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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering (University of Calgary)
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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong
Chapter 1
Review of Flow in Porous Media and Core Analysis
In this chapter, fluid flow through porous materials is reviewed. First, the macroscopic pore
structure parameters determined by the pore structure of the medium are introduced. They are
porosity, permeability, specific surface area, pore-size distribution, and formation resistivity
factor. In the second part of this chapter, four core analysis methods are introduced. They are
fluids saturations, porosity, capillary pressure curves and relative permeability curves.
1.1 Fundamentals of Porous Rock Properties
The dictionary definition of porous is "full of holes or pores." A porous medium is defined as
a material containing pores (voids). Such materials are widely encountered in everyday life.
The natural soil that makes agriculture possible is a porous material. Voids in the soil absorb
moisture and nutrients that support plant growth. Most of the natural rocks are also porous to
varying degrees. Other everyday examples of porous materials are biological tissues (such as
skin, bones and wood), sand, snow, concrete and ceramics, cotton, wool, glass-wool, paper,
cloth and foamed plastics, like Styrofoam.
The properties of porous media play important roles in many areas of science and industry,
such as: agriculture, water filtration, geosciences (seismic imaging, ground water hydrology,
petroleum geology), biology, engineering (petroleum reservoir engineering, geo-mechanics,
catalysis and reactor design, mechanics of cement concrete and other construction materials.
Understanding the behavior of porous rocks is central to petroleum reservoir engineering and
we will explore the nature and properties of porous media from the perspective of petroleum
engineering.
1.1.1 Porosity
Sedimentary rocks are source and reservoir rocks for gas and oil. 99.9% of oil and gas were
found in sedimentary rocks. All of the sedimentary rocks are important to the study of
petrophysics and reservoir engineering. Therefore, flow in porous media, from perspective of
petroleum engineering, is focused on sedimentary rocks.
Loose sediments become hard rocks in the subsurface by the process of cementation and
compaction:
1) Cementation – salts precipitate out of the subsurface water to form coatings on the
sediment grains and bridge the loose sediment grains together.
2) Compaction – sediments are solidified under high pressure exerted by overlying
rocks.
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Three components of the Sedimentary Rocks (clastic) are:
1) Sediment grains – frame or matrix

2) Natural cements coating and bonding the grains together
3) Pore space – filled with fluids (oil, water, gas)
Grain
Oil
Water
Cements
Figure 1.1 Parts of sedimentary rock (clastic)
The two most common petroleum reservoir rocks are:
1. Sandstones Sandstone rocks are sedimentary rocks made from small grains of the
minerals quartz and feldspars (KAlSi3O8, NaAlSi3O8, CaAlSi2O8). (They are often
used as building materials for stone houses.)
2. Carbonates (limestones and dolomites) Carbonate rocks are a class of sedimentary
rocks composed primarily of carbonate minerals. The two major types are limestone
and dolomite, composed of calcite (CaCO3) and the mineral dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
respectively.
The porosity I of a porous rock is the volume fraction of its pore space. It is a measure of
the storage capacity of reservoir fluids. The porosity of a porous medium is expressed as
Vp
I (1.1)
Vb
where Vb = the bulk volume of the porous medium
Vp = the pore volume. The pore volume of a reservoir rock is the void space in it.
The porosity varies between zero and unity, depending on the type of porous material and the
way it was formed.
In porous media, especially in consolidated media, such as reservoir rocks, there are two
types of pores or voids. One is the pore space, called “interconnected” or “effective” pore
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space. The other is “dead” pore space that consists of “isolated” or “non-interconnected”
pores or voids dispersed in the medium. Only the effective or interconnected pore space
contributes to the flow of fluids through the porous medium. Therefore, there are two types
of porosity, namely:
Absolution porosity Ia
Total pore volume

Ia (1.2)
Bulk volume
Effective Porosity I
Interconnected pore volume

I (1.3)
Bulk volume
Effective porosity is a measure of the void space that is interconnected and can participate in
flow process. Oil and gas can only be produced from such interconnected pores.
The following table shows the range of porosity values of sedimentary rocks:
Porosity Qualitative evaluation

0–5 negligible
5 – 10 poor
10 – 15 fair
15 – 20 good
20+ very good
The porosity of a reservoir may vary vertically or/and horizontally. The average porosity of a
reservoir can be calculated by using the following formulas:
Arithmetic average I ¦I i
(1.4)
n
Thickness weighted average I ¦I h i i

