UNIT-1 AIR POLLUTION

Structure
0 Objective
1 Introduction
2 Air Pollution Episode
3 Classification of Pollutants
4 Sources of Air Pollution
5 Effect of Air Pollution
6 Status of Air Pollution
7 Air Quality Standard
8 Lets Sum up
9 Key Words
10 References and Further Reading
11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

0 Objective
After studying this unit you should be able to

 Define Air Pollution

 Discuss the air pollution disaster
 Discuss the sources and classification of Air pollutants
 Understand the impact of air pollution from local to global level
 Discuss the status of Air pollution in India & Abroad
 Idea of air quality standards

1 Air Pollution
Air pollution is woven throughout the fabric of our modern life. A by- product of the
manner in which we build our modern cities, air pollution is the waste remaining from the
ways we produce our goods, transport ourselves and our goods and generate the energy to
heat and light the place where we live, play and work.
Air pollution is basically the presence of foreign substances in the air, some specific
definition of air pollution are given below:
“ Air pollution means the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more
contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour, in quantities,
with characteristics, and of durations such as to be injurious to human, plant or

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animal life or to property or which unreasonably interfere with the comfortable
enjoyment of life and property”.
-Engineers Joint Council (USA)
Air pollution is the presence in the ambient atmosphere of substances, generally
resulting from activity of man, insufficient concentration, present for sufficient time
and under circumstances which interfere significantly with the comfort, health or
welfare of persons or with the full use of enjoyment of property.
- Indian Standards Institute, IS4167
(1996)
“Air pollution is the excessive concentration of foreign matter in the air which
adversely affects the well being of the individual or causes damage to the property”.
-American Medical Association
Air pollution is not a recent phenomenon. King Edward I of England tried to clear the
smoky sky over London in 1272 by banning the use of “Coal”. The British Parliament
ordered the torturing and hanging of man who sold and burned the outward coal. Under
Richard II (1377-1399) and later under Henery V (1413-1422), England took steps to
regulate and restrict the use of coal. One of earliest legal attempts to control air pollution
in the United States appears to be an 1895 ordinance making illegal the “showing and
visible vapour” as exhaust from steam automobiles.

Such natural processes as forest fires, decaying vegetation, dust storms and volcanic
eruptions have always contaminated the air. Although the total global production of many
gases and particulate matter recognized as pollutants is much greater from natural
resources than from man made sources., but global distribution and dispersion of those
pollutants result in low average concentrations. By precipitation, oxidation and
absorption into the ocean and the soil, the atmosphere can clean itself of all known
pollutants if given sufficient time. On the other hand, man generated pollutants are
usually concentrated in small geographic regions, hence most air pollution is truly man
made. Currently the rate at which pollutants are discharged into the atmosphere in highly
populated regions exceeds the cleaning rate of atmosphere.

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2 Air Pollution Episodes
Although limited pollution was experienced as early as 1272, it has become a major
problem only in relatively recent years, considering man’s total history. Some episodes of
air pollution in the recent times are:
 In December, 1930, a heavily
industrialized section of the Meaues Vally, in Belgium experienced a severe 3-day
fog during which hundreds of people became ill and 60 died more than ten times the
normal number.
 In January, 1931, 592 people
in Manchester and Salford area of England died.
 During a fog in London as far
back as 1873, 268 unexpected deaths from bronchitis were reported. In 1952, in
London, the fog lasted from December 5 to December 8, and ten days later it was
learned that the total number of deaths in Greater London during the period exceeds
the average by 4000. the indicated that almost all those who died unexpectedly had
records of bronchitis, emphysema, or heart trouble. Again in January, 1956, 1000
extra deaths in London were blamed on extended fog.
 In Bhopal MIC gas tragedy in
1984, 5000 people have been killed and 50,000 people have been seriously affected.

3 Classification Of Pollutants:
All air pollutants may be classified according to origin, chemical composition and state of
matter. For clarity, this classification will be used to structure the discussion of air
pollution parameters.
3.1 Origin:
According to their origin, pollutants are considered as either primary or secondary
contaminants. Primary pollutants such as Sulphur Oxides (SOx), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx), and Hydrocarbons (HC) are emitted directly to the atmosphere and these are
found in the form in which they were emitted. Secondary pollutants such Ozone (O3)

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and Perroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) are formed in the atmosphere by photochemical
reaction or by hydrolysis or oxidation.
3.2 Chemical Composition:
Pollutants, whether primary or secondary, may be further classified according to
chemical composition as either organic or inorganic. Organic compounds contain carbon
and hydrocarbon and many also contain elements such as Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
and Sulphur, Hydrocarbons or organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.
Inorganic compounds found in contaminated atmosphere include carbon monoxide (CO),
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbonates, Sulphur Oxides, Nitrogen Oxides, Ozone, Hydrogen
Flouride and Hydrogen Chloride.
3.3 State Of Matter:
Pollutants can also be further classified as particulate or gaseous
Table 1: Classification Of Pollutants
Major Sub-Pollutants Typical Members of Sub-Classes
Pollutants
Particulates Solid Dust, smoke, fumes, fly ash mist, spray.
Gases Hydrocarbons Hexane, benzene, ethylene, methane,
butane, butadiene
Organic
Aldehydes and ketones, Formaldehyde, acetone
Other organics Chlorinated hydrocarbons, Alcohols
Inorganic Oxides of Carbon Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide
Oxides of Sulphur Sulphur dioxide, Sulphur trioxide
Oxides of Nitrogen Nitrogen dioxide, Nitric oxide
Other inorganic Hydrogen sulfide, Hydrogen flouride,
ammonia

3.3.1 Particulates:
Air quality parameters fall into two broad categories particulate matter, which may be
liquid or solid, and gases matter, Particulates are any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in
which the individual aggregates are larger than a single small molecule (about 0.002 μm)
but smaller than about 500 μm Particulates may be classified and discussed according to
their physical, chemical, or biological characteristics. Physical characteristics include size
mode of formation, setting properties and optical qualities. Chemical characteristics

