022 – Instrumentation (56q en 1h30)

Flight Instruments (25)

Air Data Instruments
Static pressure variation near the source  position pressure error
VFE  Flaps Extended
Blue line of ASI  optimum climbing speed with one engine inoperative [Vy]
VLE  Landing gear down – extended
CAS cst  Mach increases with altitude
Servo assisted altimeter  induction pick off device
Mach independent from temperature

TAT = SAT(1+0.2KrM^2)
Remember to put temperatures in Kelvins, and so...
225 = SAT x (1 + (0.2 x 0.85 x 0.7 x 0.7))
therefore SAT = 225 / (1 + (0.2 x 0.85 x 0.7 x 0.7))
= 225 / 1.0833
= 207.7 Kelvin
= -65*C.
Mach No. is a function of (P - S)/S (see Bristol notes page 2.22)
where P = pitot (or 'total') pressure and S = static pressure
So indications on the Machmeter will vary with P, S and (P - S) which is the differential pressure measurement.
Machmeter indications will not vary with temperature but TAS will.
With increasing OAT density will decrease so with the Equation
TAS = CAS / square root density and increasing TAS and decreasing density CAS will remain constant.
An aircraft is flying at flight level FL180 and Mach number 0.36. Its onboard thermometer reads TAT = - 5°C. Considering that
the probe recovery coefficient is 0.84, the present weather conditions compared with the standard atmosphere are: standard + 10°
Use the formula on page 1.6 of the BGS notes but remember that the temperatures are in ºK and
the answers are ISA deviations.ISA+10
TAT = SAT (1+ 0.2M²)
SAT = TAT / (1+ 0.2 Kr M²)
Kr is your recovery factor.
TAT is -5 C, which is 268.15 K. 268.15 / (1 + 0.2 * 0.84 * 0.36²) = 262.436 K ("SAT"), so 262.436 -
273.15 = -10.7137 C ("SAT").
FL180..... 18 * 1.9812 = 35.6616 C of a rop, starting at 15 C, so in ISA is -20.6616. Therefore we're
about 10 C warmer than ISA.

Mach = TAS/LSS so the higher the Mach number the higher the TAS. For TAS greater than 300 kt compressibility has to be taken
into account.
This can be shown on the CRP5:
For example if an aircraft is flying at a CAS of 250kt at FL 400. If the OAT is -56.5 deg C calculate the TAS.
In the airspeed window enter FL400 against the OAT. Set 250kt CAS on the inner ring and read off the TAS on the outer ring =
492kt. This is greater than 300kt so compressibility has to be corrected for. (492/100) - 3 = 1.92 divisions. Rotate the ring 1.92
divs to the left. Now read off TAS against 250kt CAS = 470kt. The greater the TAS the greater the compresibility and the greater
the negative affect it has on TAS.
Notably CAS to EAS takes account of compressibility error. The ASI is calibrated for ISA SL density and the reading is
dependent on the dynamic pressure 1/2 x rho x V^2. At higher speeds the instrument will overread since dynamic pressure is
greater than 1/2 x rho x V^2, so a compressibility correction has to be applied.
It follows that Dynamic pressure = 1/2 x rho x V^2 x[1 + (1/4 x M^2)]
The compressibility factor is therefore always negative and dependent on Mach number.
Mach Number (MN) = (Total Pressure - Static Pressure)/ Static Pressure
or MN = (Pt - Ps)/Ps
MN = Dynamic Pressure/Static Pressure = CAS/Ps
In this formula you do not need to take account of temperature and only need to take account of changes in altititude, ie. the Ps
component.
If the Mach number remains constant and the aircraft is at a constant altitude then CAS must also remain constant.
If the aircraft is climbing then the Ps component decreases and therefore CAS also decreases.
Conversely if the aircraft is descending then the Ps component increases and CAS also increases.
This formula also works for an aircraft flying at a constant CAS and determining the affect on MN.
Furthermore if an aircraft is flying at a constant TAS use the following formula:
MN = TAS/LSS In this case you only have to take account of temperature changes and the affect on the LSS to solve the
questions.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscope:
- Mass on the periphery at high rotation speed
- Directional gyro apparent wander is ZERO at the EQUATOR
- HDG info from the gyro-magnetic compass flux valve is sent to the error detector
- Gravity erector system corrects errors on the artificial horizon
- Rate of turn depends on [speed + bank angle] only
- Ground right turn  ball to the left, needle to the right
- Properties of a gyro: rigidity + precession
Directional gyro (DGI):
- 2 degrees of freedom
- Horizontal spin axis
- Gyro-magnetic compass torque motor causes the directional gyro unit to precess
- Latitude nut  correct EARTH RATE
- Earth rotation, at 45°N  moves the spin axis 10.6° clockwise
- The torque motor of a gyro stabilized magnetic compass precesses the directional gyro
- DGI axis no longer spins about the local vertical when it is located on the equator.
- Maximum drift error sensed by an uncompensated DGI = 15° / hour
- Pendulous type correction detector fitted to the DGI provides: torque on the sensitive axis.
- A direction gyro is corrected for accurate directional information using direct reading magnetic compass
- Errors of a DGI:
o Earth rate
o Transport wander
o Banking when pitched up
o Mechanical problems
- Valid only for a short period of time, because of
o Earth rotation
o A/C motion over the earth
o Mechanical defects

