4-1 INTRODUCTION

The quality of water in lakes, rivers, ponds, and streams greatly influences the use that water is
put to. Activities such as fishing, swimming, boating, shipping, and waste disposal have very
different requirements for water quality. Water of a particularly high quality is needed for people
water supplies. In many parts of the world, the introduction of pollutants from human activity has
seriously degraded water quality even to the extent of turning pristine trout streams into foul open
sewers with few life forms and fewer beneficial uses.
Water quality management is concerned with the control of pollution from human activity
so that the water is not degraded to the point that it is no longer suitable for intended uses. The
lone frontier family, settled on the banks of the Ohio River, did not significantly degrade water
quality in that mighty river even though it threw all its wastes into the river. The city of
Cincinnati, however, could not discharge its untreated wastes into the Ohio River without
disastrous consequences. Thus, water quality management is also the science of knowing how
much is too much for a particular water body.
To know how much waste can be tolerated (the technical term is assimilated) by a water
body, you must know the type of pollutants discharged and the manner in which they affect water
quality. You must also know how water quality is affected by natural factors such as the mineral
heritage of the watershed, the geometry of the terrain, and the climate of the region. A small,
tumbling mountain brook will have a very different assimilative capacity than a sluggish,
meandering lowland river, and lakes are different from moving waters.
Originally, the intent of water quality management was to protect the intended uses of a
water body while using water as an economic means of waste disposal within the constraints of
its assimilative capacity. However, in passing the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972, the Congress of the United States established as a national goal the complete elimination of
pollutant discharges by 1985. In addition, an interim goal of “water quality which provides for the
protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife, and provides for recreation in and on
the water” was established. Thus, until the 1985 goal is reached, if it is ever reached, water
quality in the nation’ rivers and lakes must be properly managed to obtain the greatest increase in
water quality possible with the limited resources available for pollution control. By understanding
the impact of pollutants o water quality, the environmental engineer can properly design the
treatment facilities to remove these pollutants to acceptable levels.
This chapter deals first with the major types of pollutants and their sources. In the remainder
of the chapter, water quality management in rivers and in lakes is discussed, placing the emphasis
on the categories of pollutants found in domestic wastewaters. For both rivers and lakes, the
natural factors affecting water quality will be discussed as the basis for understanding the impact
of human activities on water quality.

This chapter was written by John A. Eastman, Ph.D., of Lockwood, Jones and Beals, Inc., Kettering, OH.
4-2 WATER POLLUTANTS
AND THEIR SOURCES

The wide range of pollutants that are being discharged to surface waters can be grouped into
broad classes, as shown in Table 4-1, which also includes the principal sources of each pollutant
group. Domestic sewage and industrial wastes are called point sources because they are generally
collected by a network of pipes or channels and conveyed to a single point of discharge into the
receiving water. Domestic sewage consists of wastes from homes, schools, office buildings, and
stores. The term municipal sewage is used to mean domestic sewage into which industrial wastes
are also discharged. In general, point source pollution can be reduced or eliminated through
proper wastewater treatment prior to discharge to a natural water body.

Non-point sources. Urban and agriculture al runoff are characterized by multiple discharged
points. These are called non-point sources. Often the flow of polluted water flows over the
surface of the land or along natural drainage channels to the nearest water body. Even when urban
or agricultural runoff waters are collected in pipes or channels, they are generally transported the
shortest possible distance for discharge, so that waste water treatment at each outlet is not
economically feasible. Much of the non-point source pollution occurs during rain storms or
spring snowmelt resulting in large flow rates that make treatment even more difficult. Reduction
of non-point source pollution generally requires changes in land use practices and improved
education.

