε + A .F + A .ε
ε −
59
para��a� p�ates A = A = A = A, above can se wr��tten as

. A. [T − T ]
[Q ] =
− −ε −ε −ε −ε
ε +F + ε + ε +F +
− − ε
a�so for para��e� p�ates, F − =F − = , �ence
. A. [T −T ]
[Q −
] =
ε − + +ε
− +ε − + +ε −
σ. A. [T −T ]
[Q −
] =
ε +ε + ε −
For n s��e�ds w�t� e��ss�v�t�es as ε , ε , ε and so on, we can wr�te a genera� equat�on as,
σ. A. [T −T ]
[Q −
] =
=
ε + ε + {∑ = (ε )} − n +
Or,
Note: In general case where there are n shields, all the surface resistances would be the same, since the emissivities are
equal. There will be two surface resistances for each shield and one for each heat transfer surface. There will also be (n+1)
‘space resistance’ but the configurationation factor unity for each infinite parallel plane.
� �
�� −�
��−� � � =
�+ [∈ − ]
Note : only for flat –plate.
Q85. What is radiation shield? (M-16-Q1 (a)-5m)
 Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting a thin high reflectivity
(low-inserting a thin, high reflectivity (low emissivity) sheet of material between the two surfaces two
surface.
 Such highly reflective thin plates or shells are called radiation shields are called radiation shields
60
Q86.A filament of a 75 W light bulb may be considered as a black body radiating into a black enclosure of 70 C.
The filament diameter is 0.1 mm and length 50 mm. Considering the radiation, determine the filament
temperature.
(D-15-Q1 (e)-5m)
Given:
Q= w
T = + = k
−
d = . �� = . ×
−
ℓ= �� = × �
ε = b�ack − body
To find: T = te�perature of f��a�ent
Analysis: Heat − transfer by rad�at�on �s g�ven by
Q = . εA (T −T
−
w�ere, = stefan − botz�an = . ×
− −
A = surface − area = π. d. ℓ = π × . × × ×
− −
= . × × × . × × (T −
T = k= ℃
Q87. Determine heat lost by radiation per meter length of 80 mm diameter pipe at 300 C, if
(i) Located in a large room with red brick wall at a temperature of 27 C.
(ii) Enclosed in a 160 mm diameter red brick conduit at a temperature of 27 C.
Take � (pipe) = 0.79 and � (brick conduit) = 0.93
(M-16-Q4 (b)-8m)
Solution:
Given:
A stee� tube of d = . � and
L= � at ℃ �s p�aced w�t��n a square br�ck condu�t of s�de . � at ℃ f�g. a .
ε for stee� = . and ε for br�ck = .
T = + = k and
T = + = k.
To find: �ℎ ℎ .
Analysis: �ℎ � ℎ � ��
A T −T
Q=
A
+A ε −
ε
A πdL π × .
w�ere, = = = .
A PL × .
subst�tut�ng t�e nu�er�ca� va�ues
. × × π× . × . −
Q=
+ − × .
. .
. −
= = . W
. + .
61
Q88.A thin copper sphere with its internal surface highly oxidised, has a diameter of 20 cm. How small a hole must
be made in. the sphere to make an opening that will have an absorptive of 0.9?
Ans:
Given :
= = = .
�= .
The sphere absorbs 90% of the energy(as given) and the remaining 10% is lost to the surrounding through the hole(area
A2) provided.
Q, �eat co��ng out fro� t�e �o�e

Q �eat rad�ated fro� t�e cav�ty
−F −
= = . g�ven
− −ε F −
Assu��ng =ε= .
−F −
= .
− − . F −
−F −
= .
− . F −
−F − = − . F −
. F − = .
F − =
�
Also, � − = − =
�
�
= − =
�
A
= , w�ere A �s co�p�ete surface aea.
A −A
A πr π
A = = = = . c�
62
Q89. 10 mm OD pipe carries a cryogenic fluid at 80K. This pipe is encased by 10 another pipe of 15mm OD, and
the space between them is evacuated. The outer pipe is at 280K. Emissivity of inner and outer surfaces is 0.2 and
0.3 respectively. (i) Determine the radiant heat flow rate over a pipe length of 5m. (ii) If a radiation shield of
diameter 12mmtd emissivity 0.05 on both sides is placed between the pipes, determine percentage reduction in heat
flow. (iii) What is the equilibrium temperature of the shield?
[D-14-Q-6(a)-10M-CBGS]
Ans:
Data;
r = . �, r = . �, T = K, T = k, ε = . ϵ = .
ε = . , ε = . , = . × − w/�k, L = �
Surface areas for � �eng�t:
A = . π. r . L = . �
A = . π. r . L = . �
A = . π. r . L = . �
a. Heat transfer w�t�out t�e s��e�d be�ng present:
we �ave:
A . .( −
Q = A
+ . −
ε A ϵ
Q =− . w
note: Negat�ve s�gn �nd�cates t�at �eat f�ow �s fro� outs�de to �nner p�pe.
a. Heat transfer w�t� one t�e s��e�d be�ng present:
we �ave:
A . .( −
Q = A A
+ . − + . + −
ε A ϵ A ϵ ϵ
Q =− . w
note: Negat�ve s�gn �nd�cates t�at �eat f�ow �s fro� outs�de to �nner p�pe.
percenatge reduct�on �n �eat f�ow due to s��e�d:

. − .
Reduct�on = .
× = . %
C. Equ��br�u� te�perature of s��e�d;
�et t�e eqau��br�u� te�perature of s��e�d be T
for steady state, we �ave;
Q =Q =Q
�et us take; Q one s��e�d = Q
A . . T −T
Q =
A
+ . −
ε A ϵ
/
Q A
one s��e�d.[ε + A .
ϵ
− ]
T = T − )
A .
T = . k= . ℃
or to ver�fy answer:
A . . T −T
Q =
A
+ . −
ε A ϵ
/
Q A
one s��e�d.[ε + A .
ϵ
− ]
T = T − )
A .
T = . k= .
63
Q90. Net radiation from the surface of two parallel plates maintained at temp. T |& T2 is to be reduced by 99 %.
Calculate the numbers of screens to be placed between the two surfaces to achieve this reduction in heat exchange.
Assuming the emissivity of screens as 0.04 and that of surfaces as 0.7. ( (D-15-Q4(b)-8m)
Ans:
Let, ε = e��ss�v�ty of eac� of t�e p�ates, and
ε = e��ss�v�ty of eac� of t�e screens
cons�der a�� t�e res�stances per un�t surface area.
w�en t�ere are on�y two p�ates, t�e equ�va�ent e�ectr�ca� c�rcu�t �s as s�own �n f�g . a
In t��s case, F − = … … … . . for para��e� p�ates.
T�e �eat transfer by rad�at�on between two para��e� p�ates �s g�ven by

σ.( −
Q = ………………………………………………………………………. �
−
ε
w�en t�ere are′n′ screens �n between t�e two p�ates, t�e equ�va�ent e�ectr�ca� c�rcu�t �s as s�own
�n f�g B
In t��s case t�ere w�� be n surface res�stances because of n screens �n add�t�on to or�g�na� two
surface res�stance of t�e p�ates and t�ere w�� be n + space res�stance.
T�e va�ue of eac� space res�stance �s as
F − =F − =F − = ⋯…………………….F + − =
′ ′
t�e �eat transfer by rad�at�on between two p�ates w�en screens are p�aced between two
p�ates �s g�ven by,
−T σ. (T
Q = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ��
−ε −ε
[ ε ]+[ n ε + n+ ]
But, Q = − . Q
subst�tut�ng t�e va�ues fro� eqns. � and �� , we get
σ. (T − T
= −
−ε −ε ε
[ ε ]+[ n ε
+ n+ ]
s�nce, ε = . , ε = . … … … … … … … … … . . g�ven
. + n+n+ =
n= .
n≈
64
Q91. Calculate the following for an industrial furnace in the form of a black body and emitting radiation at 2500
°C.( Stefan Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 x 10'8).
(i) Monochromatic emissive power at 1.2 pm.
(ii) Wave length at which the emission is maximum.
(iii) Total emissive power of the furnace if it is assumed as areal surface with emissivity equal to 0.8.
Ans:
[D-13-Q-1(d)-4M]
So�ut�on
G�ven: T = + = K; λ = . µ� ; ε = .
Ans:
(i) Monoc�ro�at�c e��ss�ve power at . µ� �engt�, Eλ :
Accord�ng to p�anck ′ s �aw,
Eλ λ−
=
−
λ
µ� −
µ�
w�ere, C = . × W. = . × W. , and
� �
−
C = . X �K
subst�tut�ng t�e va�ues, we get

Eλ . × − ( . × −
=
. × −
( − × )−
. ×
. ×
= = . × W/�
.
�� wave�engt� at w��c� t�e e��ss�on �s �ax��u�, λ
Accord�ng to W�en′ s d�sp�ace�ent �aw,

λ = = = . µ�
T
�� Max��u� e��ss�ve power, Eλ :

W
Eλ = . X T per �eter �engt�
�
W
= . X × = . × per �eter �engt�
�
�v Tota� e��ss�ve power, E :

−
E = σT = . × = . = . × W/� =
v Tota� e��ss�ve power, E w�t� e��ss�v�ty ε = .