Laser gyro:
- A laser generating two light waves
- 2 beams of laser light

Flux valve in a RIMC:

- Supplied with AC current

Artificial horizon:
- Acceleration phase, cst altitude, resetting principle of the AH results horizon bar indicating a nose up attitude.
- A stand by horizon or emergency attitude indicator contains its own separate gyro
- Pendulous vanes in the air-driven gyros and mercury switches in the electrical version.

Turn indicator:
- ONLY ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM
- Angular velocity about the yaw axis
- Direction of turn
- Low bank angle  rate of turn ~ rate of yaw…
V²
- tanΦ=
Rg

Gyro-magnetic compass:
- Directional gyro
- Earth’s magnetic field detector
 - Synchronizing control
- The torque motor gets its information from the amplifier
A laser gyro has a longer cycle life than a conventional gyro

Schuler period = 84 minutes

Input signal of the amplifier of the gyro-magnetic compass resetting device originates from the error detector.
The inertial Strapdown unit of an IRS is programmed with co-ordinates during alignment in order to establish the trihedron with
reference to the earth.
The rate of turn is the change of heading rate of the acft
A stand-by artificial horizon must
- Have its own power supply
- Have its own gyro
Error due to the movment of the acft  error dependant on the ground speed + true track + average latitude of flight.
Indications on a directional gyroscope or gyrocompass are subject to errors: rotation of the earth, acft motion on the earth,
lateral & transversal acft bank angles, mechanical defects.
In a DGI, transport wander is caused by the gyro movement relative to the earth.
The gimbal error of the directional gyro is due to the effect of a bank or pitch attitude of the acft.
In a turn at a cst bank, the turn indicator reading is inversely proportional to the acft true speed.
A directional gyro (DG) used in a gyro stabilized compass system:
- 2 degrees of freedom, whose horizontal axis corresponding to the reference direction is maintained in the horizontal
plane by an automatic erecting system.
The pendulum type detector system of the directional gyro feeds a leveling erection torque motor.
In a gyro magnetic compass, the flux gate transmits information to the error detector.
The properties of a turn indicator are – one degree of freedom + spin axis in the lateral plane.
A flux valve senses the changes in orientation of the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field
- The primary coils are fed AC voltage (~487.5 Hz)
- The information can be used by a flux gate compass or a directional gyro
- The accuracy on the value of the magnetic field indication is less than 0.5%.

Magnetic Compass
Acceleration error on EAST-WEST headings : when going EAST or WEST only, otherwise: no apparent turn.

Turning errors are maximum at the magnetic poles.