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include organic or inorganic composition and biological characteristics related to their
classification as bacteria, viruses, spores and poled etc.
3.3.2 Oxides Of Sulphur:
The oxides of Sulphur (SOX) or probably the most widespread and the most intensively
studied of all anthropogenic air pollutants. They include six different gases compounds
namely Sulphur monoxide (SO), Sulphur dioxide (SO 2), Sulphur trioxide (SO3), Sulphur
tetroxide (SO4), Sulphur sesquioxide (S2O3) and Sulphure heptoxide (S2O7). Sulphur
dioxide and Sulphur trioxide are two oxides of Sulphur of most interest in the study of air
pollution. Sulphur dioxide is colourless, non-flammable, and non-explosing gas with a
suffocating odour. It has taist threshold of 784 μg/m3 (0.3 ppm) and an odour threshold of
1306 μg/m3(0.5 ppm). Sulphur dioxide is highly soluble in water (11.3gm/100ml at 20 oC)
has a molecular weight of 64.06 and is about twice as heavy as air.
It is estimated that SO2 remains airborne as average of 2 to 4 days during which time it
may be transported as per as 1000 km (621m), thus the problem of SO 2 pollution can
become an international one.
The reactions involving sulphur dioxide in atmosphere are not so well understood as
those of oxides of nitrogen. There are two types of reactions involving sulphur dioxide-
photochemical oxidation and homogeneous or heterogeneous catalytic oxidation
depending upon the environmental factors. Free radicals like OH and H 2O also trigger
oxidation. Catalysis is mainly by metals, which are emitted from the plumes of, industrial
units particularly power plants. Sulphur dioxide in the presence of atmospheric water
vapor gets converted into sulphuric acid. Thus oxidation is governed by two chain
reactions; one involving SO3 and the other OH that proceed simultaneously. The
photochemical processes are as follows:
SO+ hν → 1SO2 : λ = 290-340 nm (Single excited species)
SO2+ hν → 3SO2 : λ = 340-400 nm (Triple excited species)
SO2 + SO2
1
SO2+ 3SO2
SO2 + SO2
3
SO 2 + SO2 = SO 3 + SO

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The triplet excited state is the most important species in the photochemistry of SO 2. It also
interacts with various oxides of nitrogen, ozone and hydrocarbons present in the
atmosphere. One of the undesirable manifestations of photochemical reactions in the
lower atmosphere as far as environmental pollution is concerned, is smog formation. The
main constituents that react in oxidizing smog are ozone, oxides of nitrogen, organic
acids, aldehydes and unsaturated hydrocarbons of both aliphatic and aromatic types. Also
SO 3 reacts with H2O and make the vapour acidic and cause of acid rain.
SO 3 + H2O H2SO4
3.3.3 Oxides Of Nitrogen:
It is probable that Oxides of Nitrogen are the second most abundant atmospheric
contaminants in many cities ranking next to Sulphur dioxide. Generally at the highest
concentration of Nitrogen oxides, gaseous emissions occur effluents from industries
where nitric acid is produced or used in chemical reaction. The next highest concentration
is in automobile exhausts. Then came effluents from large power plants and then to small
extent from low heat burners and furnaces. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) includes six gases
compounds namely Nitric Oxide (NO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), Nitrogen oxide (N2O),
Nitrogen sesquioxide (N2O3), Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and Nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5).
The two oxides of nitrogen are of primary concern in air pollution are nitric oxide ( NO)
and nitrogen dioxide ( NO2).

At high temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen in the air react to from nitric oxide. NO is
further oxidized in the atmosphere to nitrogen dioxide NO2. NO dissolves in water to give
HNO3. Atmospheric HNO3 is also formed by reaction of water vapor with N 2O5 produced
by the oxidation of NO2 by ozone. Out of all the oxides of nitrogen, nitrous oxide, N 2O is
the most stable in troposphere (estimated lifetime 4000 days at 10 km); however, it may
be photo dissociated at higher levels (estimated lifetime 20 days at 40 km). The average
residence time of NO2 in the atmosphere is only about 2 months because it is readily
washed down as nitrate by rain. Nitric oxide is synthesized in the atmosphere during
thunderstorms. However, nitric oxide of interest in photochemical reactions in the
atmosphere originates from fossil fuel combustion. The oxidation of nitric oxide to
nitrogen dioxide involves another important radical – the hydroperoxyl or peroxyallyl
radical.

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NO + H2O (RO) NO2 + OH (RO)
These radicals give rise to a free radical chain reaction, the overall effect of which is the
production of ozone, which in turn, reacts with nitrogen dioxide to give nitrogen trioxide.
O3 + NO2 NO3 + O2
In addition, NO3 can be formed by reaction of NO with atomic oxygen also
O + NO2 + M NO3 + M ( M – third radical )
NO3 is mainly removed by reaction with NO and NO2 :
NO3 + NO2 N2 O5
NO3 + NO 2 NO3
In the presence of moisture, nitrous and nitric acids are formed:
NO2 + NO + H2O 2HNO2
NO3 + H2O 2HNO3
Oxides of nitrogen contribute significantly to ‘ Photochemical smog” formation.
3.3.4 Ozone (Photochemical Oxidants):

Ozone is poisonous similarly it exists in great abundance under natural conditions in the
upper atmosphere. Photochemical air pollution occurs predominantly in highly motorized
areas and where inversion conditions prevail in the atmosphere. Photochemical smog is
formed due to photochemical oxidation of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. It has been
found that at the time of photochemical smog formation, there is considerable increase in
amount of Ozone and oxidant materials.

