Technological University of the Philippines

Ayala Blvd., Ermita, Manila

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

TE 53-5A
Technical Elective 3

Assignment No. 1
Introduction to Pre-stressed Concrete

Santos, Ruth Margarette L.

08-205-134
Date of Submission: November 29, 2013

Engr. Jesus Ray M. Mansayon

Instructor
Define/ Discuss/Enumerate/Illustrate:

1. Brief History and Development

2. Principles
3. Methods
4. Materials
5. Equipment

BRIEF HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

The concept of
prestressed concrete appeared
in 1888 when P.H. Jackson was
granted the first patent in the
United States for prestressed
concrete design. Jackson’s idea
was perfect, but the technology
of high strength steel that
exhibited low relaxation
characteristics was not yet
available. It was not until
Eugene Freyssinet defined the
need for these materials that
prestressed concrete could be used as a structural building material.
Unfortunately, although Freyssinet, a brilliant structural designer and bridge
builder, lacked the teaching qualities necessary to communicate his ideas to
other engineers. It would take Gustave Magnel to write the first book of design in
prestressed concrete, communicating this idea to designers worldwide. Magnel
designed and built the legendary Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia, which
revolutionized prestressed concrete in America. Simultaneously, Urlich
Finsterwalder, the German bridge builder and designer, was revolutionizing the
construction means and methods for prestressed concrete bridges. For example,
Finsterwalder invented the free-cantilever construction method of prestressed
concrete bridges, which allowed long span bridges to be constructed without
stabilized shoring. He then designed stress-ribbon bridges, which would
eventually allow prestressed concrete to span distances only steel suspension
bridges could achieve. However, it wasn’t until Paul Abeles and his peer, H. von
Emperger studied and tested prestressed concrete that the idea of “partial
prestressing” emerged. Initially, Freyssinet and Magnel were adamant that
prestressed concrete should not be allowed to exhibit any tensile forces at
sustained loading. Later, the Roebling family developed the first stress--relieved
wire followed by the first stress-- relieved strand. T.Y. Lin once again brought
prestressed concrete back into the spotlight when he organized the First
Prestressed Concrete World Conference in 1957. Shortly after this conference,
Lin published a technical paper in the Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI)
Journal that introduced a new Load Balancing technique which allowed most
structural engineers to design prestressed concrete very easily.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRINCIPLES

Reinforced concrete is the most widely used structural material of the 20th
century. Because the tensile strength of concrete is low, steel bars are embedded
in the concrete to carry all internal tensile forces. Tensile forces may be caused
by imposed loads or deformations, or by load-independent effects such as
temperature changes or shrinkage. Consider the simple reinforced concrete
beam shown in Figure 1.1. The external loads cause tension in the bottom fibres
which may lead to cracking, as shown. Practical reinforced concrete beams are
usually cracked under the day-to-day service loads. On a cracked cross section,
the applied moment is resisted by compression in the concrete above the crack
and tension in the bonded reinforcing steel. Although the steel reinforcement
provides the cracked concrete beam with flexural strength, it does not prevent
cracking and does not prevent the loss of stiffness caused by cracking. Crack
widths are approximately proportional to the strain, and hence stress, in the
reinforcement. Steel stresses must therefore be limited to some appropriately low
value in order to avoid excessively wide cracks. Similarly, large steel strain is the
result of large curvature, which in turn is associated with large deflection. There
is little benefit to be gained, therefore, by using higher strength steel or concrete,
since in order to satisfy serviceability requirements, the increased strain capacity
afforded by higher strength
steel cannot be utilized. Prestressed concrete is a particular form of reinforced
concrete. Prestressing involves the application of an initial compressive load on
a structure to reduce or eliminate the internal tensile forces and thereby control
or eliminate cracking. The initial compressive load is imposed and sustained by
highly tensioned steel reinforcement reacting on the concrete. With cracking
reduced or eliminated, a prestressed section is considerably stiffer than the
equivalent (usually cracked) reinforced section. Prestressing may also impose
internal forces which are of opposite sign to the external loads and may therefore
significantly reduce or even eliminate deflection.