Turning errors (greatest on NORTH-SOUTH headings at HIGH latitudes)
Turning errors increase with magnetic latitude.
Turning error is due to the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field.
Main cause of error in a DRMC is turning
TURNING ERROR = (latitude + bank angle) / 2
These compass oscillations following a lateral gust are not identical if the acft is heading north or south.
This behavior is due to the mechanical construction of the compass.
In a steep turn, the northerly turning error on a magnetic compass on the northern hemisphere is equal to 180° on a 90°
heading in a right turn.
The magnetic heading can be derived from the true heading by means of a map showing the Isogonal lines.
The purpose of a compass swinging is to determine the deviation of a magnetic compass on any heading.
The quandrantal deviation of a magnetic compass is corrected by using soft iron pieces.
The quadrantal deviation of the magnetic compass is due to the action of the soft iron pieces influenced by the geomagnetic
field.
A gyro-magnetic compass is a system which always consists of
- A horizontal axis gyro
- An earth’s magnetic field detector
- An erection mechanism to maintain the gyro axis horizontal
- A torque motor to maintain the gyro’s rotor axis within its horizontal.
A flux valve detects the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field,
- The information can be used by a “flux gate” compass or a directional gyro
- The accuracy on the value of the magnetic field indication is less than 0.5%
A compass swing: used to align compass north with true north. (REDUCE DEVIATION)
Ferrous metals + electrical equipment (+electrical currents + magnetic masses) affects direct reading compasses.
Magnetic dip at the poles = 90° ; and magnetic dip at the equator ~ 0°
Magnetic compass is reliable close to the equator; but NOT near the poles.
In a remote indicating compass, the error detector feeds the amplifier.
Magnetic compass errors: north seeking, due to bank angle and magnetic heading.
True heading can be converted into magnetic heading using a compass card and a map with Isogonal lines.
Magnetic compass errors are due to north change, depending on the bank angle and magnetic heading.
Compass deviation card compass heading can be derived from the magnetic heading by reference to a compass deviation
card.

Turn ACFT & Compass rotate Liquid CLOCKWISE UNDER

through in: swirl reads
Same direction ANTI- OVER reads
Nearer Increases
(sluggish compass => CLOCKWISE
pole error
turn out early)
Opposite direction East-west Apparent turn:
Further Decreases
(lively compass => axis
pole error
turn out late) Acceleration to NEAREST pole
Deceleration to FURTHEST pole
Compass Compass
rotates
In the NH:
Turning through south: exit LATE
Turning through north: exit EARLY
Radio Altimeter
- 4200 MHz to 4400 MHz - accuracy of +/-2 feet between 0 and 500 feet
- Height of lowest wheels % ground - comparing the frequency of Rx and Tx signals.
- True height - typical wavelength and freq band: 6.9 SHF
- System error?  height indication removed - wavelengths: centimetric
- Measures a frequency difference - 2 antennas: transmission + reception
- Operating Range = 0 to 2.500 feet - Self-contained on board aid
- frequency modulation of the carrier wave - SHF : SUPER high frequency
In low altitude radio altimeters, the height measurement (above the ground) is based upon a frequency modulation wave, for
which the frequency variation between the transmitted wave and the received wave after ground reflection is measured.
In low altitude radio-altimeters, the reading is zero when main landing gear wheels are on the ground. For this, it is necessary to
account for signal processing time in the unit and apply a correction factor to the reading.
The radio altimeter is required to indicate zero height AGL as the main wheels touch down on the runway. For this reason, it is
necessary to compensate for residual height and cable length.

Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)

The Primary Flight Display (PFD) displays information dedicated to piloting.
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS):
- the altimeter setting is displayed on the PFD,
- the PFD is the main flying instrument
The DH warning light comes on when an aircraft descends below a pre-set radio altitude  DH light
The Head Up Display (HUD) is a device allowing the pilot, while still looking outside to have a synthetic view of the instrument
procedure.
In order to know in which mode the auto-throttles are engaged, look at the PFD!
Magenta is used to display command information on the EHSI.
Weather information can be displayed on modes: [MAP – EXPANDED VOR – EXPANDED ILS]
 white circle with (INTC)
= location where you will intercept
radial 150° to FRE VOR and track it
inbound

PLAN

Current TRACK = 115°

Current active WPT =VIW

center map
mode!