(1.5)
¦h i
Areal weighted average I ¦I A i i

(1.6)
¦A i
Volumetric weighted average I ¦I A h

i i i
(1.7)
¦ Ah i i
where
n = the total number of core samples
hi = the thickness of core sample i or reservoir area i
Ii = the porosity of core sample i or reservoir area i
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Ai = the area of the reservoir area i
If a reservoir rock shows large variations in porosity vertically but not horizontally in
bedding planes, the arithmetic average porosity or the thickness weighted average porosity
can be used as the average porosity; if the porosity of a reservoir changes greatly from one
portion to another portion, the average porosity can be calculated from the areal or
volumetric weighted average porosity.
1.1.2 Fluid Saturations
Saturation is defined as the fraction, or percent, of the pore volume (Vp) occupied by a
particular fluid (oil, gas, or water):
Oil, gas, and water saturation are:
Vo Vg Vw
So , Sg , Sw (1.8)
Vp Vp Vp
Where Vo, Vg and Vw are oil, gas, and water volumes, respectively. The saturation of each
individual phase ranges between zero and 1.0. The sum of the saturations is 1.0:
So + Sg + Sw = 1.0,
and the sum of pore spaces occupied by the fluids is total pore space:
Vo + Vg + Vw = Vp.
1.1.3 Permeability and Darcy’s Law
Permeability is the property of a porous medium that allows a fluid to flow through it. The
darcy permeability k is calculated by applying Darcy’s law (Darcy, 1856) to a slow
(creeping), one dimensional, horizontal, steady flow of a Newtonian fluid:
k A 'P
q , (1.10)
P L
where q = volumetric flow rate (cm3/sec)
A = cross-sectional area of the sample normal to the flow direction (cm2)
L = length of the sample in the flow direction (cm)
ǻ3 = hydrostatic pressure drop (atm)
ȝ = viscosity of the fluid (cP).
Using these units in Darcy’s law results in the practical unit of permeability darcy (D). One
darcy is equal to 0.987 (ȝP)2 in SI units. One darcy is a relatively high permeability, and for
tight porous materials the unit millidarcy (mD) is used. 1D = 1,000 mD.
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If the flow is under gravity drainage, the volumetric flow rate is given by:
kA
q Ug (1.11)
P
Where
ȡ = the density of the fluid
g = the gravitational constant
When the flow is under both gravity and hydrostatic pressure drop, Darcy’s law can be
expressed in the following form:
kA ')
q , (1.12)
P L
:KHUHɎLVWKHIOXLGSRWHQWLDOGHILQHGDVIROORZV
) P Ugz , (1.13)
so
') 'P U g 'z . (1.14)
The pressure increment ǻɎ is the pressure drop measured in the fluid flowing through the
column, P LVWKHK\GURVWDWLFSUHVVXUHȡLVWKHIOXLGGHQVLW\g is the gravitational constant and
z is the distance upward measured from an arbitrary datum level.
Permeability is the property of a medium of allowing fluids to pass through it without change
in the structure of the medium or displacement of its part. By general convention, the
following terms are applied to permeability values of oil and gas reservoirs:
Range of permeability values of oil and gas reservoirs
Permeability (mD) Qualitative description

< 1.0 – 15 poor or fair
15 – 50 moderate
50 – 250 good
250 – 1000 very good
> 1000 excellent
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1.1.4 Gas permeability and Klinkenberg Effect
Gas Permeability
In using gas in measuring the permeability, the gas volumetric flow rate varies with pressure.
Therefore, the value of q at the average pressure in the core must be used. Assuming the used
gases follow the ideal gas behavior, Darcy’s law is in the following form:
kA( p12 p22 )

qgb (1.15)
2 P g Lpb
qgb gas volumetric flow rate at base pressure (cm3/sec) (p1 or p2)
A cross-sectional area of the sample (cm2)
L length of the sample in the flow direction (cm)
P1 inlet (upstream) pressure (atm)
P2 outlet (downstream) pressure (atm)
Pb base pressure (atm)
ȝg gas viscosity at mean pressure (cP)
The Klinkenberg Effect
The permeability of a porous medium sample measured by flowing air is always greater than
the permeability obtained when a liquid is the flowing fluid. This is because that gases
exhibit slippage at the pore wall surface. The gas slippage results in a higher flow rate for the
gas at a given pressure differential. For a given porous medium, the calculated permeability
decreased as the mean pressure (pm) increased. If a plot of calculated permeability versus
1/pm is extrapolated to the point of 1/pm = 0 (or pm = infinite), this permeability would be
approximately equal to the liquid permeability (see Figure 1.1). The straight-line relationship
in Fig.1.1 can be expressed as:
§ 1 ·
kg k L c¨¨ ¸¸ (1.16)
© m¹
p
where
kg = calculated gas permeability
pm = mean pressure (pm = (p1+p2)/2)
kL = Klinkenberg permeability
c = slope of the line
The magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect varies with the core permeability and the type of the
gas used in the experiment.
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Fig. 1.1 The Klinkenberg effect in gas permeability measurement
1.1.5 Pore size and pore size distribution
The distribution of pore size is somewhat arbitrary. If D ( De ) is defined as the pore volume
per unit interval of pore diameter De, then there is:
³ D ( D )dD
0
e e Vp . (1.17)
Mercury Porosimetry
In mercury porosimetry the volume of mercury penetrating the sample is measured as a