Oxygen–demanding material. Anything that can be oxidized in the receiving water with the
consumption of dissolved molecular oxygen is termed oxygen-demanding material. This material
is usually biodegradable organic matter but also includes certain inorganic compounds. The
consumption of dissolved oxygen, DO (pronounced “dee oh”), poses a threat to higher forms of
aquatic life that must have oxygen to live. The critical level of DO varies greatly among species.
For example, brook trout may require about 7.5 mg/L of DO, while carp

Table 4-1
Major pollutant categories and principal sources of pollutants

Point sources Non-point sources

Pollutant Domestic Industrial Agricultural Urban
category sewage wastes runoff runoff
May survive at 3 mg/L. as a rule, the most desirable commercial and game fish require high
levels of dissolved oxygen. Oxygen-demanding materials in domestic sewage come primarily
from human waste and food residue. Particularly noteworthy among the many industries which
produce oxygen-demanding wastes are the food processors and the paper industry. Almost any
naturally occurring organic matter, such as animal droppings, crop residues, or leaves, which get
into the water from non-point sources, contribute to the depletion of DO.

Nutrients. Nitrogen and phosphorus, two nutrients of primary concern, are con-sidered pollutants
because they are too much of a good thing. All living things require these nutrients for growth.
Thus, they must be present in rivers and lakes to support the natural food chain. Problems arise
when nutrient levels becomes excessive and the food web is grossly disturbed, which causes
some organisms to proliferate at the expense of others. As will be discussed in a later section,
exces-sive nutrients often lead to large growths of algae, which in turn become oxygen-
demanding material when they die and settle to the bottom. Some major sources of nutrients are
phosphorus-based detergents, fertilizers, and food-processing wastes.

Pathogenic organisms. Microorganisms found in wastewater include bacteria, Viruses, and

protozoa excreted by disease persons or animals. When discharged into surface waters, they make
the water unfit for drinking (that is, nonpotable). If the concentration of pathogens is sufficiently
high, the water may also be unsafe for swimming and fishing. Certain shellfish can be toxic
because they concentrate pathogenic organisms in their tissues, making the toxicity levels in the
shellfish much greater than the levels in the surrounding water.

Suspended solids. Organic or inorganic particles that are Carrie by the wastewater into receiving
water are termed suspended solids (SS).When the speed of the water is reduced by flowing into a
pool or a lake, many of these particles settle to the bottom as sediment. In common usage, the
word sediment also includes eroded soil particles which are being carried by water even if they
have not yet settled. Colloidal particles which do not settle readily cause the turbidity found in
many surface waters. Organic suspended solids may also exert an oxygen demand. Inorganic
suspended solids are discharged by some industries but result mostly from soil erosion that is
particularly bad in areas of logging, strip mining, and construction activity. As excessive
sediment loads are deposited into lakes and reservoirs, their usefulness is reduced. Even in
rapidly moving mountain streams, sediment from mining and logging operations has destroyed
many living places (ecological habitats) for aquatic organisms. For example salmon eggs can
only develop and hatch in loose gravel stream beds. As the pores between the pebbles are filled
with sediment, the eggs suffocate and the salmon population is reduced.

In simplistic terms, a food chain is the collection of interrelated organisms in which the lower levels are the
“eatees” and the upper levels are the “eaters.”
Salts. Although most people associate salty water with oceans and salt lakes, all water contains
some salt. The problem arises when the salt concentration in normally fresh water increases to the
point where the natural population of plants and animals is threatened or the water is no longer
useful for public water supplies or irrigation. High concentrations of salts are discharged by many
industries, and the use of salt on roads during the winter causes high salt levels in urban runoff,
especially during the spring snowmelt. Of particular concern in arid regions, where water is used
extensively for irrigation, is that the water picks up salts every time it passes through the soil on
its way back to the river. In addition, evapotranspiration causes the salts to be further
concentrated. Thus, the salt concentration continuously increases as the water moves
downstream. If the concentration gets too high, crop damage or soil poisoning can result.