The ozone is not found in appreciable amounts at night, but only during the day it begins
to form. These facts clearly indicate that photochemical formation of ozone or oxidant
from impurities take place due to the action of sunlight.
The most important ozone reactio n in the troposphere involves NO 2 as (oxygen is
dissociated in the troposphere)
NO2+hν NO+O : λ ≤ 430 nm
O2+O+M M+O3 : ΔH = - 100kJ
O3 + NO NO2+O2

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Thus, any activity that increases atmospheric nitrogen dioxide concentration would
generate more ozone. This is particularly so in a polluted atmosphere containing nitrogen
oxides. The residence time of ozone in the troposphere is one to two months.
3.3.5. Carbon Monoxide:
Carbon monoxide is the principal component of “photochemical smog”. Carbon
monoxide oxidizes OH to H2O and is itself removed from the atmosphere as
OH + CO CO2 + H
H+O2 +M H2O +M
CO +H2O CO2 +HO

The residence time of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere is 0.1 to 0.3 year. The
hydroperoxyl radical HO as also the hydroxyl radical OH react with species like
hydrocarbons, aldehydes etc. to give different constituents of “smog”.
Carbon dioxides is one of the two most important minor constituents of the lower
atmosphere, the other one being water vapour. Carbondioxide unlike carbon monoxide, is
not harmful to human beings/animals in the concentrations found in the environment. The
exchange of CO between atmosphere and hydrosphere has great chemical impact on the
environment.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with that given at the end of the unit.

1) How will you define Air Pollution

2) Classify the pollutants on the basis of the origin

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3) How the photochemical smog is formed

4. SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is caused by various pollutants such as lead (Pb), particulate matter (PM),
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon
dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) etc. But where do all these pollutants come from? They
come from definite sources.

The Sources of Air Pollution can be broadly classified as:

1. Natural Sources

2. Stationery Sources

3. Mobile Sources
4.1 Natural Sources

The natural sources of Air Pollution are the one, which are not man-made, occur
naturally. Man cannot control nature and hence air pollution by Natural sources cannot be
controlled. A few Natural Sources are mentioned below:
a) Volcanic Eruptions:

Eject pollutants such as particulate matter dust, fly ash along with various gases such as
Sulphur dioxide (SO2).

b) Process Of Pollination:

This process is carried out by plants with the help of wind. In this case the pollen grains
are carried away by wind as pollutants.

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c) Deserts

In the deserts, the sand particles are carried by wind as pollutants. This is due to absence
of moisture in the soil.
d) Forest Fires:

These are caused due to friction of trees or grass against each other or by lightning strike
on them. The pollutants obtained from forest fires are Carbon monoxide (CO),
particulates, Hydrocarbons (HC), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), etc.
4.2 Stationery Sources

Various stationery sources are as follow:

 Industrial and commercial process

 Generation of heat, power (electricity)

 Stationery engines,

 Home heating,

 Cooking,

 Refuse burning,

 Incineration,

 Use of solvents/ aerosols

4.3 Mobile Sources:

Line Source: - Highway vehicles, Trains, Channel Vessels

Area Source: Railway Yards, Port vessels, Junctions, Aerodrum

5 Effects Of Air Pollution

The major air pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen oxides (NO x),
Hydrocarbons(HC), Lead(Pb), Benzene and particulate matter (TSP) as well as

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photochemical oxidants, and carbon dioxide (CO2). They may cause direct and indirect
effect:

 Health Effects : (Irritation of respiratory, eye or other systems, acute

toxic systematic effects, mutagenic or carcinogenic actions; adverse
effects on defense mechanisms against infections).

 Ecological Effects : (material soiling, corrosion, loss of

agricultural productivity, acidification of soil and water, forest die-back,
Green house effects, Smog formation etc.)

Certain of these effects may be immediately apparent and relatively easily traceable to
the difference source for example the odour of the diesel smoke and other effects may
occur in the short terms but the precise contribution of vehicle emissions to these is not
always clear; certain effects may take long period to become apparent and drawing a
casual link to the source of emissions become dramatically more difficult, complicated
often by lack of complete scientific understanding of the process, as is the case with
many carcinogens. Some of these pollutants have also been implicated in more complex
environmental problems such as photochemical smog, acid precipitation and Green house
effects.

Until recently, attention to air pollution problems has been focused on the effects of
individual pollutants. However, growing evidence is emerging that the problem may be
much greater with the combination of the individual pollutants. For example a careful
review of the dying German forests indicates that it may be due to synergistic effects of
both acid rain and photochemical reaction products, as well as direct effects of SO 2 and
NO2. Other studies have found adverse health effects from SO 2 and NO2 in combination
to be much more serious than from these pollutants individually. The U.S. National
Academy of Sciences has noted than “high level of SO 2 and co-existing particulate
pollutants have been associated with increase in respiratory mortality rates”. Therefore,
considering the effects of these pollutants separately may lead to erroneous conclusions
regarding the relative and absolute need for cost-effectiveness of individual control
measures.

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5.1 Health Effect

5.1.1 Carbon Monoxide

The toxic properties of this gas are due to its ability to react with the haemoglobin in the
blood to produce carboxy-haemoglobin (COHb). Carbon monoxide has greater affinity
for haemoglobin than oxygen and it is preferentially absorbed even when the
concentration of carbon monoxide is very low. The degree of absorption depends upon
the concentration of carbon monoxide in the air, the period of exposure and the activity of
the individual. The toxic effects of carbon monoxide as measured by the percentage of
carboxy-haemoglobin in the blood are given below.

After a subject ceases to be exposed to non-lethal dose of carbon dioxide, the carboxy-
haemoglobin content of the blood gradually declines by (50 percent in 3 to 4 hours) as
carbon monoxide is breathed out. Table given below shows that Signs and symptoms at
various concentrations of Carboxy haemoglobin percent

COHb % Signs and Symptoms for an average man

Less then 1 No signs or symptoms

1-2 Tightness across the forehead, possible slight headache, dilation of

the cutaneous blood vessel

2-3 Headache and throbbing in the temples

3-4 Severe headache, weakness, dizziness, dimness of vision, nausea,

vomiting, and collapse

4-5 Syncope, increased pulse rate, coma, intermittent convulsions, and

Cheyne-strokes respiration. Coma, intermittent convulsions,
depressed heart action and respiratory rate, and possible death

5-6 Weak pulse, slow respirations, respiratory failure and death within a

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 few hours.