Following radial from OKL VOR

The next waypoint to be overflown

is VLM and the estimated time of
arrival, 15:08

left side wind

TD = calculated top of descent

Heading = 125°
heading selector (heading bug) =
120°

FMC calculated Top of Climb,

approx 5NM.
Flight Management System (FMS)
FMS NAVIGATION database includes the following data:
- Airports ; Nav-aids ; Airways ; Runways
- SID, STAR and approach procedures
- Waypoints ; Magnetic variation
- BUT NOT: obstacles; terrain cells; take-off speeds
The FMS is approved to provide GUIDANCE for the
following approaches: RNAV & VOR, NDB or VOR/DME
For most FMS, the fuel prediction function, which computes
the remaining fuel along the flight plan, only takes into
account the current wind direction + speed.
COST INDEX: “how much money do you want to pay?”
Operating cost
- COST INDEX =
Fuel Cost
- High cost index  High airspeed & high trip fuel
- Zero cost index  maximum range airspeed &
minimum trip fuel
The FMS provides the following functions:
- Acft position computation
- Lateral (and vertical) flight plan management
- Fuel management
- Radio tuning
- BUT NOT: traffic alerts, terrain awareness & warning,
de-icing management
FMS vertical navigation management is based on the baro
altitude input from the air data system.
The most common sensors interfacing a FMS to compute
acft position along the flight plan are:
- [DME ; GPS ; IRS] but not [LOC nor NDB nor MLS]
The FMS Flight Plan, Navigation, Progress or Leg page
generally displays the following parameters relative to the
flight plan legs or waypoints:
- Time prediction
- Track
- Distance
- Remaining fuel prediction
- Altitude constraint or prediction
- Track
- [BUT NOT (VAR) nor(position) nor WYT elevation)]
The FMS is approved for
- Localizer approaches if the localizer signals are used
by the FMS.
- Non-precision approaches
FMS Required Time of Arrival (RTA) function can provide: a
speed target to satisfy a time constraint entered at a flight
plan waypoint
FMS XTK = the abeam distance error, to the left or right
from the desired flight plan leg to the aircraft position
The role of the FMS is to aid the flight crew with Navigation
& Performance optimization.
- Reduce the crew workload
- Aid fuel efficiency
FMS temperature compensation function = provide
compensated/precise altitudes for T° different from ISA.
Components of the FMS are:
- CDU (Control & Display Unit)
- Data base
- FMC (Flight Management Computer)
A rate integrating gyro is used in inertial stuff:
[Attitude unit + inertial navigation unit]
The FMS provides the following functions:
- Acft position computation
- Lateral (and vertical) flight plan management
- Fuel management
- Radio tuning
The FMS navigation database processing should include
checks at each phase of the process. From the reception of
each supplier’s data to the distribution and loading of the
formatted database.
Twin inertial system, the FMC displaced position would be
between the [mean inertial & radio fix position].
Last WPT reached  Heading Mode.
DR mode: for when nothing else works
FMS lateral offset function: flying along the flight plan legs
with a constant right or left offset manually entered on the
FMS CDU.
<<TRI-HEDRON>>
Vertical navigation (VNAV) capability: vertical command
output can be the pitch angle + the speed target.
Lateral navigation (LNAV) capability lateral command
output is a roll angle or a heading target
Overfly function :manually selecting a WYPT to over-fly
The FMS “can see everything” FMS inputs = everything
Global 3-D Flight Management System
FMS, multiple DME sensor: XTK < 0.3NM
FMS fuel management: not reliable, just a “help”
Concerning the FMS, the parameters used to work out the
vertical flight profile are
- Gross weight
- Cost index
- Fuel quantity
When two waypoints are entered on the FMS flight plan
page, a track between the two fixes is computed and can be
displayed on the Navigation map display (ND). This leg
created is a great circle arc.
An FMC auto-tunes DMEs for fixing purposes and would
normally decode and display the Morse identifier. When a
decode cannot be achieved, the frequency would be
displayed instead of the identifier
 Automatic Flight Control Systems (15)
Flight Director
Command bars of the FD: [ALT HOLD]  altitude deviation + pitch attitude
- << OPTIMUM >> “instantaneous” path
- Pitch [horizontal bar] & Roll [vertical bar]
- Direction & amplitude of the correc° to apply
- may be displayed when flying manually
- NOT present on the HSI Optimum=[2]
- Present on the << ADI >>
- May be centered even if not yet aligned with LOC
- Centered  [roll == bank angle calculated by FD]
- Available in manual AND automatic flight
- moving either the Captain's or the First Officer's Flight
Director switch to ON
- must re-center on the symbolic airplane
Straight and level flight
FD modes  upper strip of PFD (if VSI indicates zero)
Localizer ARM  System is armed for localizer approach
and coupling will occur upon capturing center line
FD operation available in Manual & Automatic flight
FD computer takes everything except WIND into account
FD = [computer + command bars]
To allow for the coupling of a dual channel FD both A/P
channels must be ON