Toxic metals and toxic organic compounds. Agricultural runoff often contains pesticides and
herbicides that have been used on crops. Urban runoff is a major source of lead and zinc in many
water bodies. The leads come from the exhaust of automobiles using leaded gasoline, while the
zinc comes from tire wear. Many industrial wastewaters contain either toxic metals or toxic
organic substances. If discharged in large quantities, many of these materials can render a body of
water nearly useless for long periods of time. The lower James River in Virginia has been
reduced to use only as a shipping channel because of a large industrial discharge of highly toxic
and persistent organic compounds. Many toxic compounds are concentrated in the food chain,
making fish and shellfish unsafe for human consumption. Thus, even small quantities in the water
can be incompatible with the natural ecosystem and many human uses.

Heat. Although heat is not often recognized as a pollutant, those in the electric power industry
are well aware of the problems of disposing of waste heat. Also, many industrial process waters
are much hotter than the receiving waters. In some environments an increases of water
temperature can be beneficial. For example, production of clams and oysters can be increased in
some water temperature can have negative impacts. Many important commercial and game fish
such as salmon and tout will only live in cool water. In some instances the discharge of heated
water from a power plant can completely block salmon migration. Higher temperatures also
increase the rate of oxygen depletion in areas where oxygen-demanding wastes are present.

4-3 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

IN RIVERS

The objective of water quality management is simple to state: to control the discharge of
pollutants so that water quality is not degraded to an unacceptable extent below the natural
background level. However, controlling waste discharges must be a quantitative endeavor. We
must be able to measure the pollutants, predict the impact of the pollutant on water quality,
determine the background water quality which would be present without human intervention, and
decide the levels acceptable for intended uses of the water.
 To most people, the tumbling mountain brook, crystal clear and icy cold, fed by the
melting snow and safe to drink is the epitome of high water quality. Certainly a stream in that
condition is a treasure, but we cannot expect the Mississippi River to have the same water quality.
It never did and never will. Yet both need proper management if the water is to remain usable for
intended purposes. The mountain brook may serve as the spawning ground for desirable fish and
must be protective from heat and sediment as well as camical pollution. The Mississippi,
however, is already warmed from hundred’s of K.M. of exposure to the sun and carries the
sediment from thousand’s of square km. of exposure of land. But even the Mississippi can
damaged by organic matter and toxic comical. Fish do live there and the river is used as a water
supply for millions for people.
The impact of pollution on a river depends both on the nature of the pollutant and the
unique characteristics of the individual river. 2 some of the most important rivers depth, the type
of bottom, and the mineral heritage of the water shade, land use patterns, and the types of aquatic
life in the river. Water quality management for a particular river must consider all these factors.
Thus, some rivers are highly tolerate large in put of these pollutants with-out much damage.
Some pollutants, particularly oxygen-demanding wastes and nutrients, are so common
and have such a profound impact on almost all types of rivers that they disserve special emphasis.
This is not to say that they are always the most significant pollutants in any one river, but rather
that no other pollutant category has as much overall effect on our nation’s rivers. For these
reasons, the next section of this chapter will be devoted to a more detailed look at how oxygen-
demanding material and nutrients affect water quality in rivers.

Effect of Oxygen-Demanding Wastes on Rivers

The introduction of oxygen-demanding material, either organic or in organic, in to a river causes

depletion of the dissolved oxygen in the water. This poses are threat to higher form of aquatic life
if the concentration of oxygen falls below a critical point. To predict the extent of oxygen
depletion, it is necessary to know how much waste is being discharged and how much oxygen
will be required to degrade the waste. However, because oxygen is continuously being
replenished from the atmosphere, as well as being consumed by organisms, the consternation of
oxygen in the river is determined by the relative rats of these competing processes. Organic

2 here we will use the word “river” to include streams, brooks, creeks, and any other channel of
flowing, fresh water.
Oxygen-demanding materials are commonly measured by determining the amount of oxygen
consumed during degradation in a manner approximating degradation in natural waters. This
section begins by considering the factors affecting oxygen consumption during the degradation of
organic matter, then moves on to in organic nitrogen oxidation. Finally, the equations for
predicting dissolved oxygen concentrations in rivers from degradation of organic matter are
developed and discussed.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