function of the pressure imposed on the mercury. The pore size is calculated from this
pressure by Laplace’s equation of capillarity and, using the bundle of capillary tube model of
pore structure, the volume of mercury is assigned to this pore size. Mercury porosimetry and
adsorption isotherms are widely used for determination of pore size distribution. These and
other methods of pore size distribution have been reviewed in depth by Dullien (1992). The
principal shortcoming of most methods is the pore model used. The pore structure of porous
media does not resemble a bundle of capillary tubes. Rather, the pores resemble irregularly
shaped particles (Dabbas and Rumpf, 1966). In the case of interconnected pore space the
“body” of each pore is connected to the bodies of adjacent pores via “necks” or “throats”.
The “sizes” of both the pore bodies and the pore throats play an important role in determining
various macroscopic properties, such as permeability, capillary pressure curves of porous
media, etc. Both the body and the throat sizes can be “measured” using computer
reconstruction of pore structure from photomicrographs of serial sections of the sample
(Kwiecien, 1988).
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Mercury porosimetry is widely used to characterize the pore structure of porous samples. In
mercury porosimetry, gas is evacuated from the test cell in which there is a test porous
sample, and mercury is then transferred into the sample cell under vacuum and pressure is
applied to force mercury into the sample. During measurement, applied pressure p and
intruded volume of mercury, V, are recorded. As a result of analysis, an intrusion-extrusion
curve is obtained (Fig.1.2). Parameters describing the pore structure of the sample can be
calculated from the data obtained.
Figure 1.2 Mercury porosimetry measurement curves
Mercury porosimetry is based on the following equation˖
4V
p PC cosT (1-18)
De
where p is the pressure applied to mercury, and Pc is the capillary pressure at the mercury
meniscus and its direction is opposite to the injection, r is the equivalent radius of the pore
ZKHUHPHUFXU\LQWUXGHVı is the surface tension of mercury and șis the contact angle of the
mercury on the surface of a solid sample. Generally used values for surface tension and
contact angle of mercury are 480 mN/m and 140-180°, respectively.
Total pore volume (Vp) is the total intruded volume of mercury at the highest pressure
applied. Volume pore size distribution, D ( De ) , is defined as the pore volume per unit
interval of pore diameter (De) by Equation 1-19:
Pc dV
D ( De ) (1-19)
De dPc
Volume pore size distribution is based on a model of cylindrical pores.
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1.1.6 Specific surface
The specific surface of a porous medium S is the internal surface area of the voids and pores
per unit mass. The specific surface based on the bulk volume of the porous material is
designated by Sbv and the one based on the solid volume is denoted by Sgv, i.e.,
Sbv = (Surface area of the pores of a sample)/(bulk volume of the sample)
Sgv = (Surface area of the pores of a sample)/(Solid volume of the sample)

and
Spv = (Surface area of the pores of a sample)/(Pore volume of the sample)
Specific surface plays an important role in a variety of applications of porous media such as
adsorption, catalysis and ion exchange processes. For fluid flow in porous media, the specific
surface is an important parameter in models of conductivity or permeability of a porous
medium. For example, two porous samples with the same porosity may have very different
permeabilities because of different specific surface areas. The one with a higher specific
surface area has a smaller average pore size and lower permeability.
1.1.7 Resistivity Factor
The electrical resistivity of a fluid-saturated porous medium is a measure of its ability to

impede the flow of electric current though it. Dry porous samples of zero electrical
conductivity exhibit infinite resistivity. The resistivity of porous media containing an
aqueous phase is a function of porosity, aqueous phase saturation and the salinity of the
aqueous phase (Prison, 1963). Measurements using different porous materials show that the
resistivity is also dependent on pore structure. A “resistivity factor”, often called “formation
resistivity factor”, is defined as
Ro
FR , (1.20)
Rw
where Ro is the electrical resistance of the porous sample saturated with an ionic solution (see
Figure 1.3a), and Rw is the bulk resistance of the same ionic solution occupying the same
space as the porous sample (same cross-section area and length) (Figure 1.3b). In the case of
nonconductive solids Ro is always greater that Rw and therefore, F is always greater than
unity.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 Measurements of Ro (a) and Rw (b) (Tiad and Donaldson, 1999).
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Many attempts have been made to correlate the formation resistivity factor with porosity I
and a “cementation exponent” m. The first such known relationship was suggested by Archie
(1942):
FR I m . (1.21)
The cementation factor is a function of the shape and distribution of pores. It is determined
from a plot of the formation resistivity factor FR vs. porosity I on a log-log graph. Such a
plot generally can be fit by a straight line with a slope of m.
Humble formula can be used to correlate better the formation resistivity factor with porosity:
a
FR (1.22)
Im
where the values of a and m depend on the types of rocks. Therefore, they are determined
from laboratory measurements. Archie formula and Humble formula are plotted in the
following two Figures for various values of a and m:
1. Plot of Archie formula with various values of m (From Core Laboratories)
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2. Plot of Humble formula with various values of a and m (From Core Laboratories)
A great deal of information on the formation resistivity factors for various reservoir rocks has
been presented by Tiab and Donaldson (1999). For detailed discussions of the correlations of
FR with the “tortuosity factor” of porous media readers are referred to the review by Dullien
(1992).
1.1.8 Permeability-Porosity Relationships
The permeability-porosity relationship schematically shown in Figure 1.4 is also often seen
for actual formations. For a reservoir formation which may be considered uniform and
homogeneous, there may not be a specifically defined trend line between permeability and
porosity values. It is also possible to have a very high porosity with a low permeability. The
reverse can also be true, i.e., high permeability with a low porosity, such as in micro-factrued
carbonates. However, a very useful correlation between them within one formation can be
found.
Porosity
Figure 1.4 Permeability-porosity relationships for some formations
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Figure 1.5 shows semi-log plots of permeability versus porosity for various grained
sandstones. Figure 1.6 shows typical permeability and porosity trends for various rock types.
Such a relationship is very useful in the understanding of fluid flow through porous media.
Figure 1.5 Permeability-porosity relationships for various grained sandstones (Core