Autopilot
Auto-Pilot (AP) system:
- No modes? Altitude hold + auto-trim
- Engaged? Check the PFD
- At least stabilization functions:
pitch attitude & wings leveled.
- AP takes pressure information from the static source
- Stabilizing & Monitoring the movement around the
airplane centre of gravity
- CAT-2 approach: Radio-altimeter gives height to AP
- ALT-HOLD mode  doesn’t care about CPT’s barometric
pressure setting
- FAIL-SAFE: disconnection if failure of the inner loop
component of a single AP used for climb, cruise…
- FAIL-SOFT:
- FAIL-PASSIVE: disconnection  must be continued
manually in case of a failure (landing, 1 AP goes out)
- FAIL-OPERATIONAL: failure? Still works! in the event of a
failure, the approach, flare and landing can be completed
by the remaining part of the automatic system, such an
automatic landing system. (2 AP when landing)
- Automatic trimming: pitch axis only
- Control law in fly-by-wire: how pilot demands are
translated into control surface movement
- Altitude alert system: light+sound when approaching
selected altitude.
- Control law of AP control channel: relationship between
computer input deviation data and the output control
deflection signals
- VOR Cone of confusion: switches temp. to HDG mode
- Command functions of an AP: the holding of:
[Vertical speed + ALTITUDE + HEADING] not attitude
- HDG SEL disengages the AFDS from the LNAV mode
- Semi-auto landing system: disconnects at approx 100ft
- Interception of localizer beam: interception at a cst HDG
- Servomechanism: small input  large output
- Guidance: [speed + altitude + VOR] holding
Monitoring the CG movements in 3D
- Flight path modes: [VOR axis, inertial HDG, Yaw damper]
- IAS maintained cst by the AP by the ELEVATOR
- The engagement of the AP is not possible when there is
“any problem”.
- Radioaltimeter fails? it “quietly” stops showing height
- Autopilots have servo-actuators.
- ILS wavelength = metric.
-
- Single pilot operation under IFR and at night :
[ALT HOLD + HDG HOLD] compulsory
- AP: holds height.
- Auto-Throttle holds speed.
GO-AROUND
- Pilot carries out procedure + “cleans up” flaps & gear.
- TO/GA is engaged by the pilot (button on the throttles)
- AP coupled approach, Go-Around mode engaged by the
pilot pushing a button located on the throttles
- Go around is initiated from an AUTO-LAND approach  the
pilot does NOT carry out the procedure, the AP carries out
the climb. (AP monitors climb and rotation of airplane)
Automatic landing of an AP:
- At least until the roll-out
- Radio-altimeter is crucial for automatic landing
- the auto-throttle decreases the thrust when the height
is approximately 30 ft
- at 50ft AGL: glideslope signal is disconnected
- at 50ft: AP maintains vertical speed (radio-altimeter)
- flare + ground roll are performed automatically
- AP maintains the acft on the ILS beam until the flare
- Between 50ft and touch-down, vertical speed depends
on radio altimeter height
- A/P is disengaged at DH having followed the ILS
- Synchronization in an AP:
- Prevents snatch/jerks on engagement
- May not allow AP to engage if unserviceable
- HDG, NAV, approach…
- Can itself, if it fails, prevent AP from engaging
- CWS mode = maintain attitude only as soon as you “let
go of the control column/ stick”.
- Inner loop control system: auto-stabilization is
provided about a single axis.
-
- A/P holds IAS/MACH when climbing in LVL CHG and
A/T controls thrust.
- A/P holds altitude in cruise with ALT HOLD, A/T
controls IAS/Mach No.
- A/P holds pitch in descent in V/S mode, A/T controls
thrust.

Yaw Damper
Yaw Damper counters Dutch-Roll, by controlling the rudder (only) with the rate of angular velocity.

The yaw damper indicator supplies the pilot with a Yaw Damper:
information regarding the yaw damper action on the - affects rudder only
rudder - controls the RUDDER with the ANGULAR RATE about the
vertical axis as the input signal
- rudder is moved in propor° to rate of angular velocity
- only counters Dutch-Roll

Automatic Pitch Trim

Automatic Pitch Trim relieves the AP servo-motor & ensures the acft is trimmed when AP is disengaged.
Mach Trim System: operates the elevator at high Mach, prevents Mach-Tuck by moving nose-up to counter AC/CP backing