The most commonly used method of measuring the quantity of organic oxygen-demanding
material is the biochemical oxygen demand, BOD (pronounced “ beech Dee”) test. This test is
based on the premise that all the biodegradable organic matter contained in a water sample will be
oxidized to CO2 and H2O by microorganisms using molecular oxygen. For example, the general
overall reaction for glucose addition is

The actual BOD is a less then the theoretical amount due to the incorporation of some of the
carbon in to new bacterial cells. The test is a bioassay that utilizes microorganisms in conditions
similar to those in natural water to measure indirectly, the amount of biodegradable organic
matter present. Bioassay means to measure by biological means. A water sample is inoculated
with bacteria that consumed the biodegradable organic matter to obtain energy for their life
processes. Because the organisms also utilize oxygen in the process of consuming the waste, the
process is called aerobic decomposition. These oxygen consumption is easily measured. The
greater the amount of organic matter present, the greater the amount of oxygen utilized. The
BORD test is therefore and indirect measurement of organic matter because the acutely measure
only the changing dissolved oxygen concentration caused by the microorganisms as the degrade
the organic matter. Although not all organic matter is biodegradable and the actual test
procedures lack precision, BOD test is still the most widely used method of measuring organic
matter because of the direct conceptual relationship between BOD and oxygen depletion in
receiving waters.
When a water sample containing degradable organic matter is placed in a closed
container and inoculated with bacteria, the oxygen consumption typically follows the pattern
shown in Figure 4-1. During the first few days the rate of oxygen depletion is raped because of
the high concentration of organic matter present. As the concentration of organic matter
decreases, so does the rate of oxygen consumption. During the last part of the BOD curve,
oxygen consumption is mostly associated with the decay of the bacteria that grew during the early
part of the Nitrogenous BOD. Up to this point, only carbonaceous BOD has been considered in
the DO sag curve. However, in many cases nitrogenous BOD has at least as much impact on
dissolved oxygen levels. Modern wastewater treatment plants can routinely produce effluents
with CBOD5 of less than 30 mg/L. A typical effluent also contains approximately 30 mg/L of
nitrogen, which would mean an NBOD of about 135 mg/L if it were discharged as ammonia (see
Equation 4-19). Nitrogenous BOD can be incorporated into the DO sag curve by adding an
additional term to Equation 4-40:
where kn = the nitrogenous deoxygenating coefficient, day-1, Ln = ultimate nitrogenous BOD
after waste and river have mixed, mg/L, and the other terms are as previously defined. It is
important to note that with the additional term for NBOD, it is not possible to find the critical
time using Equation 4-44. Instead, it must be found by trial and error solution of Equation 4-46.

Other Factors affecting DO levels in river. The classical DO sag curve assumes that there is
only one point-source discharged of waste into the river. In reality, this is rarely the case.
Multiple point sources can be handled by dividing the river up into reaches with a point source at
the head of each reach. A reach is a length of river specified by the engineer on the basis of its
homogeneity, that is, channels shape, bottom composition, slope, etc. The oxygen deficit and
residual BOD can be calculated at the end of each reach. These values are than used to
determined new values of Da and La at the beginning of the following reach. Non-point source
pollution can also be handled this way if the reaches are made small enough. Non-point source
pollution can also be incorporated directly into the DO sag equation for a more sophisticated
analysis. Dividing the river into reaches is also necessary whenever the flow regime changes,
since the reaeration coefficient would also change. In small rivers, rapids play a major role in
maintaining high DO levels. Eliminating rapids by dredging or damming a river can have a
severe impact on DO, although DO levels immediately downstream of dams are usually high
because of the turbulence of the falling water.
Some rivers contain large deposits of organic matter in the sediments. These can be
natural deposits of levels and dead aquatic plants or can be sludge deposits from waste waters
receiving littlie or no treatment. In either case, decomposition of this organic matter places an
additional burden on the stream’s oxygen re-sources, since the oxygen demand must be supplied
from the overlying water. When this benthic demand is significant, compared to the oxygen
demand in the water column, it must be included quantitatively in the sag equation.
Aquatic plants can also have a substantial effect on DO levels. During the day, their
photosynthetic activities produce oxygen that supplements the reaeration and can even cause
oxygen super saturation. However, plants also consume oxygen for respiration processes.
Although there is a net overall production of oxygen, plant: respiration cans severely lower DO
levels during the night. Plants growth is usually highest in the summer when flows are low and
temperatures are high, so that large nighttime respiration requirements coincide with the worst
cases of oxygen depletion from BOD exertion. In addition, when aquatic plants die and settle to
the bottom, they increase the benthic demand. As a general rule, large growths of aquatic plants
are detrimental to the maintenance of a consistently high DO level.