Figure 1.1 A reinforced concrete beam.

With service load behaviour improved, the use of high-strength steel

reinforcement and highstrength concrete becomes both economical and
structurally efficient. As will be seen subsequently, only steel which can be
tensioned with large initial elastic strains is suitable for prestressing concrete.
The use of high-strength steel is therefore not only an advantage to prestressed
concrete, it is a necessity. Prestressing results in lighter members, longer spans,
and an increase in the economical range of application of reinforced concrete.

METHODS OF PRESTRESSING

As mentioned in the previous section, prestress is usually imparted to a concrete

member by highly tensioned steel reinforcement (wire, strand, or bar) reacting on
the concrete. The high strength prestressing steel is most often tensioned using
hydraulic jacks. The tensioning operation may occur before or after the concrete
is cast and, accordingly, prestressed members are classified as either
pretensioned or post-tensioned.
1.2.1 Pretensioned concrete

Figure 1.2 illustrates the procedures for pretensioning a concrete member. The
prestressing tendons are initially tensioned between fixed abutments and
anchored. With the formwork in place, the concrete is cast around the highly
stressed steel tendons and cured. When the concrete has reached its required
strength, the wires are cut or otherwise released from the abutments. As the
highly stressed steel attempts to contract, the concrete is compressed. Prestress
is imparted via bond between the steel and the concrete.

Pretensioned concrete members are often precast in pretensioning beds

long enough to accommodate many identical units simultaneously. To decrease
the construction cycle time, steam curing may be employed to facilitate rapid
concrete strength gain and the concrete is often stressed within 24 hours of
casting. Because the concrete is usually stressed at such an early age, elastic
shortening of the concrete and subsequent creep strains tend to be high. This
relatively high time-dependent shortening of the concrete causes a significant
reduction in the tensile strain in the bonded, prestressing steel and a relatively
high loss of prestress.

Figure 1.2 Pretensioning procedure.

1.2.2 Post-tensioned concrete

The procedures for post-tensioning a concrete member are shown in Figure 1.3.
With the formwork in position, the concrete is cast around hollow ducts which are
fixed to any desired profile. The steel tendons are usually in place, unstressed in
the ducts during the concrete pour, or alternatively may be threaded through the
ducts at some later time. When the concrete has reached its required strength,
the tendons are tensioned. Tendons may be stressed from one end with the other
end anchored or may be stressed from both ends, as shown in Figure 1.3b. The
tendons are then anchored at each stressing end.

The concrete is compressed during the stressing operation and the

prestress is maintained after the tendons are anchored by bearing of the end
anchorage plates onto the concrete. The post-tensioned tendons also impose a
transverse force to the member wherever the direction of the cable changes.

After the tendons have been anchored and no further stressing is required,
the ducts containing the tendons are often filled with grout under pressure. In
this way, the tendons are bonded to the concrete and are more efficient in
controlling cracks and providing ultimate strength. Bonded tendons are also less
likely to corrode or lead to safety problems if a tendon is subsequently lost or
damaged. In some situations, however, particularly in North America and Europe,
tendons are not grouted for reasons of
economy and remain permanently
unbonded.

Most in situ prestressed concrete

is post-tensioned. Relatively light and
portable hydraulic jacks make on-site
post-tensioning an attractive proposition.
Post-tensioning is also used for
segmental construction of large-span
bridge girders.

Prestress may also be imposed on

new or existing members using external
tendons or such devices as flat jacks.
These systems are useful for temporary
prestressing operations but may be
subject to high time-dependent losses.
MATERIALS

CONCRETE

A more comprehensive treatment of the properties of concrete and the factors

affecting them was given by Neville (1981).

Composition of concrete

Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, and aggregates. It may also contain

one or more chemical admixtures. Within hours of mixing and placing, concrete
sets and begins to develop strength and stiffness as a result of chemical
reactions between the cement and water. These reactions are known as
hydration. Calcium silicates in the cement react with water to produce calcium
silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide. The resultant alkalinity of the concrete
helps to provide corrosion protection for the reinforcement.