−
E = εσT = . × . × = . × . ( ) = . × W/�
65
Q92. A cylindrical enclosure is formed by 3 surfaces and the details of their shape factors, the emissivity and the
temperatures are as given below.
Surface Shape Emissivity Temperature (°C)
1 Curved Surface 0.8 500
2 Top end closing Disc 0.85 400
3 Other end closing Disc 0.85 400
Diameters of two closing flat surface and the interspacing between them are 25mm and 100 mm respectively.
Shape factor between two identical flat surfaces is 0.05. Calculate net rate of radiant heat transfer leaving from
curved surface and reaching the closing flat circular surfaces.
Ans: [D-13-Q-3(b)-4M]
d=d =d = �� = . �; � = �� = . �;
F − = . ;ε = . ;ε = ε = .
Solution:
t�e s�ape factor re�at�ons are:
F − + F − = or F − = − F −
F − + F − = or F − = − F −
and, A F− = A F −
A
or, F − = ×F −
A
. = −F −
F − = .
A π/ .
and, F − =A × . = × . = × . = × = .
π × .
Q =Q
T�ere �s �s no �eat f�ow fro� to or to as
Q =Q
(T −T
Q =
−ε −ε
+ +
A ε A F − A ε
A = πd� = π . . = . �
π π
A = d = . = . �
subst�tut�ng t�e va�ue �n t�e above eqat�on, we get
. × − [ − ]
Q = − . − .
. × .
+ . × .
+ . × .
= . w
66
Q93. A small sphere (outside diameter = 60 mm) with a surface temperature of 300 0C is located at the geometric
centre of a large sphere (inside diameter 360 mm) with an inner surface temperature of 15°C. Calculate how much
percent of emission from the inner surface of the large sphere is incident upon the outer surface of the small
sphere. What is the net interchange of heat between the two spheres? Assume that both surfaces approach black
body behavior.
Ans [M-13-Q-4(a)-10M]
Given
d s�a�� sp�ere = ��, r = �� = . �
d Large sp�ere = ��, r = �� = . �
Solution:
s�nce a�� t�e rad�at�on be�ng e��tted by t�e s�a�� sp�ere �s �nc�dent upon and absorbed by.
t�e �nner surface of t�e �arge sp�ere, t�erefore, conf�gurat�on factor between and �s F − =
By Rec�pr�oca� t�eore�
A F − =A F −
or, πr ×F − = πr ×F −
π .
F − =F − × = × = = .
π .
Thus 2.78% of the emission from the inner surface of the small sphere and absorbed by it.
A�so, Now fro� energy ba�ance for t�e �arge sp�ere, F − +F − =
F − = −F − = − . = .
Thus, 97.22% of emission from the large sphere is absorbed by the inner surface of the sphere itself.
T�e net �nterc�ange of �eat between t�e two sp�ere �s,
Q =F − . . A . (T −T
−
Q = × π× . × . × [ − ]= . w
Q94. A steel pipe of OD 0.15 m lies 2 m vertically and 8 m horizontally in a large room with an ambient
temperature of 300C. The pipe surface is at 2500C and has a emissivity of 0.6.Estimate the total heat loss
(due to convection and radiation) from the pipe to the atmosphere. Properties at film temperature: � =
27.8 x 10-6 m2/s, k = 0.035 w/mk, Pr = 0.684.
(Take Nu = 0.13(Gr.Pr)1/3 if the flow is turbulent OR Nu = 0.53(Gr.Pr)1/4 if the flow is Laminar)
[D-14-Q-3(a)-10M-CBGS]
Ans :
�eat �s �ost by t�e p�pe to t�e at�osp�ere bot� by natura� convect�on and rad�at�on.
−
Natura� convect�on = = = . ×
+
. .β.∆ .L
a Vet�ca� part: Gras�of nu�ber, Gr =
ν
. × . × − × − ×
Gr = − = . ×
. ×
Gr. Pr = . × × . = . ×
s�nce, Gr. Pr > , t�e f�ow �s turbu�ent over t�e p�pe,
/
Nu = . Gr. Pr
/
Nu = . . ×
67
� L
= . =
k
. × .
� = = . w/� K
. .β.∆ .L
a Hor�zonta� part: Gras�of nu�ber, Gr =
ν
−
. × . × × − × .
Gr = −
= . ×
. ×
Gr. Pr = . × × . = . ×
s�nce, Gr. Pr < × , t�e f�ow �s �a��nar over t�e p�pe,
/
Nu = . Gr. Pr
/
Nu = . . ×
vL
= . =
.× .
� = = . w/� K
.
Tota� �eat �oss by natura� convect�on

Q = QH + QV
Q = �H . AH + � AV T − T∞
Q = . ×π× . × + . ×π× . × −
Q = w
Rad�at�on �eat �ost by rad�at�on.
Q = σ. A. Σ(T − T∞
Q = . ×π× . × × . . − . = w
tota� �eat �oss = Q + Q = + = w
68
Module 6
[D-14-Q-3(c)-5M-CBGS][M-15-Q3 (b)-5m]
Q96. Draw neat boiling curve four water and mark the different regions.
Q97. Draw a neat Boiling curve for water and show the different boiling Regimes. [D-13-Q-1(c)-6M]
Q98. Discuss in brief various modes of Boiling. [M-16-Q-6(b)-6M]
(1) Boiling Curve (D-14-Q-3(a)-8M)
Fig. Boiling Curve of water.

Q100. Explain briefly the condensation mechanism. [M-16-Q-1(d)-5M]
Ans:
The condensation process is the reverse of boiling process. The condensation sets in, whenever a saturation vapour comes
in contact with a surface whose temperature is lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure.
As the vapour condenses, latent heat is liberated and there is flow of heat to the surface. The liquid condensate may get
somewhat sub-cooled by contact with the cooled surface and that may eventually cause more vapour to condense on the
exposed surface or upon the previously formed condensate.
Depending upon the condition of cool surface, condensation may occur in two possible ways:
Film condensation and drop wise condensation.
For additional answer please refer next answer.
Q101..Explain film and drop wise condensation. [M-14-Q-7(c)-6M] [M-15-Q1 (a)] (D-15-Q-6(a) (i)-4M-CBGS)
No. Film wise condensation Drop wise condensation

1 Film of vapor is formed on the surface. Vapor droplets are present on the surface.
2 It wets the surface. It does not wet the surface.
3 High thermal resistance. Low thermal resistance.
4 Low thermal conductivity. High thermal conductivity of droplets.
5 Rate of heat- transfer from vapor to surface is Rate of heat- transfer from vapor to surface is
less. more.
6 This type of condensation usually occurs on This type of condensation usually occurs on rough
clean surface. surface.
69
Q102. Explain Nusselt theory of film condensation