Effect of Nutrients on Water Quality in Rivers

Although oxygen-demanding wastes are definitely the most important river pollutants on an
overall basis, nutrients can also contributes to deterioration water quality in river by causing
excessive plants go their growth. They include, in order of abundance in plant tissue: carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and a variety of trace elements. When there are sufficient quantities of all
nutrients available, plant growth is possible. By limiting the availability of any one nutrient,
further plant growth is prevented.
Some plant growth is desirable, since plants from the base of the food chain and thus.
Support the animal community. However, excessive plant growth can create a number of
undesirable conditions such as thick slime layers on rocks an dense growths of aquatic weeds.
Most important, excessive plant growth contributes to depletion of dissolved oxygen during the
night when oxygen utilization is not offset by photosynthetic oxygen production.
 The availability of nutrients is not the only requirement for plant growth. In many rivers,
the turbidity caused soil particles, bacteria, and other factors prevents light from penetrating far
into the water, thereby limiting total plant growth in deep water. It is for this reason that slime
growths on rocks usually occur in shallow water. Strong water currents also prevent rooted plants
from taking hold, and thus limit their growth to quiet backwaters where the currents are weak and
the water is shallow enough for light to penetrate.

Effects of nitrogen. There are three reasons why nitrogen is detrimental to a receiving body:

1. In high concentrations, NH3 N is toxic to fish.

2. NH3, in low concentrations, and NO3 serve as nutrients for excessive growth of algae.
3. The conversion of NH4+ to NO3- consumes large quantities of dissolved oxygen.

Effects of phosphorus. The major deleterious effect of phosphorus is that it serve as a vital
nutrient for the growth of algae. If the phosphorus availability meets the growth demands of the
algae, there is an excessive production of algae. When the algae die, they become an oxygen-
demanding organic material as bacteria seek to degrade them. This oxygen demand frequently
overtaxes the DO supply of the water body and, as a consequence, causes fish to die.

Management strategy. The strategy for managing water quality problems associated with
excessive nutrient is based on the sources for each nutrient. Except under are circumstances, there
is plenty of carbon available for plant growth. Plants use carbon dioxide, which is available from
the bicarbonate alkalinity of the water and from the bacterial decomposition of organic matter. As
carbon dioxide is removed from the water, it is replenished from the atmosphere. Generally, the
major source of trace elements is the natural weathering of rock minerals, a process over which
the environmental engineer has little control. However the acid rain caused by air pollution
accelerates the weathering process, air pollution control can help reduce the supply of trace
elements. Even when substantial amounts of trace elements are found in wastewater, their
removal is difficult. In addition, such small amounts are needed for plant growth that nitrogen or
phosphorus is more likely to be the limiting nutrient. Therefore, the practical control of nutrient-
caused water-quality problems in streams is based on removal of nitrogen and/or phosphorus
from wastewaters before they are discharged.