6% Death within a few minutes.

Although this seems a clear indication that carbon monoxide is not likely to leave any
permanent effects or course any acute physical discomfort to most people but its effect
cannot be entirely discounted. Apart from relatively minor physical discomfort in
particularly susceptible people quite small amounts of COHb in the blood have been
shown to impair temporarily mental ability Perception is reduced on levels of less than 5
percent.

This can affect driving ability. Also, the impaired oxygen transport in the human body
can have serious implications for persons with pre-existing hear of lung pathology and
for the fetuses carried by pregnant women.

5.1.2 Oxides Of Nitrogen:

Both nitric oxide (NO) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are produced by internal combustion
engines, the former in much large quantities than the latter. However, NO oxidizes the
NO2 and typical ambient atmospheres in city streets contain about half as much NO 2 as
NO. their toxicity is by no means equal, NO2 being very much more toxic NO the MAC)
maximum allowable concentration for industrial exposures for NO & NO 2 is 25 ppm & 5
ppm respected.. Normal levels in city streets are under 1 percent of these values, and little
information is thus available on their effects on human.

Few studies have indicated that exposure to NO 2 can be linked with increase
susceptibility to respiratory infection, increased airway resistance in asthmatics, and
decreased pulmonary function. Short-term exposures to NO2 have resulted in wide
deranging group of respiratory problems in school children, such as coughs and sore
throats, although at concentrations typically higher than normal air quality standards. The
possibility of effects from continuous exposure to very low levels remains a worry, and

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there is no possibility of adverse effects resulting from the absorption of NOX on the
carbon particles produced from exhausts.
5.1.3 Photochemical Oxidants:

High emission of hydrocarbons and NOx during bright sunshine, causes chemical
reactions in the atmosphere producing photochemical oxidants. This first became widely
know to occur in Los Angeles, USA during the 1950`s.

The photochemical processes are complex, it takes place over several hours and result in
the formation of ozone (O3), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN), a
variety of the gaseous compounds that are poorly defines, and very fine particulate
matter. The O3, NO2 and PAN are highly active oxidizing chemical and are responsible
for most of the injury and damage produced by this type of air pollution. The fine
particulate matter, which consists mainly of nitrates and sulphates, interferes considerably
with visibility and is one of the major annoyance factors. Another is the eye irritation
caused partly by PAN and partly by other chemicals in the poorly defined group, such as
formaldehyde and acrolein.

Ozone is the strongest of the photochemically formed oxidants that are stable enough to
be identified and measured. It is known to be highly toxic and there are enough evidence ,
according to the world health organization, for attributing many adverse effects solely to
ozone. Studies have shown that many people, even healthy young children, suffer adverse
effects from exposure to ozone at quite low levels including eye irritation, coughs, chest
discomfort, headaches, respiratory illness, increased asthma attacks, and reduced
pulmonary function. The WHO have recently said :

“Existing data on the health effects of ozone, considered in conjunction with its
high natural background level, lead to the recommendation of 1-hour guideline in the
range of 150-200 ug/m3 (0.0076-0.000 ppm).”

To lessen the potential of adverse acute and chronic effects, and to provide and additional
margin of protection, 8-hour guideline for exposure to ozone of 100-200 ug/m 3 (10.03-
20.06 ppm) was recommended.

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5.1.4 Lead:

Lead enters the body through either the mouth, with things eaten or drunk, or breathed in
through the nose. Far more lead is likely to be ingested than inhaled, but ingested lead is
less well absorption than that which is inhales. The rate of absorption also depends on its
chemical composition, the volatile organic lead compounds added to petrol being more
readily absorbed than the inorganic particulate products or combustion. Poisoning by lead
at high concentration has been recognized for a very long time The most common form
of lead poisoning seen today is the disturbance of the gastro-intestinal system know as
lead colic, accompanying the pain of which all be symptoms such as excessive tiredness,
continued headaches, loss of apprise, nausea, and muscular pains.

Toxicological studies have demonstrated that three system in the body, most sensitive to
lead are the blood forming system, the nervous system and the renal system.
Reproductive endocrine, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal function may also be
affected by lead. In children it can inhibit enzymatic system.

Lead poisoning can be either acute or chronic. The system of acute lead poisoning
include vomiting, constipation or bloody diarrhea, insomnia, irritability and even death
symptoms of chronic lead poisoning include headache, weakness, constipation and blue
line gum.
5.1.5 Hydrocarbon:

There is no doubt that they have a carcinogenic effect, and that they commonly occur in
smoke from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons fuels of all kinds, there is doubt
whether the concentration breathed in with air polluted by vehicle exhausts are high and
enough to produce harmful effects.

The studied have shown that, particular organic compound such as aldehydes, polycyclic
aromatic compound, Benzene have adverse effects on human health. But however
molecular hydrocarbon is relatively nontoxic, although they may cause, unpleasant
affects including eye irritation, coughing, sneezing and symprom sakin to drunkenness.
Benzene constituent of gasoline and automobile exhaust is known as human carcinogen

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causing leukemia also polyclinic aromatic compound. Such as benzo (a) pyreene as by
products of incomplete combustion of diesel fuel are known mategen and carcinogen.

5.1.6 Oxide Sulphur:

Sulphur dioxide and Sulphate tend to irritate the mucous membrane of respiratory track
and foster the development of chronic respiratory disease, particularly bronchitis.
Exposure at SO2 level of about 1 ppm (2600 μg/m3) leads to the constriction of air
passages in respiratory tract, often SO2 gets absorbed on the surface of very fine particles
and is carried deep in to the lungs. This cause a 3-4 fold increased irritant response. The
effect of SO2 concentration in ambient air as related to the time of exposure are
summarized. In dusty atmosphere SO2 is particularly harmful because both Sulphur
dioxide and Sulphuric acid molecule paralyze the hair like cilia, which line the
respiratory tract. These particulate usually carry with them concentrated amount of SO2
thus bringing this irritant in to direct and prolonged contact with delicate lung tissues.