The relative proportions of cement, water, and aggregates may vary

considerably depending on the chemical properties of each component and the
desired properties of the concrete. A typical mix used for prestressed concrete by
weight might be coarse aggregate 44%, fine aggregate 31%, cement 18%, and
water 7%.

In most countries, several different types of Portland cement are available,

including normal cements, high early strength cements, low heat of hydration
cements, and various cements which provide enhanced sulphate resistance. In
order to alter and improve the properties of concrete, other cementitious
materials may be used to replace part of the Portland cement, e.g. fly ash, natural
pozzolans, blast furnace slag, and condensed silica fume.

The ratio of water to cement by weight that is required to hydrate the

cement completely is about 0.25, although larger quantities of water are required
in practice in order to produce a workable mix. For the concrete typically used in
prestressed structures, the water-to-cement ratio is about 0.4. It is desirable to
use as little water as possible, since water not used in the hydration reaction
causes voids in the cement paste that reduce the strength and increase the
permeability of the concrete.

The use of chemical admixtures to improve one or more properties of the

concrete is now commonplace. In recent years, high-strength concretes with low
water-to-cement ratios have been made more workable by the inclusion of
superplasticizers in the mix. These polymers greatly improve the flow of the wet
concrete and allow very high-strength, low-permeability concrete to be used with
conventional construction techniques.

The rock and sand aggregates used in concrete should be properly graded
and inert. Expansive and porous aggregates should not be used and aggregates
containing organic matter or other deleterious substances, such as salts or
sulphates, should also be avoided.

Strength of concrete

In structural design, the quality of concrete is usually controlled by the

specification of a minimum characteristic compressive strength at 28 days. The
characteristic strength is the stress which is exceeded by 95% of the uniaxial
compressive strength measurements taken from standard compression tests.
Such tests are most often performed on 150 mm concrete cubes (in Europe and
the UK) and on 150 mm diameter by 300 mm long concrete cylinders (in North
America and Australia). Because the restraining effect at the loading surfaces is
greater for the cube than for the longer cylinder, strength measurements taken
from cubes are higher than those taken from cylinders. The ratio between
cylinder and cube strength, R, is about 0.8 for low-strength concrete (i.e. cylinder
strengths of 20–30 MPa) and increases as the strength increases. The following
expression for R is often used (Neville 1981):

where σcu is the cube strength in MPa (psi) and c=19.6 (2480). Throughout this
book, refers to the characteristic compressive strength obtained from cylinder
tests.

In practice, the concrete used in prestressed construction is usually of

better quality and higher strength than that required for ordinary reinforced
concrete. Values of in the range 30–40 MPa are most often used, but strengths as
high as 60 MPa are not uncommon. In some recent structures in North America,
concrete strengths of over 100 MPa have been used successfully. The forces
imposed on a prestressed concrete section are relatively large and the use of
high-strength concrete keeps section dimensions to a minimum. High-strength
concrete also has obvious advantages in the anchorage zone of post-tensioned
members where bearing stresses are large, and in pretensioned members where
a higher bond strength better facilitates the transfer of prestress. As the
compressive strength of concrete increases, so too does the tensile strength. The
use of higher strength concrete may therefore delay (or even prevent) the onset
of cracking in a member.

High-strength concrete is considerably stiffer than low-strength concrete.

The elastic modulus is higher and elastic deformations due to both the prestress
and the external loads are lower. In addition, high-strength concrete generally
creeps less than low-strength concrete. This results in smaller losses of
prestress and smaller long-term deformations.

The effect of concrete strength on the shape of the stress-strain curve for
concrete in uniaxial compression is shown in Figure 2.1. The modulus of
elasticity (the slope of the ascending portion of each curve) increases with
increasing strength and each curve reaches its maximum stress at a strain of
about 0.002.

The shape of the unloading portion of each curve (after the peak stress has
been reached) depends on, among other things, the characteristics of the testing
machine. By applying deformation to a specimen, instead of load,

Figure 2.1 Effect of strength on the compressive stress-strain curve.

in a testing machine which is stiff enough to absorb all the energy of a failing
specimen, an extensive unloading branch of the stress-strain curve can be
obtained. Concrete can undergo very large compressive strains and still carry
load. This deformability of concrete tends to decrease with increasing strength.