4-4 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

IN LAKES

Water quality management in lakes is an entirely different process than it is in rivers. In lakes,
phosphorus is generally the pollutant that most seriously affects overall water quality. Oxygen-
demanding wastes can also be important lake pollutants, especially when the waste is discharged
to a contained area such as a bay. Pathogens are of particular concern near bathing beaches.
Again, as with rivers, there are special classes of lakes which are most seriously affected by other
pollutants such as toxic chemicals from industrial discharges. However, phosphorus so dominates
other pollutants in controlling water quality in the vast majority of lakes that it deserves special
emphasis. In general, water quality in lakes must be managed by limiting the input of phosphorus.
A Knowledge of lake systems is essential to an understanding of the role of phosphorus
in lake pollution. The study of lakes is called limnology. This section is essentially a short course
in limnology as it relates to phosphorus pollution.
Stratification and Turnover

Nearly all lakes in the temperate zone become stratified during the summer and overturn
(turnover) in the fall due to changes in the water temperature that result from the annual cycle of
air temperature changes. In addition, lakes in cold climates undergo winter stratification and
spring overturns as well. These physical processes, which are described below, have a strong
interaction with phosphorus in determining water quality. These processes occur regardless of the
water quality in the lake. Nonetheless, they do help determine the water quality.
Euphotic zone may extend only partially into the epilimnion. As the algae die, they settle
to the lake bottom where they are decomposed by benthic organisms. In a eutrophic lake, this
decomposition is sufficient to deplete the hypolimnion of oxygen during the summer, eutrophic
lakes support only warm-water fish. In fact, most cold-water fish are driven out of the lake long
before the hypolimnion becomes anaerobic because they generally require dissolved oxygen
levels of at least 5 mg/L. highly eutrophic lakes may also have large mats of floating algae that
typically impart unpleasant tastes and odors to the water.

Mesotrophic lakes, Lakes which are intermediate between oligotrophic and eutrophic are called
mesotrophic. Although substantial depletion of oxygen may have occurred in the hypolimnion, it
remains aerobic.

Senescent lakes. These are very old, shallow lakes which have thick organic sediments and
rooted water plants in great abundance. These lakes will eventually become marshes.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is a natural process in which lakes gradually become shallower and more
productive through the introduction and cycling of nutrients. Thus, oligotrophic lakes gradually
pass through the mesotrophic, eutrophic, and senescent stages, eventually filling completely. The
time for this process to occur depends on the original size of the lake and on the rate at which
sediments and nutrients are introduced. In some lakes the eutrophication process is so slow that
thousands of years may pass with little change in water quality. Other lakes may have been
eutrophic from the day they were formed, if nutrient levels were high at that time.
Cultural eutrophication is caused when human activity speeds the processes added to the
lake. Thus, pollution can be seen as the intensification of a natural process. This is not to say that
eutrophic lakes are necessarily polluted, but that pollution contributes to eutrophication. Water
quality management in lakes is primarily concerned with slowing eutrophication to at least the
natural rate. This is generally accomplished by controlling phosphorus. To understand why
phosphorus is the decisive factor in eutrophication, it is necessary to understand the factors
contributing to algal growth.

Algal Growth Requirements

All algae require macronutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, and micronutrients
such as trace elements. For algae to grow, all nutrients must be available. Lack of any one
nutrient will limit the total algal population. The availability of each nutrient and its natural cycle
are summarized below.
Determination of BOD oxidation rate constants is discussed in Sec. 3-3. the constants are often
expressed in 1/days. For ambient water quality predictions, the same time unit must be used for
these rates as other quantities, such as velocities, and conversion may be required.
 For dissolved-oxygen analyses, BOD oxidation represents an oxygen losses or sink,
which occurs at the same rates as the BOD decay. Accounting for both carbonaceous and
nitrogenous components gives

ro=rc+rn (17-18)

Where r o = rate of oxygen loss per unit time per unit volume of water due to BOD oxidation,
M/TL 3

There are other sources and sinks for dissolved oxygen that need to be considered. These include
surface reaeration, sediments oxygen demand, photosynthesis, and respiration which are
discussed the below.