5.1.7 Particulate Matter:

Particulate matter is emitted along with exhaust as well as flue gases. Fine particulate
mattered may be toxic in it self or may carry toxic (including carcinogenic) trace
substances absorbed on its surface. Fine particulate emitted from diesel fuelled vehicle)
average diameter around 0.2 μm.

The size of particulate inhaled is very important for the success and failure of respiratory
defense. Approximately 40% of particulate between 1 and 2 μm in size are retained in
bronchiotis and alveoli as shown in Fig. The USEPA (United State Environment
Protection Agency) have found clear evidence that implicates particle in aggravating
disease among bronchitis, asthmatics and influenza patient. Diesel particulates are of
major concern because of its carcinogenicity. The possibility of developing cancer may
be 42% greater in individual exposed to diesel exhaust than others.

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5.2 Ecological Effect:

5.2.1 Road Side Pollutant:

Vegetation close to a heavily traffic road is in vicinity of thermal power plant, and
cement industries subjected to high concentration of air born pollutant. According to a
study done by Central Pollution Control Board, is found that the plant bushes near road-
side has higher level of lead in soil. It is taken into plant tissues via root than via the
leaves and level of lead in the soil fell rapidly with distance from the edge of the road.
Where as atmospheric concentration felt much more slowly with increasing distance.

Tomatoes are very sensitive and have been found to suffer at road side concentration of
NOx and as result of particulate fell out, the vegetation becomes darkened and look dusty.
The road surface run off during rain contains high quantity of suspended solid, lead, oil
emission of coal tar have potential to affect severely the near the by water reservoir.
5.2.2 Ozone:

Ozone is unique among gaseous pollutant that its high concentration at troposphere is
injurious to human life and ecosystem where as low concentration at Stratosphere is
harmful for our civilization.

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The high concentration of ozone at troposphere damages plants species vary greatly in
their sensitivity to ozone. There has been suggestion that ozone is a major factor
contributing to the decline of forest health. It has many implications for, human health
and may well affect crop production.

It has been documented and reported by many independent studies that Ozone (O 3) layer
in the stratosphere is being depleted as ozone reacts with chlorine released from the
fluorocarbons used as aerosol spray propellants. Since the O3 in the atmosphere reduce
the ultra violet radiation that reaches the earth’s surface, and ultraviolet radiation at high
levels can damage plant and animals, loss of O3 represent a potentially serious problem.
In light of danger, some industrialized nations have banned use of fluorocarbons.

5.2.3 Acid Rain:

The main precursors of acid deposition are Sulphur dioxides (SO 2) and Nitrogen oxide
(NOx). The vehicle contribution is mostly in the form of Nox. However, the Nox may
influence the rate of photochemical oxidation of both SO 2 and /or NOx are unlikely to
lead the direct proportional change in quantity of acid deposition at various locations. The
damage attributed to acidity in the environment includes effect on vegetation aquatic life,
structural material and on human health.

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5.2.4 The Green House Effect:

The amount of tropospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)is reported to be increasing at the rate
of 1.8 mg/m3 per year, a process that may not me reversible. Furthermore, this increase
has been accompanied by an equivalent decrease in atmospheric oxygen (O 2). Currently,
there are more then 700 billion tons of carbon in the form of CO 2 in the atmosphere. Each
year this figure increased by 2.3 billion tons, the equivalent of a 3 percent increase by
every decade.

Fossil fuel consumption and agricultural, forestry, and land-use practices of various type
contribute to the CO2 buildup. CO2 in presence of water vapours strongly absorbs long-
wave (infra-red) terrestrial radiation and continued CO 2 buildup to lead significant
enough rise in earth surface temperature to melt the Artic ice pack. If the warming tend
can be confirmed and positively linked to CO 2 buildup, then global action such as
reforestation may eventually have to be pursued to remove CO2 from the atmosphere.

There is at present much uncertainty about the effect of global warming if it is allowed to
continue. What harmful changes will occur if present trends continue is not in doubt. The
only doubt is about when and where they will occur and their overall size.

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Check Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
iii) Check your answer with that given at the end of the unit.

1) Discuss the major sources of Air Pollution

2) How the carboxy-haemoglobin is formed

3) What are the causes of Acid Rain

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6 Status Of Air Pollution
6.1 India :

In most of the 23 Indian cities with million-plus population, air pollution levels exceed
world health organization (WHO) recommended health standards. Further in almost
every city, the levels are getting worse because of the growing vehicles, high energy
consumption, unbridled industrialization and burning of waste.
Six out of India’s 10 largest cities-Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi, Ahemdabad, Kanpur and
Nagpur face sever air pollution problems, with the annual average levels of total
suspended particles (TSP) at least three times as high as the WHO standard. TSP and
PM10—(particles less than 10 microns in diameter) which can penetrate the lungs more
easily and are therefore more relevant than total particulate matter for human health have
been associated with both premature death from respiratory illness and cardiovascular
diseases and increases morbidity, (high incidence of chronic obstructive lung diseases,
especially bronchitis and of upper and lower respiratory tract infections).