Laboratories)
Figure 1.6 Permeability-porosity relationships for various rock types (Core Laboratories)
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Kozeny Model
Kozeny correlated the permeability with porosity and specific surface area for the simple
tube bundle porous samples as follows:
1 I3
k (1.23)
2 S gv2 (1 I ) 2
In the derivation of Equation 1.23, it is assumed that the porous rock can be represented by a
bundle of straight capillary tubes. However, the average path that a fluid particle must travel
in an actual sample is greater than the length L of the core sample. When this departure of a
porous medium from the one consisting of a bundle of straight capillaries is considered, the
permeability k can be expressed in the following formula:
1 I3
k . (1.24)
5 S gv2 (1 I ) 2
The above equation is the most popular form of Kozeny equation.
Kozeny-Carman Equation
Kozeny-Carman equation was derived from the concept of mean hydraulic radius:
1 I3
k (1.25)
K z S gv2 (1 I ) 2
In Kozeny-Carman equation, Kz is a variable as a function of grain shape, grain size, and
pore shape.
1.1.9 Wettability and capillary pressure
The relative wettability of a porous medium by two fluids is characterized by the contact
DQJOHș7KHFRQWDFWDQJOHșLVGHILQHGDVWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHWDQJHQWWRWKHOLTXLGVROLG
boundary constructed at a point on the three-phase line of contact and the tangent to the
gas/liquid boundary constructed at the same point (Figure 1.7).
Figure 1.7 Contact angle of a liquid on a solid surface
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The contact angle may have any value between 0 and 180º. It is customary to simply classify
fluids into two categories: wetting and non-ZHWWLQJIOXLG)RUZHWWLQJIOXLGVșDQG
for non-ZHWWLQJ IOXLGV ș ,Q WKH SRUHV RI SRURXV PHGLD WKH FXUYHG LQWHUIDFHV
between two immiscible fluids may take different shapes and directions of the curvature. The
capillary tube in Figure 1.8a is water-wet and the one in figure 1.9b is oil-wet.
Figure 1.9 Menisci in (a) a water- wet and (b) an oil-wet capillary.
If the contact angle is not 90o, immiscible fluids in porous media are separated from each
other by curved interfaces across which there exists a pressure difference or a step change in
pressure. This pressure difference, called capillary pressure PC. The capillary pressure across
a meniscus in a fine tube is calculated by (see Figure 1.10):
2V
PC cosT . (1.26)
r
Equation 1.26 is the most widely used form of “Laplace’s equation” in porous media.
Figure 1.10 The relationship between the radius of the curvature of the meniscus
and the radius of the capillary tube.
The capillary pressure is balanced at equilibrium by a pressure difference ǻ3 at any points of

contact between the two fluids.
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PC { 'P Pnw Pw (1.27)

where subscripts w and nw represent wetting and non-wetting phase, respectively. As, at
equilibrium, Pnw > Pw, the capillary pressure is, by definition, always positive.
Capillary Rise
The best illustration of the phenomenon of capillary rise may be the capillary rise method for
measuring the surface tension of a liquid, such as water in a clean glass capillary. At
equilibrium, the ǻ3 or PC, in Eq. 1.26 must equal to the hydraulic pressure drop in the liquid
column in the capillary. This is ǻ3 ǻȡJKZKHUHǻȡLVWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQGHQVLW\EHWZHHQ
liquid and gas phase and g is the gravitational constant (see Figure2.11). Eq. 1.26 becomes
2V
'U gh cosT . (1.28)
r
Figure 1.11 Capillary rise in a glass tube
1.1.10 Relative permeabilities
Two immiscible fluids, such as water and oil or water and gas, can flow co-currently through
a porous medium. In practice, conditions of steady concurrent flow are usually established by
injecting both fluids at constant rates and allowing time for the discharge rates to become
equal to the injection rates. Under these conditions it has been found in experiments that the
saturation and the capillary pressure are approximately independent of position. An extended
Darcy’s law for two-phase flow in porous media, under steady-state conditions, can be
written as (Muskat and Meres, 1936):
k i A 'Pi
qi , i = o, w (1.29)
Pi L
where qi is the volumetric flow rate, ǻ3i LVWKHSUHVVXUHGURSDQGȝi is the viscosity of phase
i. The symbols A and L have the same meaning as in Equation (1.10) and ki is referred to as
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the “effective permeability” of the porous medium to phase i. It is customary to express ki as