The strength of properly placed and well compacted concrete depends

primarily on the water-to-cement ratio, the size of the specimen, the size,
strength, and stiffness of the aggregate, the cement type, the curing conditions,
and the age of the concrete. As mentioned in Section 2.2, the strength of concrete
increases as the water-to-cement ratio decreases.

The compressive strength of concrete increases with time, a rapid initial

strength gain (in the first day or so after casting) and a much slower, gradually
decreasing rate thereafter. The rate of development of strength with time depends
on the type of curing and the type of cement. In prestressed concrete
construction, a rapid initial gain in strength is usually desirable in order to apply
the prestress as early as possible. This is particularly so in the case of precast,
pretensioned production. Steam curing and high early strength cement are often
used to this end.

The following expression is recommended by ACI–209 (1978) for predicting

the strength at any time from the measured or specified 28 day value:

where is the strength of the concrete at age t in days, is the concrete strength at

age 28 days, and αand βare constants:

For normal Portland cement:

For moist cured concrete: α=4.0 β=0.85

For steam cured concrete: α=1.0 β=0.95

For high early strength cement:

For moist cured concrete: α=2.3 β=0.92

For steam cured concrete: α=0.7 β=0.98

Deformation of concrete

The deformation of a loaded concrete specimen is both instantaneous and time

dependent. If the load is sustained, the deformation of the specimen gradually
increases with time and may eventually be several times larger than the
instantaneous value.

The gradual development of strain with time is caused by creep and

shrinkage. Creep strain is produced by sustained stress. Shrinkage is
independent of stress and results primarily from the loss of water as the concrete
dries. Creep and shrinkage cause increases in axial deformation and curvature on
reinforced and prestressed concrete cross-sections, losses of prestress, local
redistribution of stress between the concrete and the steel reinforcement, and
redistribution of internal actions in statically indeterminate members. Creep and
shrinkage are often responsible for excessive deflection (or camber) and
excessive shortening of prestressed members. In addition, shrinkage may cause
unsightly cracking which could lead to serviceability or durability problems. On a
more positive note, creep relieves concrete of stress concentrations and imparts
a measure of deformability to concrete. A comprehensive treatment of the effects
of creep and shrinkage on the behaviour of concrete structures is available
elsewhere (Gilbert 1988).

Researchers have been investigating the time-dependent deformation of

concrete ever since it was first observed and reported almost a century ago, and
an enormous volume of literature has been written on the topic. Detailed
summaries of the time-dependent properties of concrete and the factors which
affect them are contained in the books by Neville (1970, 1981) and Neville et al.
(1983).

The components of strain are illustrated diagramatically in Figure 2.3.

 Figure 2.3 Strain vs time for specimen under constant compressive stress.

Instantaneous strain

The magnitude of the instantaneous strainεe (t) caused by either

compressive or tensile stress depends on the magnitude of the applied stress,
the rate at which the stress is applied, the age and the properties of the concrete
and the proportions of its constituent
materials. Consider the uniaxial
instantaneous strain versus
compressive stress curve shown in
Figure 2.4. When the applied stress is
less than about half of the compressive
strength, the curve is essentially linear,
and the instantaneous strain is usually
con-s sidered to be elastic (fully
recoverable). In this low-stress range,
the secant modulus Ec does not vary
significantly with stress and is only
slightly smaller than the initial tangent
modulus. At higher stress levels, the
curve is decidedly non-linear and a significant proportion of the instantaneous
strain is irrecoverable.

Creep strain

For concrete subjected to a constant sustained stress, the gradual

development of creep strain was illustrated in Figure 2.3. In the period
immediately after first loading, creep develops rapidly, but the rate of increase
slows appreciably with time. Creep is generally thought to approach a limiting
value as the time after first loading approaches infinity. Approximately 50% of the
final creep develops in the first 2–3 months and about 90% after 2–3 years. After
several years under load, the rate of change of creep with time is very small.
Creep of concrete has its origins in the hardened cement paste and is caused by
a number of different mechanisms. A comprehensive treatment of creep in plain
concrete was given by Neville et al. (1983).