[M-14-Q-6(b)-6M]
Ans:
Assumption:
1. The film of the liquid formed flows under the action of gravity.
2. The condensation flow is laminar and the fluid properties are constant.
3. The liquid film is in good thermal contact with the cooling surface and therefore, the temperature at the
inside of the film is taken equal to the surface temperature. Further, the temperature at the liquid-vapour
interface is equal to the saturation temperature at the prevailing pressure.
4. Viscous shear and gravitational forces are assumed to act on the fluid, thus normal viscous force and
inertia forces are neglected.
5. The shear stress at the liquid vapour interface is negligible. This means there is no velocity gradient at the
liquid–vapour interface.
6. The heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction and the temperature distribution is
linear.
7. The condensing vapour is entirely clean and free from gases, air and non-condensing impurities.
8. Radiation between vapour and liquid film; horizontal component of velocity at any point in the liquid film;
and curvature of the film are considered negligible small.
Q103. what is heat exchanger? Define heat exchanger effectiveness. [M-16-Q-1(d)-5M]
Ans :
Heat exchanger:
It is defined as equipment which transfers the energy from a hot fluid to a cold fluid, with maximum rate and minimum
investment and running cost.
Heat exchanger effectiveness

It is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer.
� � �
�=
� � � .
Q104. Classify heat exchangers on various arrangements.

Ans: [M-14-Q-6(c)-4M] [D-15-Q-5(c)-4M]
Types of heat exchanger
i. Based on nature of heat exchanger process;
a. Direct contact type heat exchanger.
b. Indirect contact type heat exchanger.
1) Regenerator.
2) Recuperators.
ii. Relative direction of fluid motion:
1. Parallel flow
2. Counter flow
3. Cross-flow
iii. Design and constructional features:
1. Concentric tube.
2. Shell and tube.
3. Multiple shell and tube passes.
4. Compact heat exchanger.
iv. Physical state of fluids.
1. Condenser.
2. Evaporator.
70
Q105. Fouling in heat exchanger.

Ans: [M-14-Q-1(a)-5M) (M-13-Q-7(d)-6M]
In heat exchanger, during normal operation the tubes surface gets covered by deposits of ash, soots, dirt and scale etc.
This phenomenon is called “FOULLING”.
Due to these surface deposits the thermal resistance is increased and eventually the performance of the heat – exchanger
lowers.
Since, it is difficult to ascertain the thickness and thermal conductivity of the scale deposits, the effect of scale on heat-
flow is considered by specifying on equivalent scale deposited on the inside and outside surface respectively, then the
thermal resistances to scale formation on the inside surface(RSi) and outside surface (RS0) are given by,
� = A . ,�� =
A .
The reciprocal of scale heat-transfer coefficient, h is called the fouling factors, � or� f
Thus,
� = � unit: m ℃/w
S
Fouling factors are determined experimentally by testing the heat exchanger I both the clean and dirt conditions.
The fouling factor � is thus, defined as ,
� = = = �
S a
Fouling processes;
i. Precipitation or crystallization fouling.
ii. Sedimentation or paniculate fouling.
iii. Chemical reaction fouling or polymerization.
iv. Biological fouling.
v. Freeze fouling.
Parameters affecting fouling;

i. Velocity.
ii. Temperature.
iii. Water chemistry.
iv. Tube material.
Method of prevention fouling;

i. Design of heat exchanger.
ii. Treatment of process system.
iii. By using cleaning system.
Q106. Explain the number of transfer units (NTU).

Ans: Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger is,
�ℎ �
Σ=
� �� ℎ �
�ℎ ℎ − ℎ �� − �
or, Σ = =
� � ℎ − � � � ℎ − �
………… (A)
It is obvious from previous equation, that effectiveness ′�′ is a function of several variables and as such it is inconvenient
to combine them in a graphical or tabular form.
Also in calculation of effectiveness we require three temperatures, two out of which are inlet temperatures and one is
outlet temperature.
It is difficult to predict outlet temperature of fluid before installation of H.E.
However, by compiling a non-dimensional grouping ′�′ can be expressed as a function of three non-dimensional
parameters.
This method is known as NTU method.
Here ′�′ can be determined with the help of only inlet temperatures.
This method also facilitates toe comparison between the various types of heat exchangers which may be used for a
particular application.
71
Q107.Derive an expression for logarithmic mean temperature difference of Parallel flow heat exchanger and state
the assumptions clearly. [D-14-Q-3(a)-8M] (D-15-Q-5(a)-8M-CBGS)
Ans;
LMTD is defined as that temperature difference which, if constant, would give the same rate of heat transfer as actually
occurs under variable conditions of temperature difference.
�n�order�to�derive�expression�for�L��D�for�various�types�of�heat�exchanger,�
the�following�assumptions�are�made;
i. �he�overall�heat − transfer�coefficient� � �is�constant.
ii. �he�flow�conditions�are�steady.
iii. �he�specific�heats�and�mass�flow�rates�of�both�fluids�are�constant.
iv. �here�is�no�loss�of�heat�to�the�surroundings, due�to�the�heat�exchanger�being�perfectly�insulated.
v. �he�change�in�potential�and�kinetic�energies�are�negligible.
vi. �here�is�no�change�of�phase�either�of�the�fluid�during�the�heat�exchanger.
vii. Axial�conduction�along�the�tubes�of�heat�exchanger�is�negligible.��
Logarithmic�mean�temperature�difference�for� �arallel�flow �heat�– exchanger.

fig. a �and�fig b , which�shows�the�flow�arangement�and�distribution�of�temperature
�in�a�single�pass�parallel�flow�heat�exchanger�respectively.�
Let us consider an elementary area ‘dA’ of the heat exchanger.