relative permeability, i.e., as a fraction of the absolute permeability of the porous medium k
ki
k ri i = o, w (1.30)
k
and write Equation (1.31) as
k ri k A 'Pi
qi i = o, w (1.31)
Pi L
The relative permeabilities represent the ability of a porous medium to conduct one fluid
when more fluids are present. They are usually plotted as a function of wetting phase
saturation as shown in Figure 1.12. However, the relative permeabilities for a fluid pair in a
porous medium can be affected by the pore structure, wettability, capillary forces and
saturation history.
As the saturation of a particular phase decreases, the effective permeability of that phase also
decreases. The sum of the effective permeabilities is always less than or equal to the absolute
permeability, i.e.,
ko k g k w d k (1.32)
or
k ro k rg k rw d 1 (1.33)
Figure 1.12 Schematic presentation of relative permeability curves of primary drainage and
secondary imbibition (Dullien, 1988)
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1.1.11 Correlations of relative permeabilities
Many correlations have been proposed for calculating two phase relative permeabilities in
case the data on them are not available. The correlations showed in this section are examples
not a complete list of them.
Wyllie and Gardner correlations:
Honapour et al. (1988) summarized Willie and Gardner (1958) correlations as shown in the
following:
Oil-water relative permeabilities (drainage)
kro 1 S w*
k rw ( S w* ) 3 (well sorted, unconsolidated sand) (1-34)
kro (1 S w* ) 2 (1 S w*1.5 )
k rw ( S w* ) 3.5 (poorly sorted, unconsolidated sand) (1-35)
kro (1 S w* ) 2 (1 S w*2 )
k rw ( S w* ) 4 (Cemented sandstone, oolitic limestone) (1-36)
Gas-oil relative permeability (Drainage)
krg (1 So* )3
kro ( So* )3 (well sorted, unconsolidated sand) (1-37)
krg (1 So* ) 2 (1 So*1.5 )

kro ( So* )3.5 (poorly sorted, unconsolidated sand) (1-38)
krg (1 So* ) 2 (1 So*2 )

kro ( So* ) 4 (Cemented sandstone, oolitic limestone) (1-39)
In the above equations, So* and S w* are effective oil and water saturations, respectively. In
most of the proposed correlations, the effective phase saturation is used. The following is the
definitions of the effective saturations:
So
Effective oil saturation So* (1-40)
1 S wc
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S w S wc
Effective water saturation S w* (1-41)
1 S wc
Sg
Effective gas saturation S g* (1-42)
1 S wc
where Swc is irreducible water saturation.
Corey’s correlations:
Corey (1954) proposed simple correlations for both gas-oil and water-oil relative
permeabilities.
For gas displacing oil (drainage):
kro (1 S g* ) 4
krg S g* (2 So* ) (1-43)
For water-oil relative permeabilities:

n
§ 1 Sw ·
kro ¨¨ ¸¸ (1-44)
© 1 S wc ¹
m
§ S S wc ·
k rw ¨¨ w ¸¸ (1-45)
© 1 S wc ¹
where n and m are exponents for accounting for the degree of consolidation of the rocks.
Corey’s equations apply only to well-sorted homogeneous rocks.
1.1.12 Three phase relative permeabilities
Nearly all reservoirs could potentially exhibit three-phase flow systems, that is, where water,
oil, and gas are all mobile. A three-phase system that contains an immobile water phase can
be considered as a two-phase one. Examples where three-phase flow phenomena might be
important include gas injection for enhanced oil recovery, reservoirs undergoing
simultaneous gas cap and water drive, and solution gas reservoirs being supported by water
drive.
Direct experimental determination of three-phase relative permeabilities is extremely

difficult and involves rather complex technique to control the fluid saturations inside the test
samples. For this reason, three-phase relative permeabilities are calculated from more easily
measured two-phase relative permeability data of the same core sample. Three-phase relative
permeability data can result from two-phase drainage or imbibition process depending on the
displacement process in the three-phase system (Honarpour et al., 1986). Drainage refers to
the direction of saturation change such that the wetting phase saturation is falling. Imbibition
refers to an increasing wetting-phase saturation.
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Table 1.1 Saturations where drainage and imbibition relative permeability data are used
(Honarpour et al., 1986).
Drainage Relative Permeability Data Imbibition Relative Permeability Data
Recovery processes that inject dry gas, flue Reservoirs being produced by natural, water
gas, carbon dioxide, or other gases into drive
water-out reservoirs
Miscible flood processes where liquefied Reservoir under waterflood or polymer flood
natural gas is being injected into water-out
reservoirs
Reservoirs where the water saturation is Recovery processes where water pushes a
higher than the irreducible water saturation slug of chemicals through the reservoir
It has been experimentally observed that for three-phase relative permeability, the water
relative permeability is a function of the water saturation, the gas phase relative permeability
depends on the gas saturation, and the oil phase relative permeability depends on both water
and gas saturations (Honarpour et al., 1986). That is:
krw f (Sw )
krg f (S g )
kro f (Sw , S g ) (1-46)
Figures 1.13a-c depict schematics of oil, water, and gas relative permeabilities in a three-
phase system plotted on ternary diagrams. Each corner of the diagram represents the
reservoir rock fully saturated with oil, gas, or water. The relative permeability curves are
drawn as isopermeability curves (often called isoperms) on the ternary diagram.
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Figure 1.13 Depiction oil, water, and gas isoperms on ternary diagram (Gates, 2006)
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Stone’s models for three-phase relative permeability
In many models, three-phase relative permeability is generated from the relative permeability
curves of the oil-water system and the relative permeability curves of the gas-oil system.
These two-phase relative permeability curves represent the end-curves when either the gas
saturation or the water saturation equals zero.
Stone's Model I
Stone (1970) developed a probability model to estimate three-phase relative permeabilities
from the laboratory-measured two-phase data. Stone introduced the following expressions:
So Sorm
So* (1-47)
1 S wc Sorm
S w S wc
S w* (1-48)
1 S wc Sorm
Sg
S g* (1-49)
1 S wc Sorm
krow
Ew (1-50)
1 S w*
krog
Eg (1-51)
1 S g*
The oil relative permeability in a three-phase system is then calculated as:
kro So*E w E g (1-52)
where
Sorm = minimum residual oil saturation