Surface Reaeration. When the dissolved-oxygen concentration in abode of water with a free
surface is below the saturation concentration ( Appendix E), a net flux of oxygen occurs from the
atmosthphre to the water. This flux (mass per unit time per unit surface area) is proportional to
amount by which the dissolved oxygen is below saturation. For control volume with a free
surface area, the rate of dissolved-oxygen increase due to surface reaeration is therefore
It makes the rivers r R = k R A/V(C s – C) = k R/H(Cs – C) = K2(C s-C) (17-9)

Where r R = rate of oxygen gain due to reaeration per unit time per unit volume of
water, M/TL
Kr = reaeration flux rate, L/T
A = free surface area of control volume, L2
V = volume of control volume, L3
C s = saturation dissolved – oxygen concentration, M/L3
C = dissolved – oxygen concentration, M/L3
H = control volume depth, L
K2 = surface reaeration rate, 1/T

Note that the control volume used above doesn’t necessarily extand down to the bottom
of the water body. The controla volume must be small enough so that the dissolved-oxygen
concentration is approximately uniform. Different control volume depths are thus appropriate for
different situations, as will be seen later. Therefore, the reaeration rate of greater physical
significance is kR, whereas K2 depands on the control volume depth. However, for historical
reasons, K reaeration K2 is used more frequently. A number of empirical and semi-empirical
formulae have been proposed to calculate the reaeration rate [12]. Most oof these relationships
were divised for streams but are frequently applied in lacks and coastal areas. A commonly used
formula is that of O’Connor and Dobbins [19]:

K2 = (DaU)1/2
H3/2 (17-10)

Where Da = molecular diffusion coefficient for oxygen in water, L2/T:

= 18.95x10-4 ft2/d (1.76 x 10 -4 m2/d) at 20 degree C, to be multiplied by
U = current speed, L/T
Estimate of K2, based on the surface renewal model of reaeration (see Eq. 17-10), are often low
by a factor of up to 3, particularly for swift streams [35]. Another approach that can be used to
determine K2 is based on energy dissipation [27]:

K2 = Ce (17-11)

Where h = changing surface alivation, L

Tf = travel time, T
Ce = escape coefficient = 0.054 ft -1 (0.177 m-1) at 20 dgree C’ to be adjusted downward
for relatively large streams with flows greater than about 250 ft3/s (7 m3/s) toward a limiting valu
of 0.027 ft-1 (0.09 m-1); for temperatures other then 20 degree C, mulitypliy by 1.022 (T-20
dgree C,)

Sediment Oxygen Demand (SOD). The solids discharged with treated waste water are partly
organic. Upon settling to the bottom, they decompose anaerobically as well as aerobically,
depandimg on conditions. The oxygen consumed in arobic decomposition represent another
dissolved-oxygen sink for the water body. For a control volume in in cotact with the bottom, the
rate of dissolved-oxygen depletion due to sediment oxygen demand is given by
rs = ks/H (17-12)

where rs = rate of oxygen consumption due to SOD per unit time per unit volume of water,
M/TL3
ks = sediment oxygen uptake rate, M/L2T
H = depth of control volume, L

The major factors effacting k s are the organic containt of the sediment, tempratur dissolved
oxygen at the sediment-water interface, makeup of the boilogycal community, and current speed
[4].
Measurement of k s can be accomplished using a flux chamber to isolate the sediment
from the overlying water. Dissolved oxygen in the chamber is measured versus time, from which
ks can be detramine. In-situ measurements are preferable, but their reliability is often
questionable because of special variability and because the bottom shear exerted by the flow is
diffcult to reproduce in flux chamber. For preliminary analysies the following order of magnitude
values can be used for ks [25]: 0.2-1.0 g/ft2 . d(2-10 g/m2 .d) in the vicinity of municipal
wastewater outfalls;