The rate of flow of heat through this elementary area is given by,
d� = �. dA. t − t C
d� = �. dA. ∆t … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . i
As�a�result�of�heat�transfer�′d�′�through�the�area�dA, the�hot�fluid�is�cooled�by�′dh′�
whereas�the�cold�fluid�is�heated�up�by�dt C �
The energy balance over a differential area dA may be written as.
d� = −ṁ . C . dt − ṁ . C . dt C
dt = �. dA. t − t C … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … ii
�ote�here�dt �is − ve�and�dt C �is + ve.��
72
d� d�
or�dt = − =−
ṁ . C C
d� d�
or�dt = − =−
ṁC . C C
�here,�
C = ṁ . C = heat�capacity�or�water�equivalent�hot�fluid.
CC = ṁC . C = heat�capacity�or�water�equivalent�cold�fluid.
ṁ �and�ṁC �are�the�mass�flow�rates�of�fluids�and�C �and�C �are�the�respectively�specific�heats.
dt − dt = −d� ( +)
C CC
dθ = −d� +C …………………………………………….
C C
�ubstituting�the�value�of�d��from�equation� i , the�above�equation�becomes
dθ = −�. dA. t − t C +C
C C
dθ = −�. dA. θ +C
C C
θ
= −�. dA +C
θ C C
�ntegrating�between�inlet�and�outlet�conditions� i. e. from�A = �to�A� = A , �e�get

θ A=A
∫ =− +C ∫A= �. dA�
θ C C
θ
or�ln = −�. A +C ……………………………………………..
θ C C
now, the�total�heat�transfer�rate�between�the�two�fluids�is�given�by
�=C t −t =C t −t
−
or� =
C
C −C
=
CC
substituting�the�values�of� C and� �in�eqn.

C
θ − −C
ln = −�. A �+ C
� ‘
θ
θ .A
ln =− [ t −t − t −t ]
θ
θ .A
ln =− θ −θ
θ
.A θ −θ
�= θ
θ
the�above�equation�can�be�written�as,�
� = �. A. θ
θ −θ θ −θ
where, θ = =
θ θ
ln θ ln θ
θ �is�called�the�logarithmic�mean�temperature�difference
73
Q108.Derive expression for LMTD for counter flow type heat exchanger. [M-14-Q-4(b)-5M]
Ans:
LMTD is defined as that temperature difference which, if constant, would give the same rate of heat transfer as actually
occurs under variable conditions of temperature difference.
�n�order�to�derive�expression�for�L��D�for�various�types�of�heat�exchanger,�
the�following�assumptions�are�made;
i. �he�overall�heat − transfer�coefficient� � �is�constant.
ii. �he�flow�conditions�are�steady.
iii. �he�specific�heats�and�mass�flow�rates�of�both�fluids�are�constant.
iv. �here�is�no�loss�of�heat�to�the�surroundings, due�to�the�heat�exchanger�being�perfectly�insulated.
v. �he�change�in�potential�and�kinetic�energies�are�negligible.
vi. �here�is�no�change�of�phase�either�of�the�fluid�during�the�heat�exchanger.
vii. Axial�conduction�along�the�tubes�of�heat�exchanger�is�negligible.��
Logarithmic�mean�temperature�difference�for� Counter��low �heat�– exchanger.

fig. a �and�fig b , which�shows�the�flow�arangement�and�distribution�of�temperature
�in�a�single�pass�parallel�flow�heat�exchanger�respectively.�
Fig. Calculation of LMTD for counter flow heat exchanger
Let us consider an elementary area ‘dA’ of the heat exchanger.

The rate of flow of heat through this elementary area is given by,
d� = �. dA. t − t C
d� = �. dA. ∆t … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . i
As�a�result�of�heat�transfer�′d�′�through�the�area�dA, the�hot�fluid�is�cooled�by�′dt ′�
whereas�the�cold�fluid�is�heated�up�by�dt C �
The energy balance over a differential area dA may be written as.
d� = −ṁ . C . dt = −ṁ . C . dt C … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . ii
In counter flow system,the temperatures of both the fluids decrease in the direction of heat exchanger Length, hence the –
ve sign
74
d� d�
or�dt = − =−
ṁ . C C
d� d�
or�dt = − =−
ṁC . C C
�here,�
C = ṁ . C = heat�capacity�or�water�equivalent�hot�fluid.
CC = ṁC . C = heat�capacity�or�water�equivalent�cold�fluid.
ṁ �and�ṁC �are�the�mass�flow�rates�of�fluids�and�C �and�C �are�the�respectively�specific�heats.
dt − dt = −d� −C
C C
dθ = −d� −C … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . iii
C C
�ubstituting�the�value�of�d��from�equation� i , the�above�equation�becomes
dθ = −�. dA. t − t C −C
C C
dθ = −�. dA. θ −C
C C
θ
= −�. dA −C
θ C C
�ntegrating�between�inlet�and�outlet�conditions� i. e. from�A = �to�A� = A , �e�get

θ A=A
∫ θ
=− −C ∫A= �. dA�
C C
θ
or�ln = −�. A −C … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . iv
θ C C
now, the�total�heat�transfer�rate�between�the�two�fluids�is�given�by
�=C t −t =C t −t
−
or� C =
C −C
=
CC
substituting�the�values�of� C and� �in�eqn. iv