krow = oil relative permeability determined from oil-water two-phase flow test at Sw.
krog = oil relative permeability determined from gas-oil two-phase flow test at Sg.
Fayers and Mattews (1984) suggested an expression or determining Sorm:
Sorm D Sorw (1 D ) Sorg (1-53)

With
Sg
D 1 (1-54)
1 S wc Sorg
where
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Sorw = residual oil saturation in the oil-water system

Sorg = residual oil saturation in the gas-oil system
Stone’s Model II
It is difficult to use Stone’s Model I due to the calculation of Sorm. Stone (1973) proposed the
following expression for oil relative permeability in three-phase relative permeability system:
ª§ k ·§ k · º
kro krocw «¨¨ row krw ¸¸¨¨ rog krg ¸¸ krw krg » (1-55)
¬© krocw ¹© krocw ¹ ¼
Where krocw = oil relative permeability determined from oil-water two-phase flow test at Swc.
In Stone’s model II, if kro < 0, set if kro = 0 (immobile).
1.2 Core Analysis

1.2.1 Introduction
Routine core analysis: Routine core analysis are measurements carried out on core plugs or
whole core include porosity, grain density, horizontal permeability, fluid saturation and a
lithologic description. Measurements are made at room temperature and at either atmospheric
confining pressure, formation confining pressure, or both.
Special core analysis: Special core analysis concerns reservoir properties, electrical
properties and petrographic studies. Reservoir properties include relative permeability,
wettability and capillary pressure. Electrical properties include formation factor, resistivity
index and cation-exchange capacity. Petrographic and mineralogical studies are scanning
electron microscopy, thin-section analysis, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, elemental
chemical analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.
Other special core analyses include grain size determination (by sieve analysis or laser
diffraction), characteristics of the fluids, such as oil viscosity and water salinity, and
mechanical properties such as pore volume compressibility and seismic velocities.
Objective of core analysis: To gather information on formation that leads to more efficient
oil or gas production.
Geologic objectives
x Lithogic information (rock type, deposition environment, pore type,
mineralogy/geochemistry)
x Geologic maps
x Fracture orientation
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Petrophysical and reservoir engineering

x Permeability information ( Permeability/porosity correlation, Relative permeability)
x Capillary pressure data
x Data for refining log calculations (electrical properties, grain density, core gamma
log, mineralogy and cation exchange capacity)
x Enhanced oil recovery studies
x Reserve estimate (porosity, fluid saturation)
Drilling and completions

x Fluid/formation compatibility studies
x Grain size data for gravel pack design
x Rock mechanics data
Terminology of cores
Fresh core: Any newly recovered core material preserved as quickly as possible at
the wellsite to prevent evaporative loss and exposure to oxygen.
Preserved core: Similar to fresh core, but some period of storage is implied.
Cleaned core: Core from which the fluids have been removed by solvent.
Restored-state core: Core that has been cleaned and then reexposed to reservoir fluids with
the intention of reestablishing the reservoir wettability condition.
Pressure-retained
core: Core kept at the pressure of the reservoir in order to avoid change in
the fluid saturation during the recovery process.
1.2.2 Determination of fluid saturations

(Dean Stark Method, Distillation Extraction)
Dean Stark method depends on the distillation of the water fraction and the solvent extraction
of the oil fraction from the core sample. The apparatus consists of boiling flask, water trap,
condenser, extraction thimble, and heating mantle (see Figure 1.14)
The water in the sample is vaporized by boiling solvent, then condensed and collected in the
water trap. This gives the volume of water in the sample. The solvent is also condensed, then
flows back over the sample and extracts the oil. Extraction continues for a minimum of two
days until the extracted solvent is clean. The weight of the sample is measured before and
after extraction. Then the volume of oil is calculated from the loss in weight of the sample
minus the weight of the water removed from it. Saturations are calculated from the volumes.
Calculations:
% Water = Volume of water x 100 /Pore Volume
% Oil = (Weigh of Oil/Density of Oil) x 100 / Pore Volume
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Condenser
Water trap
Thimble basket
support
Extraction thimble
Core sample
Kettle
Heating mantle
Fig 1.14 Dean Stark Apparatus
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1.2.3 Porosity Determination
Imbibition method. The porous sample is saturated with a preferentially wetting fluid by
letting the fluid imbibe into the sample under vacuum. The sample is weighed before and
after imbibition. From the two weights, the density of the fluid and the dimensions (bulk
volume) of the sample, the porosity can be calculated.
Mercury injection method. As most materials are not wetted by mercury, it will not penetrate
into the pores unless a pressure is applied. After the sample is evacuated, mercury is forced to
penetrate into the sample under high pressure.
Gas expansion method. The porous sample is enclosed in a vessel of known volume V1
under known gas pressure P1. When the vessel is connected to an evacuated vessel of known
volume V2, the gas expands into this vessel and the gas pressure in the first vessel decreases
to a lower value P2. Applying the ideal gas law to the above process gives the effective pore
volume Vp of the sample:
§ P ·
Vp Vb V1 V2 ¨¨ 2 ¸¸ (1.56)
© P2 P1 ¹
where Vb is the bulk volume of the sample which is determined in a separate measurement.
Density method7KHEXONGHQVLW\RIWKHVDPSOHȡb and the density of the solid matrix of the