Trim  elevator (only) trim

Automatic Pitch Trim:
- permits the elevator to always be in neutral position with respect to horizontal stabilizer
- ensures the acft if properly trimmed (stabilized) when the autopilot is disengaged (but NOT when it is engaged)
- auto-pilot engaged: relieves the A.P. servo motor
- reduce to zero the hinge moment of the entire control surface in order to relieve the load on the servo-actuator
- maintain the same stability/maneuverability trade-off within the whole flight envelope
- Auto-trim is fitted to an autopilot: to prevent snatching on disengaging A/P
Mach trim system:
- Only operates above a pre-determined Mach number
- Prevents Mach-Tuck by using the elevator
- Compensates for backing the aerodynamic center at high Mach numbers by moving the elevator to nose-up
- Allows to: increase the longitudinal static stability of the acft by changing the horizontal stabilizer according to the
Mach number
- Compensates for the rearwards movement of the CP due to shockwave formation

Thrust Computation
Turbo engine thrust is computed from: [N1: fan rotation speed] && [EPR: Engine Pressure Ratio]
ALT HOLD (altitude hold mode): the IAS is maintained constant by the auto-throttle system
FADEC: “fait tout!” Engine limitation protection, automatic + manual engine starting sequence; power management.
Auto Thrust
Capture and hold: N1 – IAS – MACH – EPR
PFD – [Thrust limit mode == Primary EICS] – ground runoff T/O: hold N1

Auto-throttle engaged mode: At missed approach point, the TOGA switch is depressed 
visible on the Primary Flight Display (PFD) autoland approach  auto-throttle selects GA power, auto-
pilot flies the GoAround maneuver.
The pilot can look in the Primary EICAS to see the thrust
limit mode. The CAS or MACH holding mode is carried out by
- The autopilot pitch channel in the climb mode at a
Ground run take-off phase: CAS or MACH number
the auto-throttle allow to hold N1 - The autothrottles in the altitude or glide path
holding mode
Auto throttle  maintain constant engine power or
airplane speed. Climb at constant Mach  CAS decreases.
Climb at a constant CAS  Mach increases.
Auto-throttle can “capture and hold”: Descent at constant Mach  CAS increases
[Speed IAS, mach ; EPR ; N1 (RPM)] Descent at constant CAS  Mach decreases
Cruise flight + constant CAS  Mach constant
Cruise flight + constant Mach  CAS constant

The block diagram of an auto-pilot is shown in the annex.; For each control channel (pitch, roll and yaw) the piloting law is the
relationship between the deflection of the control surface commanded by the computer (BETA c) and the : “offset epsilon at
the computer input “

Warning and recording equipment (09)

Warnings general
Immediate recognition? warning
Awareness + will be required  caution
Awareness + may be required  advisory
Warning > Alert > Advisory

Altitude alert system

Altitude alerting system warns crew when:
- [1] – approaching selected altitude
- [2] – excessive deviation from selected altitude

Ground Proximity Warning System

GPWS:
- [50ft – 2.500ft]
- Cares about: Flaps position, Bank angle.
- Does not care about: AOA nor RPM nor AIR-BRAKES configuration
- Visual alarm is NOT compulsory
- Sink rate?  SINK RATE
 - To low?  DON’T SINK
- Ground proximity?  PULL UP WOOP WOOP
Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS II)
(SSR) Transponders

Traffic advisory  potential collision threat exists

Resolution advisory  serious collision threat exists.

Filled white diamond 

proximate intruder/traffic; intruding traffic advisory or “other traffic”
Close traffic  Traffic Avoidance intruder  orange full circle
Resolution advisory  red full square

TCAS antennas are directional to improve the surveillance of intruders

Both TCAS equipped in mode C 3D – TA + (complementary) RA
TCAS display can take any form.

+11  1.100feet above me

Yellow upwards arrow  he is climbing at least 500ft/min.
Bearing of intruder  directional antenna
TCAS-1  only Traffic information!
Preventive resolution advisory  “you don’t need to do anything, but please avoid to descend/climb for the time being”
TCAS cares about: acft configuration & the radio altimeter.
Gradually inhibit the RAs when getting closer to the ground. (radio-altimeter function)

Over-speed Warning
A VMO-MMO warning device consists of an alarm connected to a barometric aneroid capsule subjected to static pressure and
an airspeed sensor subjected to a dynamic pressure.
The input of a VMO/MMO warning system is: static pressure only.
Speed > VMO/MMO  warning message.