C
θ − −C
ln θ
= −�. A − C
� ‘
θ .A
ln =− [ t −t − t −t ]
θ
θ .A
ln
θ
=− θ −θ
.A θ −θ
�= θ
θ
the�above�equation�can�be�written�as,�
� = �. A. θ
θ −θ θ −θ
where, θ = =
θ θ
ln θ ln θ
θ �is�called�the�logarithmic�mean�temperature�difference.
75
Q109. Derive the relationship between the effectiveness and the number of Transfer Units for a parallel flow heat
exchanger. [D-13-Q-2(b)-10M] [M-16-Q-4(a)-08M]
Ans:
Q110. Derive an expression for the effectiveness of a parallel flow heat exchanger in terms of the number of
transfer units, NTU, and the capacity ratio Cmin/Cmax.
[M-13-Q-6(a)-10M]
Ans:
Consider an elemental layer at a distance of “x” having length “dx” and area “dA”.
Let the temperature of the start of elemental layer is � and �C for hot and cold fluid.
We know,
d� = �. dA. θ … … … … … … … … … … … .
For hot-fluid heat rejected.
d� = −C . dt
d�
dt = − …………………. a
C
For hot-fluid heat rejected.
d� = −CC . dt C
d�
dt C = − …………………. b
CC
�ow, b − a
dt − dt C = −d� ( + ) … … … … … … . .
C CC
Substituting equation (1) in equation (2)
dt − dt C = −�. dA. θ ( + )
C CC
θ
dθ
∫ = −�. ( + ) ∫ dA
θ θ C CC
θ
ln ( ) = −�. A ( + )
θ C CC
θ − .A +
C CC … … … … … … … … … … . .
( )=e
θ
Also, if CC < C
CC t C − t C
Σ=
C t − tC
C t − tC
� tC = Σ + tC … … … … … … … . c
CC
Also, if C < CC �, CC = C �
C t −t
Σ=
C t − tC
C t − tC
�t = t − Σ …………… d
C
�ow, d − c
t − tC = t − tC [ − Σ. C ( + )]
C CC
θ
( ) = − Σ. C ( + )………………
θ C CC
Equatiing�equation� �and�
− .A +
− Σ. C ( + )=e C CC
C CC
76
− .A( + )
−e C CC
Σ=
C +
C CC
.A C
− +
−e C CC
Σ=
C C
+C
C C
Assuming, C < C
C =C
and, CC = C a
− e−N +C
Σ=
+C
C
in�above�eqaution, C =
C a
.A
and�� =
C
Q111. The flow rates of hot and cold water streams running through a parallel flow heat exchanger are 0.2 kg/s
and 0.5 kg/s respectively. The inlet temperature on the hot and cold sides are 75° C and 20° C respectively. The exit
temperature of hot water is 45°C . If the individual heat transfer coefficients on both sides are 650 W/ m 2 °C,
calculate the area of the heat exchanger.
Ans: [D-14-Q-3(b)-12M) (M-13-Q-6(b)-12M]
Given:
ṁ = . kg/s, ��ṁ = . kg/s
� = ℃�,�� = ℃�,�
� = ℃�,��
To find: A =?
Assumption: C =C =C w= . ��/�g�
Solution:
heat�loss�by�hot�fluid = heat�gain�by�cold�fluid.
ṁ C � −� = ṁ C � −�
. − = . � − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . [C =C =C ]
� = ℃
Heat transfer � = ṁ C � −� = . × . × − = �w
�ince�we�know�that,�
� = �. A. θ
h .h
�= = �w/m k
h +h
θ −θ
θ = ………………………………………………………θ = � − � ��and, θ = � −�
θ
ln
θ
θ = . ℃
�= ×A× .
= ×A× .
A= . �m
77
Q112. Hot air at 66 ℃ is cooled up to 38�℃ by means of cold air at 15 ℃. Mass rate of hot and cold air are 1.25 kg/s
and 1.6 kg/s respectively. Specific heats of hot and cold air are 1.05 KJ/kg K, U = 80 w/m2K, find the area of the
heat exchanger for parallel and counter flow configuration.
[M-16-Q-5(b)-08M]
Ans:
Given:
� = ℃�,�� = ℃�,�
� = ℃�,��
ṁ = . �kg/s, ��ṁ = . �kg/s
C =C = . ��/kg�
�= �w/m k
To find: A =? for parallel and counter flow arrangement.
Solution:
ṁ C � −� = ṁ C � −
. × . − = . × . � − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . [C =C =C ]
� = . �℃
Heat transfer � = ṁ C � −� = . × . × − == �w
� = �. A. θ ………………………………………………….(i)
�= �w/m k
θ −θ
θ = θ ��………………………………(a)
θ
For parallel flow arrangement

θ =� − � ��and, θ = � −�
θ = − = ��and, θ = − . = .
θ = . ℃
From equation (i)
= ×A× .
= ×A× .
A= . �m
For Counter flow arrangement

θ =� − � ��and, θ = � −�
θ = − . = . ��and, θ = − =
θ = . ℃
From equation (i)
= ×A× .
A= . �m
78
Q113. Water (m = 1.4 kg/s and CP = 4.187 KJ/kg-k) is heated from 400C to 70 0C by an oil (m = 2 kg/s and CP = 1.9
KJ/kg-k) entering at 1100C in a counter flow heat exchanger. If overall heat transfer coefficient is 350 w/m 2k,
calculate the surface area required.
[D-14-Q-2(a)-10M-CBGS]
�
Ans:
Given:
�ṁ = . �kg/s, C = . ��/kg�
� = ℃�,�� = ℃�,�
�ṁ = �kg/s,� � = �℃�,
C = . ��/kg�
�= �w/m k
To find: A =? for counter flow arrangement.
Solution:
ṁ C � −� = ṁ C � −
× . −� = . × . − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . [C =C =C ]
� = . �℃
Heat transfer � = ṁ C � −� = . × . − = . ��w
� = �. A. θ ………………………………………………….(i)
�= �w/m k
θ −θ
θ = θ ��………………………………(a)
θ
For Counter flow arrangement