However, concentration of Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxides are generally low
compared to ambient standard. Carbon monoxide and ozone pollutants which can have
serious health impacts as well as hydrocarbon levels, are not routinely monitored in India.
CO reading at traffic intersections often has been found to be in excess.
Following tables will provide an idea of SPM, RSPM, SO 2 and NOx in most of the Indian
cities
Table:3 Annual average SO2 concentration in the ambient air in residential &
industrial areas of cities with more than one million human population’
City Residential Industrial
1995 2000 1995 2000
Agra # 8.2 # -
Ahmedabad 38.3 8.2 22.4 9.0
Bangalore - 24.2 - 18.9
Bhopal 11.5 19.7 13.1 22.0
Chennai 7.8 7.2 30.9 16.0
Delhi 16.2 16.0 20.4 17.4
Faridabad 37.0 36.5 39.1 37.3
Haora 84.0 13.4 39.8 12.4
Hyderabad 15.3 13.7 19.0 12.0

21
Indore 5.3 22.9 7.3 28.5
Jaipur 8.56 18.1 14.7 23.2
Kalyan-Dombivili- 29.3 38.3 32.6 37.6
Ambarnath
Kanpur 13.9 18.7 14.3 17.8
Kolkata 29.9 13.5 47.4 25.3
Lucknow 29.5 27.4* 30.4 -
Ludhiana - 11.7 - 11.6
Mumbai 25.9 10.5 41.8 15.4
Nagpur 8.6 6.9 7.9 8.0
Nashik - 33.8 - 28.8
Patna 26.2 14.0 - -
Pune 7.8 43.3 37.3 43.6
Surat 84.5 - 88.6 -
Vadodara 66.2 - 76.6 -
Varanasi 23.6 18.9 - -

Source : Central Pollution Control Board.

Table 4.:Annual average NOx concentration in ambient air in residential & Industrial
areas of cities with more than one million Human Population
City Residential Industrial
1995 2000 1995 2000
Agra # 7.5 # -
Ahmedabad 18.0 25.3 16.9 35.2
Bangalore 31.0 47.0 - 32.4
Bhopal 18.2 20.2 21.3 26.0
Chennai 14.5 14.8 19.4 14.3
Delhi 33.0 29.4 34.6 33.7
Faridabad 13.3 11.1 14.7 11.5
Haora 212.2 50.2 180.6 51.4
Hyderabad 28.3 21.0 47.2 29.2
Indore 9.5 16.6 11.7 22.0
Jaipur 25.7 41.3 35.1 47.7
Kalyan-Dombivili/ 32.8 58.1 39.4 65.4
Ambarnath
Kanpur 15.6 20.0 16.6 28.4
Kolkata 27.3 30.0 35.2 44.2
Lucknow 28.7 29.0 29.1 -
Ludhiana - 30.8 - 30.2
Mumbai 34.3 29.0 36.1 25.0
Nagpur 15.4 24.4 11.8 17.7
Nashik 31.0 23.2 - 17.3
Patna 29.0 17.0 - -
Pune 8.5 63.1 38.4 57.6
Surat 30.8 - 29.8 -
Vadodara 18.5 - 20.4 -
Varanasi 19.6 17.5 - -

22
Source : Central Pollution Control Board., Auto Fuel Policy 2002

Table: 5. Annual average SPM concentration in ambient air in residential and industrial
areas of cities with more than one million human population.
City Residential Industrial
1995 2000 1995 2000
Agra # 349 # 388
Ahemdabad 246 272 201 409
Bangalore 199 208 - 120
Bhopal 218 185 185 160
Chennai 106 87* 142 86
Delhi 415 368 403 372
Faridabad 310 404 331 458
Haora 339 124 198 130
Hyderabad 165 109 192 164
Indore 346 249 478 354
Jaipur 243 330* 216 312
Kalyan-Dombivili- 120 - 192 -
Ambarnath
Kanpur 460 348 522 444
Kolkata 308 218 447 405
Lucknow 490 248* 531 -
Ludhiana - 449 - 279
Mumbai 195 199* 271 280*
Nagpur 184 140 162 157
Nashik 161 206 - -
Patna 521 363 - -
Pune 79 190 201 129
Surat 274 - 242 -
Vadodara 256 - 328 -
Varanasi 238 312 - -
Source : Central Pollution Control Board and Auto Fuel Policy : 2002

Table: 6 Annual average RSPM concentration in ambient air in residential areas of cities
with more than one human population million.
City Residential
2000 2001
Ahemdabad 197 198
Bangalore 109 87
Bhopal - 84
Chennai 63 66
Delhi 199 180
Hyderabad 87 77
Jaipur 140 134
Kalyan-Dombivili-Ambernath 78 78
Kanpur 205 202
Kolkata 121 102
Lucknow 187 173

23
Mumbai 110 81
Nagpur 92 83
Nashik 73 72
Pune 89 115
Thane 54 54
Vadodara - 48
Varanasi - 96
Source : Central Pollution Control Board and Auto Fuel Policy

6.2 Air Pollution Status in Other Countries

Many of the major cities of the world are facing, severe environmental problems, not the
least of which is deteriorating air quality. Exposure to air pollution is now an almost
inescapable part of urban life throughout the world. The available information shows that
the air quality guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO) are regularly being
exceeded in many cities. Given the rate that these cities are growing and the general
absence of pollution control measures in many of them, air pollution will probably
worsen, and the quality of life of many urban residents will continue to deteriorate.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries along

accounted for 80percent of the world’s cars, 70 percent of trucks and buses, and more
than 50percent of two-and three-wheeled vehicles and more then 60% industries.

6.2.1 Europe

Motor vehicles are the dominant source of these air pollutants in Europe. Road
transportation is responsible for 50-60% of NOx emission. Mobile sources, mainly road
traffic, also produce around 50% of anthropogenic VOC source category in all European
OECD countries [OECD 1988 a].