Stall Warning System

Stall warning cares about AOA & configuration (flaps & slats) only.
Margin related to the stall speed is 7%
A vane detector && A conical slotted probe

Flight Data Recorder

Data is kept 25 hours, conversations and warning horns are kept 30 minutes.
Recorder is kept to the rear of the acft.
Records from [before the acft can move under its own power] to [when the acft cannot move any longer by its own power]

Cockpit Voice Recorder

[The cabin attendants communications in the cabin via the interphone] is NOT recorded.
CVR  a microphone and a solid fire resistant recorder. [c’est juste un dictaphone]

Power Plant and system monitoring instruments (07)

Pressure Gauge
Bourdon  Pressure Aneroid capsule:
turbine discharge pressure - Air intake of gas turbine power-plant
EPR=
compressor inlet pressure - Low pressure fuel pump
TAT - Manifold pressure gauge (near the inlet valve)
SAT ( absolute ° Celsus)=
(1+0.2 ∙ M 2 )
 Temperature Gauge
<Thermo-couple>:
- 2 metal conductors of different nature.
- Intermediate metals inserted contact pts at same T°
Alumel/chromel:
- power for gauge lighting (only!);
- [hot & cold junction]
EGT (turbine) measured at high pressure turbine outlet
EGT red pointer  max value that has been reached
Temperature gauge arc:
- White sector  special operating range
- Yellow sector  exceptional range
Thermometers [thermo-couple + resistance]
Recovery factor of 0.95  T° = SAT + 95% ram rise
Total – kinetic == Static
<<Standard +10°C>>.

RPM indicator
RPM indicator:
- red arc inside green arc  vibration, continuous
rating forbidden!
- Usually 3-phase tacho generator
Transmitter – RPM indicator:
- Transmitter of RPM indicator may consist of ANYTHING
- 3-phase AC generator  3-phase voltage… motor drives
magnetic tacho
- Magnetic sensor  AC voltage, freq ~RPM…
Single phase AC generator tacho: the line resistance on
information value [the only BAD THING]
DC-generator tacho: spurious contents [BAD!]
3-phase synchronous motor type tachometer indicator:
freq ~ transmitter drive speed.
Electrical/induction tacho:
-Suffers from T° variations! [BAD THING]
-Necessity of providing power supply source
-notched wheel/electro magnet.
-Induction rotation speed of an asynchronous motor
energized by an alternator
In statement 1. it refers to a permanent magnet that is
coupled to the engine and as it rotates within a 3 phase stator
the resulting 3 phase ac supply drives a 3 phase ac
synchronous motor that rotates a drag cup around a
permanent magnet. The magnet rotates against a hairspring
and indicates the rpm.
In statement 2. it refers to a device that converts ac signals
into DC that drives a dc motor. The output is then compared
to a dc reference output and the difference indicates the rpm.
In statement 3. it refers to a device that is used on some jet
engine aircraft to sense the shaft speed of the LP compressor
during the engine start up cycle. It uses a single AC phase of
a normal tachogenerator to show that the shaft is rotating
and is automatically isolated after the atart cycle has been
sucessfully completed.
In statement 4. it refers to a direct drive 3 phase ac generator
that is operated in conjunction with a 3 phase ac
synchronous motor to indicate the rpm.
The correct answer is therefore 1, 2, 3, and 4 as given.

Consumption gauge Paddle wheel measures volumetric flow by a tally of the

Flowmeters  quantity of fuel movement impulses.
When compared with the volumetric fuel flowmeter, the
mass fuel flowmeter takes into account the fuel density.

Fuel gauge
Capacitor gauge: capacity depends on <nature of the dielectric> in which it is immersed. (di-electric resistivity of the fuel)
Capacity gauge: mass information (independent from temperature!)
Dielectric constant of fuel is twice that of air and varies directly with density.
Electric fuel float gauge:
- EASY construction;
- does NOT require AC supply (but reading depends on everything!)
- is typically a DC powered system
- independence of the indication from the acft power system variations - if the measurement is made by a ratiometer
Float type fuel gauge: “floats” in a volume which depends on temperature BUT NOT ON ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
Given the following parameters, in a capacitance fuel gauge, the correct formula is:
A = area of plates
D = distance between plates
E = dielectric permittivity
Capacitance = E x A/D
Torque Meter
Torque determined by oil pressure at the fixed crown of an <<EPI-CYCLOIDAL>> reducer of the main engine gearbox
Vibration Monitoring
A vibration indicator receives a signal from different sensors (accelerometers). It indicates the vibration amplitude at a given
frequency.
In an engine vibration monitoring system for a turbojet any vibration produced by the engine is amplified and filtered before
being fed to the cockpit indicator.
The principle of detection of a vibrating monitoring system is based on the use of two accelerometers.
The output from an engine vibration transducer is always filtered to remove unwanted frequencies.
Vibration is indicated in the cockpit as a direct reading

Remote (signal) Transmission System

A 3-phase electrical tachometer consists of a 3-phase generator, a synchronous motor and a magnetic tachometer.
The operating principle of an “electronic” tachometer is to measure the frequency of the electric impulse created by a notched
wheel rotating in a magnetic field.