θ =� − � ��and, θ = � −�
θ = − = ��and, θ = . − = .
θ = . ℃
From equation (i)
. �× = ×A× .
A= . �m
79
Q.114. In an oil cooler, oil (m = 2500 kg/hr and CP = 1.9 KJ/kg-k) at 1600C is cooled by water (m = 1500 kg/hr and
CP = 4.187 KJ/kg-k) entering at 350C. Determine Capacity ratio, NTU and effectiveness, if the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 300 w/m2k. Assume parallel flow. (assume area = 1 m2)
[D-14-Q-1(b)-5M-CBGS]
Ans:
Parallel flow arrangement.
�iven:�� = ℃, � = ℃
CP = 1.9 KJ/kg-k,, CP = 4.187 KJ/kg-k)
m = r
= . �kg/s
m = = . kg/s
r
�= � /
Assume�area�, A = �m
To find: Capacity ratio, NTU and effectiveness
Solution:
(i) Heat carrying capacity
For cold fluid,C
C = ṁ C
C = . × . × = . �w/k
For hot fluid,C
C = ṁ C
C = . × . × = . �w/k
C <C
C a =C
C =C
(ii) Capacity ratio
C .
C= = = .
C a .
(iii) Number of transfer unit (NTU)
A A
�� = =
C C
×
�� = = .
.
(iv) Effectiveness for parallel flow Heat exchanger

− e[−� + . ]
∈=
+C
− e[− . + . ]
∈=
+ .
∈= .
80
Q115. A counter flow heat exchanger is employed to cool 0.55 Kg/s (Cp =2.45 KJ/kg °C) of oil from 115 °C to 40 °C
by the use of water. The inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water are 15 °C and 75 °C respectively. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is expected to be 1450 W/m2 °C. Using NTU method, calculate the following:
i. The mass flow rate of water.
ii. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger. [D-15-Q-5(b)-08M]
iii. The surface area required.
Ans:
Counter flow arrangement.
�iven:��m = . �kg/s , Cph =2.45 KJ/kg °C
�� = ℃, � = ℃
��C = ℃, �C = ℃
�= � /
Method: NTU
To find:
I. To find: The mass flow rate of water.
II. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
III. The surface area required.
Assumption: Cpw =4.187 KJ/kg °C
Solution:
(i) Heat balance.
ṁ C � −� = ṁ C � −
. × . − = ṁ × . − ]
ṁ = . �kg/s ……………………………………………………………………..ans(a)
(ii) Heat carrying capacity
For cold fluid,C
C = ṁ C
C = . × . × = . �w/k
For hot fluid,C
C = ṁ C
C = . × . × = . �w/k
C <C
C a =C
C =C
(iv) Capacity ratio
C . �
C= = = .
C a .
(iv) Effectiveness for Heat exchanger.
� −�
Σ= ��… … … … … … … … … … … … … if�C =C
� − �C
81
−
Σ= = .
−
(v) Also for Effectiveness for parallel flow Heat exchanger
− e[−� −C ]
Σ=
− C�e[−� −C ]
− e[−� − . ]
. =
− . �e[−� − . ]
�� = . ……………………………………………………..shift solve on calculator.
(v) Number of transfer unit (NTU)

A A
�� = C =
C
×A
. =
.
A= . �m
82
Q116. Water (Cpc=4200 J/kg °C) enters a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger at 38 °C flowing at 0.076 kg/s.
It is heated by oil (cp=1880 J/kg°C) flowing at the rate of 0.152 kg/s from an inlet temperature of 116 0 C. For an
area of 1 m2 and U=340W/m2 °C, Determine the total heat transfer rate.
[M-14-Q-2(a)-12M]
Ans:
�iven:
m ̇ = ṁ = . ̇ kg/s, c = ̇ �/�g℃, t = ℃,��m i ̇ = ṁ = . kg/s
̇ W
c = �/�g℃,��t = ℃,�� = ℃,��A = m
� : �he�total�heat�transfer�rate, ��
�olution:
As�outlet�temperatures�of�both�fluids�are�not�known, we�have�to�use��method�for�solving�the�problem.
�he�effectiveness�of�heat�exchanger�is�given�by
(i) Heat carrying capacity
For cold fluid,C
C = ṁ C
C = . × . × = . �w/k
For hot fluid,C
C = ṁ C
C = . × = . �w/k
C <C
C a =C
C =C
(ii) Capacity ratio
C . ��
C= = = .
C a .
(iv) NTU
�A ×
�� = = = .
c .
(iii) Effectiveness for counter flow Heat exchanger

− e[− . − . ]
Σ=
− . �e[− . − . ]
Σ= .
(iv) Also Effectiveness for Heat exchanger is given by,
ℎ ℎ − ℎ � � − �
Σ= =� ��
� ℎ − � � ℎ − �
. −t . t −
� . = =
. − . −
−t t −
or,�� . = = . ( )
− � −
83
−t
for, . =
−
�� t = − . − = . ℃
t −
for, . = . ( )
� −
. −
and,��t = + = . �℃
.
v �he�total�heat�transfer�is�given�by
� = �Aθ
θ −θ t −t − t −t
where,�� θ r =� =�
θ ln[ t − t / t −t ]
ln θ
− . − . −
��= � = . ℃
ln�[ − . / . − ]
�= × × . = . �� = . ��
84

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Quality Solutions

III 23-50 21-40

Module wise summary

2 Q2(a)-10m, Q1a)-05m, Q6(a)-10m, Q1(b)-05m, Q2(c)-07m Q2(b)-08M Q3(b)-06M

4 Q1(c)-08m, Q1(b)-05m, Q1(b)-05m, Q1(c)-05m, Q3(a)-08m Q6(c)-06m Q-6(c)-4M

5 Q1(b)-06m, Q1(d)-10m, Q1(c)-05m, Q1(e)-05m, Q1(e)-05m Q1 (e)-5m Q1 (a)-5m

6 Q6(a)-10m, Q1(c)-05m, Q1(a)-05m, Q1(c)-05m, Q1(a)-05m

Where Q is the rate of heat conducted in Watts.