The key role of motor vehicles was reinforced in the EEC’s Technical annex to the NOx
protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long Range Trans boundary Air Pollution, (signed in
November 1988), which states:

24
 “Road transport is a major source of anthropogenic NOx emissions in many
Commission countries contribution between 4% and 80% of total national
emissions. Typically, petrol-fuelled vehicles contribute two-thirds of total road
transport NOx emissions”
6.2.2 Unites States:

In 1985, the U.S. Environmental protection Agency (EPA) estimated that transport
sources were responsible for 70% of CO, 45% of NOx, and 34% of HC emissions
(USEPA 1987a]. If evaporative “running losses” are added, the HC contribution from
vehicles may be substantially higher [USEPA 1988]. Los Angeles, California and its
environs constitute the second largest population center in the United States. From just
over 4 million in 1950, it is expected that by 2020 the population would reach 15.7
million. The Los Angeles basin has a Mediterranean climate. The surrounding
mountains, subsidence inversions, and high solar intensity produce ideal conditions for
the atmospheric stagnation conducive to pollutant reactions and buildup. During periods
of stagnating high pressure, the air circulation pattern, which takes pollutants out to sea at
night and returns them to land during the day, allows air pollutants to build up in the air
shed until the passage of a new weather front. Los Angeles suffers the worst air pollution
in the United States, and the primary source is cars. Los Angeles developed with almost
no public transportation network. Consequently, the residents must rely on motor
vehicles for almost all transportation. Cars and other motor vehicles are the primary
source of the city’s infamous smog-primarily formed by the photochemical reaction of
two motor vehicle exhaust emissions: oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). According to EPA, Los Angeles is the only city in the United States
that has failed to attain the federal air quality standards for NO2.

6.2.3 Thailand:

Air pollution in Thailand, especially with regard to diesel particulates, is already quite
acute and is reaching chronic levels, with the overall vehicle population increasing at
a rate of 10% per annum. Carbon monoxide and ambient lead levels periodically

25
 exceed internationally accepted limits, although they are apparently stabilizing.
Because of meteorological conditions, the ozone problem is not yet serious.

6.2.4 Indonesia:
The combination of densely congested traffic, poor vehicle maintenance, and large
numbers of diesel vehicles and two-stroke engine (smoky) motorcycles has contributed to
elevated air pollution levels in Jakarta and other large urban centers. While air quality
data are not well documented, the carbon monoxide and ambient lead levels exceed
internationally accepted standards.

6.2.5 Philippines:
The air pollution problem is Manila is quite serious. A large proportion of the vehicle is
diesel-fueled and most of these emit excessive smoke. Owning to a lack of
instrumentation, actual air quality data do not exist at present. However, it appears, that
particulate, lead, carbon monoxide and possibly ozone levels exceed internationally
accepted standards. Based on an analysis of fuel consumption, motor vehicles are
estimated to account for approximately 50% of particulate, 99% of carbon monoxide,
90% of hydrocarbons, and 5% of Sulphur dioxide. Fuel quality is very poor as reflected
by the Sulphur content of as much as 1.0% by weight (compared to 0.3% in the US) and a
lead content of upto 1.16 grams per liter (compared to 0.15 in European community). The
motor vehicle related air pollution is Singapore is primarily related to diesel particulates.
The major problems are related to sub standard maintenance of vehicles and the relatively
high density of vehicles throughout the day in the city center. Authorities are concerned
because surveys conducted by the pollution control department in 1989 showed that the
percentage of smoky vehicles stopped by enforcement officers on the roads, more than
87% were founded to emit excessive black smoke as compared to 70% the previous year.

6.2.6 Mexico:
The combination of high altitude, special meteorological conditions, and a rapid rate of
motorization have transformed Greater Mexico City, the world’s largest metropolis (with
a population of 25 milllion) into a virtual ‘gas chamber’. The number of automobiles in

26
Mexico city has grown dramatically in the past several decades; there was approximately
48,000 cars in 1940 to 2.6 million in 1989.

Although there are not as many commercial vehicles as automobiles in Mexico City, they
are considered a serious pollution hazard because of the high levels of fine particles
produced by diesel engines and the direct public exposure to these emissions. The
contribution of mobile and stationary sources to emissions of primary air pollutants in
Mexico City is summarized in Table; motor vehicle contribute the preponderant part of
CO, HC and NOx emissions.

Table 7 : Source distribution of air pollutant emissions in Mexico City, 1987

Pollutant Total Distribution by Source (%) Industry Natural
emissions Motor Vehicle Source
(tons/ year)
Cars Taxis Buses Trucks Total
CO 3,549,000 54 13 1 31 99 1 0
HC 335,000 61 14 1 13 89 11 0
NOx 270,000 34 8 3 19 64 36 0
SO2 445,000 0 0 0 2 2 98 0
Particulates 428,000 0 0 1 8 9 30 61
Source : [Journal 1989]

7 Air Quality Standards:

7.1 Ambient Air Quality Standards:
Air pollution is an increasingly important environment issue in urban areas. The rapid
growth of motor vehicles along with the industrial development contributes to a definite
air pollution pattern with clear trends of deteriorated air quality in major cities. Rural air
quality is affected by pollution from level discharge of smoke from the use of crude fuels
like wood, animal dung etc. in inefficient store. In India the national ambient air quality
standards are as follows
Table 8 National Ambient Air Quality Standards:
Pollutants Time weighed Concentration in ambient air
average

27
 Industrial Areas Residential Sensitive Areas
Rural & Other
Areas
Sulphur Dioxide Annual 80 ug/m3 60 ug/m3 15 ug/m3
Average 24 120 ug/m3 80 ug/m3 30 ug/m3
Hours
Oxides of Annual 80 ug/m3 60 ug/m3 15 ug/m3
Nitrogen
24 Hours 120 ug/m3 80 ug/m3 30 ug/m3
Suspended Annual 360 ug/m3 140 ug/m3 70 ug/m3
Particulate
Matter
24 Hours 500 ug/m3 200 ug/m3 100 ug/m3
Respirable Annual 120 ug/m3 60 ug/m3 50 ug/m3
Particulate
Matter (size less
than 10mm)
24 Hours 150 ug/m3 100 ug/m3 75 ug/m3
Lead Annual 1.0 ug/m3 0.75 ug/m3 0.50 ug/m3
24 Hours 1.5 ug/m3 1.00 ug/m3 0.75 ug/m3
Carbon 8 Hours 5.0 ug/m3 2.00 ug/m3 2.0 ug/m3
Monoxide
1 Hour 10.0 ug/m3 4.00 ug/m3 2.0 ug/m3