Electronic Displays (ECAM, EICAS)

ECAM:
-failure?  Light indication only.
-Circuit failure?  everything is done except processing the failure automatically (if it is “modern” then it will light up the
appropriate buttons!!!)
FADEC controls “everything”.
Pages of the ECAM secondary display: HYD + WHEEL.
The CRTs of an EICAS system can be compacted together into one CRT.

Chip Detection

The purpose of magnetic chip detectors is to warn of impending failure.

AYAW ; BROLL ; CPITCH

AAa
A = yaw
B = roll
C = pitch

The diagram which shows a 40° left bank and 15° nose down attitude is n° 1

If you are flying at constant CAS and the temperature changes the TAS will change but the MN will stay the same. For 'Doubting
Thomas's' we can work through an example based on Q5299:

FL270/ -40ºC CAS 280kts: from CRP5: TAS = 412kts so MN = 0.69

FL270/ -50ºC CAS 280kts: from CRP5: TAS = 406kts so MN = 0.69

Mathematically: MN = TAS/LSS if temperature decreases then TAS and LSS both decrease keeping MN constant.

There are questions in the question bank covering all possible combinations; i.e.;
Temperature increase or decrease
CAS constant what happens to MN
MN constant what happens to CAS

The answer is "it remains constant".

The ‘ram-rise’ always causes the indicated temperature (TAT) to be too high and the error will vary with speed (TAS or MN).    

CAS to EAS is dependent on the compressibility error.

IAS to EAS is dependent on instrument, position and compressiblity errors.
EAS to TAS is dependent on density error.
The only connection between CAS and EAS is therefore compressibility, which alters with altitude.

The diagram representing a left turn with insufficient rudder is: 4

Warning: "If you don't do something NOW you're gonna die !" (e.g. engine fire).
Caution: "You may have to do something fairly soon or you might die." (e.g. fluctuating oil pressure).
Advisory: "This information is interesting but you'll be OK." (e.g. galley running low on tea bags).
The atmospheric pressure at FL 70 in a "standard + 10" atmosphere is:
If we take a ball-park 30 feet per hPa then from msl to FL70 = (7,000/30) = 233.3hPa. Pressure at msl
in ISA = 1013.25hPa so at FL70 it will be approximately 1013.25 - 233.3 = 779.95hPa; so look for an
answer close to 780hPa.

A directional gyro is corrected for an apparent drift due to the earth's rotation at latitude 30°S. During a flight at latitude 60°N, a
drift rate of 15.5°/h to the right is observed.
The apparent wander due to change of aircraft position is: 5°/h to the left

An aircraft is flying at flight level FL180 and Mach number 0.36. Its onboard thermometer reads TAT = - 5°C. Considering that the
probe recovery coefficient is 0.84, the present weather conditions compared with the standard atmosphere are:
Use the formula on page 1.6 of the BGS notes but remember that the temperatures are in
ºK and the answers are ISA deviations.
ISA+10

TAT = SAT (1+ 0.2M²)

SAT = TAT / (1+ 0.2 Kr M²)
 Kr is your recovery factor.

TAT is -5 C, which is 268.15 K. 268.15 / (1 + 0.2 * 0.84 * 0.36²) = 262.436 K ("SAT"), so

262.436 - 273.15 = -10.7137 C ("SAT").

FL180..... 18 * 1.9812 = 35.6616 C of a drop, starting at 15 C, so in ISA is -20.6616. Therefore

we're about 10 C warmer than ISA.

This question asks about OAT changes at constant CAS again. You can discount two of the options
because, as above, you know that MN is constant. So you want the relationship between CAS and TAS.
The best way to think about this is the formula Dynamic pressure = 1/2 x density x TAS^2  but I think
of constant CAS as constant dynamic pressure. So, if air becomes less dense, the only other thing that
can change in this equation is the TAS increasing to compensate.