Fig. 1: Sign convention for conduction heat flow.

Q5. Explain physical significance of Thermal Diffusivity.

For conduction between point 1 and W,

For convection between point W and 2,

For combined conduction and convection:

Situation Driving force Flow Resistance

Now, heat out flux is,

heat stored within control volume when it flows in �-direction.

Substituting Equation (i) in Equation (iii)

Similarly, heat stored in control volume, when it flows in “�” direction.

For heat balance,

� = � = � = � ….(conductivity is constant in all direction or uniform thermal conductivity)

If there is no internal heat generation in control volume then, � =

Three dimensional conduction equation for constant thermal conductivity,

FIGURE 1 Heat transfer through a cylindrical shell

And, from Equation (a)

�ub����u��n� C and C �n E�. C , �e �e�

iv. Material of the slab is homogeneous (i.e. constant density) and

Substituting BC. (i) in equation (B)

Substituting values of C and C in Eq. (B)

Q10. write short note on-

Critical radius of insulation:

Insulation is applied on metallic wires or pipes to reduce heat transfer to surrounding.

Radius of insulation is selected based on application(Significance:) as below-

Now putting value of � in Eq.(2),

From equation (1),

A�e�a�e/�ean ��e��a� c�nduc������ �f f��e c�a�,

�����a���, ��e��a� �e����ance �f �ed b��c�,

�ea� ���� f�� � �f fu�nace �a��,

��. �ea� ����, �:

�. ��e ��e�a�� �ea� ��an�fe� c�eff�c�en� , �;

��. ��e �a�e �f �ea� ��an�fe� �e� un�� a�ea, �

��e ���en �n�u�a���n ��n� be effec���e

�. e. �� ��n� �e��e ��e �u����e �f �. �. �. �

��nce n����n� �� ���en ab�u� �

��e��a� c��cu�� ��e��a� c��cu��

�. �ea� ��an�fe� �a�e, �

��e��a� �e����ance f�� c���nd��ca� �a��,

��. �e��e�a�u�e a� ��d − ���c�ne�� �f ��e��, �. e a� � = . �

�e�a���n� ��e �a���u� and �n�e��a��n� f��� � = �� �� � = � and � = � �� � = �

FIGURE Example (a) Pipe with one

To find: % change in heat loss.

And, % c�an�e �n �ea� f��� �a�e = (� – � ) × = [ − ]�

� : A figure with given data is as shown in figure.

��e �e��e�a�u�e a� ��e ��d and �ua��e� ��ane�:

Image source: RK Rajput heat and mass transfer

Heat influx through elemental area due to conduction ,

Heat out-flux through elemental area due to conduction ,

Heat loss from elemental due to convection,

−�. � ∂x = −�. � . �+ ∂x + h. � . � − �a ���� �� ���� = �. ∂x,�����where�� = perimeter.

−�� ∂x = −�� − �� ∂x + h. �. ∂x � − �a � ���� �. ∂x = �rea�for�convection �

Substituting conditions (i) in equation (6)

Now, the heat transfer equation through fin is given by

Image source: RK Rajput heat and mass transfer

Heat influx through elemental area due to conduction ,

�ub��u��n� C and C �n E�. C , �e �e�

A�e�a�e/�ean ��e��a� c�nduc�� f f��e c�a�,

��a��, ��e��a� �e��ance �f �ed b��c�,

�ea� �� f�� f fu�nace �a��,

��. �ea� ��, �:

�. ��e ��e�a�� ea� ��an�fe� c�eff�c�en� , �;

��e ��en �n�u�a��n ��n� be effec��e

�. e. �� n� �e��e ��e �u��e �f �. �. �. �

��nce n��n� �� en ab�u� �

��e��a� c��cu�� e��a� c��cu��

��e��a� �e��ance f�� c��nd��ca� �a��,

��. �e��e�a�u�e a� ��d − ��c�ne�� f ��e��, �. e a� � = . �

�e�a��n� ��e �a��u� and �n�e��a��n� f�� = �� = � and � = � �� = �

And, % c�an�e �n �ea� f�� a�e = (� – � ) × = [ − ]�

−�. � ∂x = −�. � . �+ ∂x + h. � . � − �a �� = �. ∂x,��where�� = perimeter.

−�� ∂x = −�� − �� ∂x + h. �. ∂x � − �a � �� . ∂x = �rea�for�convection �

−�. � ∂x = −�. � . �+ ∂x + h. � . � − �a �� = �. ∂x,��where�� = perimeter.

−�� ∂x = −�� − �� ∂x + h. �. ∂x � − �a � �� . ∂x = �rea�for�convection �

II. at�x = �, � = � � �� = � − �a �

��ate�of�cooling = − = ℃/ min �ns

�� Max��u� e��ss�ve power, Eλ :