Table: 9 Comparative Ambient Air Quality Standards Of 14 Countries/ Economies And

Two International Organizations are given below:

Pollutant: TSP SO2 CO O3 NOx Lead

Concentration: ug/m3 24 Ppm Ppm Ppm Ppm Ug/m3
Sampling time: hours 24 24 hours 24 hours 24 hours
hours
Brazil 240 0.14 9.0 0.08 0.25HM -
Chile 260 0.14 9.0 0.08 0.16HM -
Indonesia 260 0.10 20.0 0.10 0.05HM -
Japan 100 0.04 20.0 0.06 0.04-0.06 -
DM
Korea 300 0.15 20.0 0.10 0.15HM -
Kuwait 250 0.06 10.0 0.08 - 2.024 Hr.
Malaysia 260 0.04 9.0 0.10 0.17HM 3.0 -
Mexico 275 0.13 13.0 0.11 0.21HM -
Peru 350 0.30 17.0 0.20(30min 0.11HM -
s)
Saudi Arabia 340 0.15 9.0 0.15 0.35HM -

28
Taiwan 250 0.10 9.0 0.12 0.25HM 1.0 MNm
Thailand 330 0.11 17.0 0.10 0.17HM -
Turkey 300-400 0.15 - - 0.16HM 2.0 AAMo
USA 260 0.14 9.0 0.12 0.05 1.5 QA*
AAMo
EEC 300 0.15 - - - 2.0 AAMo
WHO 150-230 0.04 9.0 0.10 0.05 (8 0.5-1.0
hours)
Note:- - = not available, ug=1x10-6 gm; mg=1x10-3gm; ppm= parts per million;
ug/m3=ppmx40.91

Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
iv) Check your answer with that given at the end of the unit.

1) Write the name of Six most polluted cities (in term of Air Pollution) of India

2) Discuss the reasons for the poor air quality of los Angeles

3) What is the Indian Air Quality standard for RPM for Industrial & residential
area.

29
8 LETS SUM UP
The unit discussed the definition of Air Pollution and its episodes. It also discuss the
causes, sources and classification of Air pollution. It through light on the effect air
pollution on human as well as on planet health. It also gives a view on the status of Air
pollution on national and International level. Lastly the Air quality standards have been
described.

9 KEY WORDS
Air Pollution: Excessive concentration of foreign matter in the air which
adversely affects the well being of the individual or causes damage to the property

Air Pollution Episodes: Mortality and morbidity because of high concentration of

pollutants in the Air

Primary Pollutant: Pollutants emitted directly from the source eg. SO2, Particulate
matter, Lead etc

Secondary Pollutant: Pollutants formed in the atmosphere by reaction eg. Ozone

(O3) and Per-oxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)

Photochemical Smog: It is a secondary pollutant mainly formed by presence of

Oxides of Nitrogen

Carboxy-haemoglobin (COHb): Carbon monoxide react with the haemoglobin in the

blood to form toxic Carboxy-haemoglobin (COHb):

Acid Rain: Washing down of pollutant (NOx & SO2 ) by rain in the form of acid eg.
H2SO4, HNO3

Green House Effect: Higher concentration of CO2 in presence of water vapours

( Hydrosphere)strongly absorbs long-wave terrestrial radiation thus causing the average
increase of global temperature This phenomena is also known as global Warming

10 REFRENCES AND FUTURE READING

Howard S. Peavy etal, 1998 Environmental Engineering McGRAW-HILL International
Edition

30
I.G. Simmons, 1990, Changing the face of the Earth Basil BackWell Inc, USA

Richard C. Flagan 1988, Fundamental of Air Pollution Engineering, Prentice Hall USA

Mackenzie L. Davis etal, 1991 Introduction to Environmental Engineering McGRAW-

HILL International Edition

Gilbert M. Masters, 1991 Introduction to Environmental Engineering Prentice Hall of

India

M. N. Rao & Rao , 1993 Air Pollution Tata McGRAW-HILL India

11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

Check your progress 1

1) Your answer should include the following points


Presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as
dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour

Presence, in quantities, with characteristics, and of durations such as to be
injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property

Presence in the ambient atmosphere of substances, generally resulting
from activity of man

2) Your answer should include the following points


Pollutants are considered as either primary or secondary contaminants.

Primary pollutants such as Sulphur Oxides (SOx), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx), and Hydrocarbons (HC) are emitted directly to the atmosphere

Secondary pollutants such Ozone (O3) and Perroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)
are formed in the atmosphere

3) Your answer should include the following points


Oxides of nitrogen contribute significantly to ‘ Photochemical smog”
formation

Photochemical Smog occurs predominantly in highly motorized areas

Inversion conditions act as facilitator for smog formation.

It is formed due to photochemical oxidation of hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides.

It has been found that at the time of photochemical smog formation, there
is considerable increase in amount of Ozone and other oxidant materials

Check your progress 2

1) Your answer should include the following points

Natural Sources

31
 
Mobile Sources

Stationery Sources

2) Your answer should include the following points


Carbon monoxide has greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen

It is preferentially absorbed even when the concentration of carbon
monoxide is very low

The degree of absorption depends upon the concentration of carbon
monoxide in the air, the period of exposure and the activity of the
individual

The toxic effects of carbon monoxide as measured by the percentage of
carboxy-haemoglobin in the blood

3) Your answer should include the following points


The main precursors of acid deposition are Sulphur dioxides (SO2) and
Nitrogen oxide (NOx).

The vehicular contribution is mostly in the form of NOx

Check your progress 3

1) Your answer should include the following points

Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi, Ahemdabad, Kanpur and Nagpur

2) Your answer should include the following points


Los Angeles,and its environs constitute the second largest population
center in the United States

The surrounding mountains, subsidence inversions, and high solar
intensity

The air circulation pattern, which takes pollutants out to sea at night and
returns them to land during the day,

Very high vehicular density

3) Your answer should include the following points


Annual Average

Industrial area120 ug/m3

Residential area60 ug/m3

32