VDPSOHȡs are determined. The total porosity of the sample is calculated by
Ub
I 1 (1.57)
Us
100 psi Helium
Digital
readout
meter
Transducer
1 2 3
V1
V2
VG
Gas cylinder
Fig. 1.15 Schematic of gas expansion method for porosity measurement.
25

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1.2.4 Capillary pressure curves
The capillary pressure in a porous medium is an increasing function of the nonwetting phase
saturation or, alternately, a decreasing function of the wetting phase saturation as shown in
Figure 1.16.
Figure 1.16 Typical capillary pressure curves
1) Primary drainage curve (denoted with PD in the figure): the relationship

characteristic of the displacement of the wetting phase from 100% saturation to the
irreducible wetting phase saturation;
2) (Secondary) Imbibition curve (denoted by I in the figure): the relationship
characteristic of the displacement of the nonwetting phase from the "irreducible
wetting phase saturation" to the residual non-wetting phase saturation;
3) Secondary drainage curve (denoted by SD in the figure): the relationship
characteristic of displacement of wetting phase from residual saturation to the
"irreducible wetting phase saturation."
Capillary pressure curve determination
The schematic arrangement used in the porous diaphragm method is shown in Fig. 1.17.
Usually the experiment is started with the sample saturated with the wetting fluid (brine).
The chamber in which the sample is placed is filled with the nonwetting fluid (oil). The
sample is resting on an ultrafine, fritted glass disk, the purpose of which is to prevent passage
of the oil (capillary barrier). The glass disk, however, must conduct the brine between the
core and the U-tube. In order to prevent breakthrough of the oil across the frit, it must have
much smaller pores than the core. As the pressure on the oil is raised, the water is displaced
from increasingly smaller pores of the sample. The highest attainable capillary pressure is
determined by the breakthrough capillary pressure of the fritted glass disk. The wetting fluid
is forced out of the pores of the sample by the nonwetting fluid across the fritted glass disk,
26

lOMoARcPSD|4734809
into the U-tube where its volume is determined in the graduated portion of the tube. The gas
pressure applied is read simultaneously.
Figure 1.17 Schematic diagram of a porous diaphragm device for capillary pressure curve
determination (Weldge and Bruce, 1947).
The capillary pressure versus saturation curve is determined point by point by displacing the
wetting fluid in small increments, at every point waiting until equilibrium is established. The
sample saturation is calculated from the initial amount of wetting fluid contained in the pore
space and the amount of wetting fluid displaced in each step. Because of the slow rate at
which equilibrium is attained, it takes weeks to determine a single capillary pressure curve.
The imbibition capillary pressure curve can be obtained by reversing the above process, that
is, decreasing the gas pressure step-by-step. Given good capillary contact between the core
sample and the fritted glass, the water will imbibe into the core and displace the nonwetting
fluid. Mainly because of the very long time required for equilibration in liquid-liquid systems,
air-liquid capillary pressure saturation data are more often determined instead. In air-liquid
systems the time needed for equilibration is significantly shorter than in liquid-liquid systems.
Another technique to determine drainage capillary pressure curves is the well-known method
of mercury intrusion porosimetry, discussed in detail in Section 1.1.5.
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Leverett J-Function
Leverett (1941) proposed a reduced capillary pressure function for correlating capillary
pressure data. The function was named the Leverett J-function by Rose and Bruce (1949):
PC k
J (1.58)
V cos T I
where k is the permeability and I is the porosity of the sample.
Because the capillary pressure is a function of pore size, which is a function of porosity and
permeability, it varies with reservoir porosity and permeability. All capillary pressure curves
for a particular reservoir can be combined into one curve by use of the Leverett J-function. In
other words, if the capillary pressure curves are measured for several different porosities and
permeabilities, all the data can be plotted on one curve by use of J-function. For the same
reservoir formation the J-function is identical for each saturation despite the different
capillary pressures for each core sample. The J-function is successful in correlating pressure
data originating from a specific lithologic type within the same formation, but it is not of
general applicability. The reason for the success of the relationship within a specific
lithological type is presumably that within one and the same type of rock the pore structures
have similar topology.
With a determined J-function, capillary pressure curve can be predicted by using the
following equation:
I
PC J V cos T (1.30)
k
1.2.5 Experimental methods of measuring permeability and relative permeability

curves
Permeability
Steady-state method Measurement of permeability is usually performed with one-