Many factors influence the magnitude and rate of development of creep,

including the properties of the concrete mix and its constituent materials. In
general, as the concrete quality increases, the capacity of concrete to creep
decreases. At a particular stress level, creep in higher-strength concrete is less
than that in lower-strength concrete. An increase in either the aggregate content
or the maximum aggregate size reduces creep, as does the use of a stiffer
aggregate type. Creep also decreases as the water-to-cement ratio is reduced.

Creep depends on the environment, and increases as the relative humidity

decreases. Creep is therefore greater when accompanied by shrinkage (drying).
Creep is also greater in thin members with large surface area to volume ratios,
such as slabs. Near the surface of a member, creep takes place in a drying
environment and is therefore greater than in regions remote from a drying
surface. In addition to the relative humidity, creep is dependent on the ambient
temperature. A temperature rise increases the deformability of the cement paste
and accelerates drying, and thus increases creep. At 40°C, creep in concrete is
about 25% higher than that at 20°C. The dependence of creep on temperature is
much more significant at more elevated temperatures.
 Figure 2.5 Recoverable and irrecoverable creep components.

Shrinkage strain

Shrinkage is the time-dependent strain measured in an unloaded and

unrestrained specimen at constant temperature. Concrete begins shrinking when
drying commences and continues to increase with time at a decreasing rate, as
illustrated in Figure 2.3. Shrinkage is assumed to approach a final value as time
approaches infinity and is dependent on all the factors which affect the drying of
concrete, including the relative humidity, the mix characteristics (in particular, the
water content and water-to-cement ratio), and the size and shape of the member.

Shrinkage increases as the relative humidity of the surrounding air

decreases. The drier the atmosphere, the more rapid is the rate of drying of the
concrete and the larger are both the magnitude and rate of development of
shrinkage strain. A temperature rise accelerates drying and therefore increases
the rate of shrinkage.

The amount of drying depends on the initial water content. A concrete

specimen with a high initial water-to-cement ratio will shrink more than a similar
specimen made from concrete with a lower water-to-cement ratio and kept under
the same atmospheric conditions. In addition, the volume and type of aggregate
also affect shrinkage. Aggregate provides restraint to deformation of the cement
paste, so that shrinkage tends to decrease if the volume of aggregate is
increased or if a stiffer aggregate is used. Shrinkage in lightweight concrete is
therefore considerably greater (up to 50%) than in normal weight concrete.
 The size and shape of the concrete member have a major influence on the
magnitude and rate of development of shrinkage. For a thin member with a large
drying surface to volume ratio, such as a suspended slab or wall, drying takes
place rapidly and may be essentially complete after several years. For the
concrete in the interior of thicker members, such as beams or columns, drying
takes place more slowly and may continue throughout the lifetime of the member.
Shrinkage strain therefore varies across the depth (and width) of structural
members and is highest at the surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. In fact, for
more massive members, there is no significant drying (shrinkage) except in the
concrete located within about 300 mm of a drying surface.

STEEL

Steel used for prestressing

The shortening of the concrete caused by creep and shrinkage in a

prestressed member causes a corresponding shortening of the prestressing steel
which is physically attached to the concrete either by bond or by anchorages at
the ends of the tendon. This shortening can be significant and usually results in a
loss of stress in the steel of between 150 and 350 MPa. Significant additional
losses of prestress can result from other sources, such as friction along a post-
tensioned tendon or draw-in at an anchorage at the time of prestressing.

For an efficient and practical design, the total loss of prestress should be a
relatively small portion of the initial prestressing force. The steel used to
prestress concrete must therefore be capable of carrying a very high initial
stress. A tensile strength of between 1000 and 1900 MPa is typical for modern
prestressing steels. The early attempts to prestress concrete with low-strength
steels failed because the entire prestressing force was rapidly lost owing to the
time-dependent deformations of the poor-quality concrete in use at that time.

There are three basic types of high-strength steel commonly used as

tendons in modern prestressed concrete construction:

(a) cold-drawn, stress-relieved round wire;

(b) stress-relieved strand; and
(c) high-strength alloy steel bars.
Wires

Cold-drawn wires are manufactured to conform to the requirements of the

relevant local code or specification (such as ASTM A421 in the USA and AS 1310
in Australia). These specifications outline the minimum required mechanical
properties (such as ultimate tensile strength, yield stress, and elongation at
rupture) and dimensional tolerances. Wires are produced by drawing hot-rolled
steel rods through dies to produce wires of the required diameter. The drawing
process cold works the steel, thereby altering its mechanical properties and
increasing its strength. The wires are then stress-relieved by a process of
continuous heat treatment and straightening to produce the required material
properties. Wires are sometimes indented or crimped to improve their bond
characteristics.

Figure 2.12 Typical stress-strain curve for stress-relieved wire.

In recent years, the use of wires in prestressed concrete construction has

declined, with 7-wire strand being preferred in most applications. Where wires are
used in post-tensioned applications, tendons consisting of many individual wires
are generally employed.
Strands

Stress-relieved strand is the most commonly used prestressing steel.

Strand must comply with the requirements of the relevant local specifications
(such as ASTM A416 and AS 1311– 1312). Strand is fabricated from a number of
prestressing wires, usually seven (although 19- wire strand is also available in
some countries). Seven-wire strand consists of six wires tightly wound around a
seventh, slightly larger diameter, central wire. The pitch of the six spirally wound
wires is between 12 and 16 times the nominal diameter of the strand. After
stranding, the tendon is further stress-relieved. Low-relaxation (or stabilized)
strand is most often used by today’s prestressing industry.

Bars

The high strength of alloy steel bars is obtained by the introduction of

alloying elements in the manufacture of the steel and by cold working (stretching)
the bars. The bars are then stressrelieved to obtain properties which meet the
requirements of the relevant local specification (e.g. ASTM A722 and AS 1313).

Steel relaxation

The initial stress level in prestressing steel after transfer is usually high,
often in the range 60– 75% of the tensile strength of the material. At such stress
levels, high-strength steel creeps. If a tendon is stretched and held at a constant
length (constant strain), the development of creep strain in the steel is exhibited
as a loss of elastic strain, and hence a loss of stress. This loss of stress in a
specimen subjected to constant strain is known as relaxation. Relaxation in steel
is highly dependent on the stress level and increases at an increasing rate as the
stress level increases. Relaxation (creep) in steel increases rapidly with
temperature. Both normalrelaxation and low-relaxation steels are available. In
recent years, low-relaxation steel has become the most popular because of the
reduced time-dependent losses of prestress that result from its use. Low
relaxation steel has been stabilized by prestretching at an appropriate
temperature.
EQUIPMENTS

Pre - tensioning

Temporary grips – hold wires or strand during and after tensioning.

Jacks – relatively small and generally power- operated. A popular jack in

the precast work is the CCL Stressomatic jack which, once the controls
have been set to predetermined requirements, carries out the stressing and
 anchoring operations automatically. This enables the stressing to be
carried out quickly and efficiently.

Post – tensioning

The equipment required for post – tensioning depends upon which system
is being used.

BBRV – classed as a threaded – nut system as, in the lower half of the
range of forces available, it is a lock – nut which bears against a steel
bearing plate and transfers the compression into the concrete.

Dividag – uses an alloy steel bar as the tendon. Two types of bar are used,
the Smoothbar and the Threadbar.
Macalloy – smooth bar system w/ threads rolled on the ends of the bars.

CCL – has 3 main systems, all of which use strand. Cabco and Multiforce
use exactly the same anchorage w/ the strands in a circular pattern, but in
the Cabco system the strands are stressed separately whereas in the
Multiforce they are stressed simultaneously.
REFERENCES

http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/handle/2097/1439

Design of Prestressed Concrete by Gilbert, Mickleborough

An Introduction to Prestressed Concrete by Allen