dimensional, cylindrically shaped samples. In the measurement various flow rates of the fluid
are recorded as a function of pressure drop. Permeability is obtained by fitting a straight line
to the data points. Theoretically, this line should pass through the origin (see Figure 1.18).
Departures from this behavior are known and they are discussed by Dullien (1992), among
others.
28

lOMoARcPSD|4734809
k A 'P
q
P L
PL q
k
A 'p
kA
Slope
PL
Figure 1.18 Effect of turbulent flow on measured permeability
Unsteady-state method In unsteady-state method, the pressure difference between the two
faces of the sample is permitted to decrease gradually with time. Also called “falling head
permeameter” used in liquid permeability measurements as shown in Figure 1.19.
Figure 1.19 Schematic diagram of falling head permeameter (Dullien, 1992)
29

lOMoARcPSD|4734809
Darcy’s Law for the falling head case can be written as
dV kA Ugh
q (1.59)
dt P L
and dV = -adh (1.60)
Where V = cumulative volume of liquid collected up to time t

a = cross-sectional area of the stand pipe
h = height of the liquid column above the center of the core
Substituting Equation 1.10 into Equation 1.9, separating the variables and integrating:
ht
adh
t
kA
³h h PL ³0
Ug dt
o
Integrating both sides and solving for k, we get:
§ aLP 1 · § ho ·
k ¨¨ ¸¸ ln¨¨ ¸¸ (1.61)
© At Ug ¹ © ht ¹
Relative permeability curves

The methods available for the measurement of relative permeabilities can be divided into two
categories: steady and unsteady flow tests.
Steady flow tests In a typical steady-state method the two liquids are injected simultaneously
as a fixed ratio and know, metered flow rates. The criterion of steady state is determined by
the condition that the inflows equal the outflows and /or the constant pressure drop has been
reached across the sample. The attainment of steady state may take anywhere from 2 to 40
hours or even longer, depending on the sample permeability and the method used.
Fig. 1.20 Schematic of steady state relative permeability apparatus
30

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Procedure: (for waterflood)
x Saturate the porous sample with the wetting phase (water)

x Displace the wetting phase with the non-wetting phase (oil) to irreducible water
saturation
x Starting from irreducible water saturation, increase water saturation step by step to
determined oil and water permeabilities at different water saturations until the
residual oil saturation reached.
Unsteady flow method In the unsteady-state (external drive) method, one phase is
displaced from a core by pumping in the other phase and the relative permeabilities are
calculated by history matching the production data (produced fluid ratio and pressure drop
across the core sample) using reservoir simulation.
Advantages of the unsteady-state method:

x Fast
x The relative permeabilities measured in this fashion will exactly reproduce the
experimental oil recovery data (from which they were derived).
Procedure:
x The absolute permeability is first measured by injecting single water phase through a
100% water-saturated sandpack.
x Initial water saturation is established by injecting oil until water was no longer
produced, which is followed by the determination of effective oil permeability at
irreducible water saturation.
x The relative permeability test is conducted at a constant water injection flow rate.
x After waterflooding, the average oil saturation in the core sample is measured using a
Dean Stark glass distillation assembly, which is applied to check the recorded
production data.
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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering (University of Calgary)

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

1.1 Fundamentals of Porous Rock Properties

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Three components of the Sedimentary Rocks (clastic) are:

1) Sediment grains – frame or matrix

Figure 1.1 Parts of sedimentary rock (clastic)

The two most common petroleum reservoir rocks are:

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Total pore volume

Interconnected pore volume

Porosity Qualitative evaluation

Thickness weighted average I ¦I h i i

Areal weighted average I ¦I A i i

Volumetric weighted average I ¦I A h

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Ai = the area of the reservoir area i

1.1.2 Fluid Saturations

Oil, gas, and water saturation are:

1.1.3 Permeability and Darcy’s Law

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Range of permeability values of oil and gas reservoirs

Permeability (mD) Qualitative description

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

1.1.4 Gas permeability and Klinkenberg Effect

kA( p12  p22 )

The Klinkenberg Effect

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Fig. 1.1 The Klinkenberg effect in gas permeability measurement

1.1.5 Pore size and pore size distribution

In mercury porosimetry the volume of mercury penetrating the sample is measured as a

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Figure 1.2 Mercury porosimetry measurement curves

Mercury porosimetry is based on the following equation˖

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

1.1.6 Specific surface

Sbv = (Surface area of the pores of a sample)/(bulk volume of the sample)

Sgv = (Surface area of the pores of a sample)/(Solid volume of the sample)

1.1.7 Resistivity Factor

The electrical resistivity of a fluid-saturated porous medium is a measure of its ability to

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

1. Plot of Archie formula with various values of m (From Core Laboratories)

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

1.1.8 Permeability-Porosity Relationships

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Figure 1.5 Permeability-porosity relationships for various grained sandstones (Core

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

1.1.9 Wettability and capillary pressure

Figure 1.7 Contact angle of a liquid on a solid surface

kA( p12 p22 )

PC { 'P Pnw Pw (1.27)

krg (1 So* ) 2 (1 So*1.5 )

krg (1 So* ) 2 (1 So*2 )

Sorm D Sorw (1 D ) Sorg (1-53)

Density method7KHEXONGHQVLW\RIWKHVDPSOHȡb and the density of the solid matrix of the